POLYIVI ER M EC HANICS 211

HARDNESS OF POLYMERS

S. B. A i n b i n d e r a n d M. G. Laka

Mekhanika Polimerov, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 3 3 7 - 3 4 9 , 1966

UDC 6 7 8 . 5 3 9 . 5 3 . 5 4 1 . 6

Hardness was measured on a Rockwell type instrument modified to investigate the mechanical nature of polymer hardness
measure the depth of the umecovered indentation. The indentors were more thoroughly and to determine how and under what
balls of various diameters and cones with various vertex angles. The conditions a relation can be established between hard-
hardness of the folIowing materials was investigated: aminoptast (amino
ness and other mechanical characteristics. This is the
resin), K-17-2, FKP-t, polymethylmethacrylate (plexiglas), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyethylene, and teflon. The hardness is related to the
subject of the present paper.
strength and elastic characteristics.

H a r d n e s s i s o n e of t h e b a s l e m e c h a n i c a l c h a r a c t e r - h
mm
[ s t i e s of m a c h i n e - b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s . As c o m p a r e d
with other characteristics, hardness has the advantage 0.o
of b e i n g e a s y to m e a s u r e . In f a c t , t h e h a r d n e s s o f a
g i v e n m a t e r i a l c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a n y p i e c e of
s u f f i c i e n t s i z e , a n d in s o m e e a s e s on t h e f i n i s h e d p a r t , 0.2
in a m a t t e r of s e c o n d s . F o r m a n y m a t e r i a l s a r e l i a b l e
correlation has been established between hardness and
ultimate strength, and for nonhardening or work- o 219t m~n
hardened materials between hardness and yield point,
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a s h a v e t h e f o r m ~S,B = F i g . 2. I n d e n t a t i o n d e p t h v e r s u s t i m e
= e H B , w h e r e H B is t h e B r i n e t l h a r d n e s s , e a c o n - following unloading. Notation same as
s t a n t , a n d OrS,B t h e y i e l d p o i n t (aS) o r u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h in F i g . 1.
(orB).
Method of investigation. Hardness was measured on a Rockwell type
instrument modified to measure the depth of the unrecovered indentation.
The indentors were balls 5, 8.2, and 2 mm in diameter and cones with
c' hmm}-- vertex angles of 120°, 90°, 60°, and 30°.
The hardness of the following materials was investigated: aminoplast
(amino resin), K-17-2, FKP-1, polymethylmethacrylate (plexiglas),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene, and teflon. The first three
materials are thermosets with different fillers; polymethylmethacrylate
and PVC are amorphous thermoplastic materialS that are brittle at
room temperature; polyethylene and teflon are crystalline materials
2 0 2 0 in the high-elastic and brittle states at the test temperatureo AI1 the
tests were conducted at room temperature. The thermoset test pieces,
F i g . 1. D e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n of s p h e r i - 25 mm in diameter, h = 5 ram, were prepared by molding from the
c a l i n d i c a t o r v e r s u s l o g a r i t h m of t h e corresponding molding powders. The low-density polyethylene test
pieces were prepared by injection molding, while the teflon, poly-
t i m e of a p p l i c a t i o n of t o a d : 1) p o l y e t h y -
methylmethacrylate and PVC test pieces were cut out of ready-made
l e n e , 2) P V C , 3 ) t e f l o n , 4 ) p l e x i g l a s s , sheets. Test pieces for tensile and compressive tests were also prepared
5) m o n o l i t M - l ( s a w d u s t - f i I l e d p h e n o l - from the materials mentioned.
f o r m a l d e h y d e r e s in). The following tests were performed:
1) determination of the depth of penetration as a function of [he
A s f a r a s t h e h a r d n e s s of p o l y m e r s is c o n c e r n e d , time of application of the load;
2) determination of the recovery as a function of time following
t h e s i t u a t i o n is r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t . In t h i s c a s e t h e h a r d -
unloading;
n e s s m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the s i z e of the u n t o - 3) determination of the effect of the magnitude of the load on the
c o v e r e d i n d e n t a t i o n owing to the high e l a s t i c and cone hardness;
r e l a x a t i o n a l r e c o v e r y , w h i c h is d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t 4) determination of the hardness HB (load divided by indentation
m a t e r i a l s [ 1 - 3 ] . A c c o r d i n g l y , it is n e c e s s a r y to u s e area) and HM (load divided by indentation area projected onto the
p r e s s e s of s p e c i a l d e s i g n . M o r e o v e r , no r e l i a b l e r e - plane of the test piece) at different penetration angles or ratios d/D
(where d is the diameter of the indentation, D the diameter of the baH),
lation has yet been established between hardness and
and different ball diameters and cone angles. The areas were calcuIated
y i e l d p o i n t o r u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h . S o m e a u t h o r s [4, 5]
from the measured depth of the unrecovered indentation;
a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e is no s u c h r e l a t i o n . S i n c e t h e h a r d - 5) determination of the o(s) relation in tension and compression for
h e s s m e a s u r i n g p r o c e s s ts v e r y s i m p l e and can be test pieces of the materials used in studying hardness. All the experi-
u s e d i n v a r i o u s f o r m s of i n d u s t r i a l t e s t i n g a n d r e s e a r c h , mental points are the means of three to five measurements. The maxi-
it is a matter of scientific and practical importance to mum deviations from the mean were 10%.
 212 MEKHANIKA P O L I M E R O V

p o l y e t h y l e n e and p l e x i g l a s s . The r e c o v e r y r a t e is
g r e a t e s t f o r p o l y e t h y l e n e and p l e x i g l a s s .
r'o t The M a x w e l l , Vo[gt and s o - c a l l e d s e c o n d Maxwell
so ~'r k'r- ~ [ 1 r e~ ( s t a n d a r d s o l i d ) equations l e a d to a r e l a t i o n of the
oo [ I f o r m t = c lg e. Thus, t h e s e r e l a t i o n s a r e not s u i t a b l e
20 ~ ~ "~ f o r d e s c r i b i n g the r e s u l t s of our t e s t s . We note t h a t
1) t h e t e s t s d e s c r i b e d a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c o m p l e x
0 00 BO 120 200
s t a t e of o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l n o n u n i f o r m c o m p r e s s i o n ; 2)
F i g . 3. R e l a t i v e r e c o v e r y v e r s u s the s t r a i n c o n s i d e r a b l y e x c e e d s the y i e l d point o r h i g h -
p e n e t r a t i o n a n g l e : 1, 2) r e l a t i v e r e - e l a s t i c l i m i t ; and, f i n a l l y , 3) the t e s t s a r e c o n d u c t e d
c o v e r y of p y l o e t h y l e n e and K - 1 7 - 2 not u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of c o n s t a n t s t r e s s , a s is u s u a l l y
f o r s p h e r i c a l i n d e n t o r s ; l a , 2a) t h e the c a s e in studying c r e e p , but u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of
s a m e f o r c o n i c a l i n d e n t o r s , A) p o i n t s c o n s t a n t load. The l o g a r i t h m i c d e p e n d e n c e of s t r a i n
obtained by calculating the relative on t i m e h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d by a n u m b e r of o t h e r
r e c o v e r y of p o l y e t h y l e n e f o r s p h e r - a u t h o r s [6, 7].
ical indentors from Hertz's formu-
la; [] ) c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t s f o r K - 1 7 - 2 . 50']4 I ~ '

~0} kgf/cmt/l' ~ a Z
T e s t r e s u l t s . F i g u r e 1 p r e s e n t s g r a p h s of the r e -
l a t i o n b e t w e e n p e n e t r a t i o n depth and the l o g a r i t h m of
the t i m e of a p p l i c a t i o n of the l o a d f o r t e s t p i e c e s m a d e
of v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s . C l e a r l y , in the i n v e s t i g a t e d 2o - 24--~----~- 3o-½
r a n g e of lg t, this r e l a t i o n c a n be d e s c r i b e d by a
f o r m u l a of the f o r m
h = h o + a lg t; (1)
~O 80 t20 O~
w h e r e h 0 is the depth of p e n e t r a t i o n of the b a l l at t =
= 1 rain, a is a c o n s t a n t . The B r i n e l l h a r d n e s s ls F i g . 5. H a r d n e s s HB f o r s p h e r i c a l and
c a l c u l a t e d as follows. H B = N/TrDh, w h e r e N is the c o n i c a l ( c u r v e s d e n o t e d by a) i n d e n t o r s
load, D the d i a m e t e r of the b a l l , and h the p e n e t r a t i o n v e r s u s p e n e t r a t i o n angle: 1, l a ) a m i n o -
depth. Then f o r m u l a (1) m a y be r e w r i t t e n a s follows: p l a s t ; 2 , 2 a ) K - 1 7 - 2 ; 3, 3a) p l e x i g l a s s ;
4, 4a) F K P - 1 ; 5, 5a) PVC; 6, 6a) teflon;
HB(0) =1 --a 7, 7a) p o l y e t h y l e n e .
Hm~) + h o l g t, (2)
The q u e s t i o n of p o l y m e r r h e o l o g y u n d e r the c o n -
w h e r e HB(0) is the h a r d n e s s at t = 1 m i n , and HB(t)
d i t i o n s of the c o n t a c t p r o b l e m w i l l be e x a m i n e d m o r e
the h a r d n e s s a t a p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t of t i m e .
c l o s e l y in a s e p a r a t e a r t i c l e . In the t e s t s d e s c r i b e d
~K b e l o w the l o a d was a p p l i e d f o r 1 rain. S t r i c t l y s p e a k -
kgf/Cm~O ing, the a b s o l u t e l o a d i n g t i m e should be d i f f e r e n t for
d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , s i n c e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i m e s ,
e. g . , r e l a x a t i o n t i m e o r r e l a x a t i o n s p e c t r u m , a r e
also different. However, reliable data for determin-
ing t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u n d e r the given t e s t c o n d i -
t i o n s w e r e not a v a i l a b l e . F i g u r e 3 g i v e s v a l u e s of
o 2o *OPkgf the r e l a t i v e r e c o v e r y 1 rain a f t e r the r e m o v a l of l o a d
following l o a d i n g f o r 1 rain at d i f f e r e n t Values of the
F i g . 4. H a r d n e s s H B f o r a c o n i c a l p e n e t r a t i o n angle. F o r b a l l s t h i s angle a = 2 a r c cos d / D ;
i n d e n t o r with a cone angle of 90 ° d / D ; for c o n e s a is equal to the cone v e r t e x angle.
v e r s u s load: 1) p t e x i g l a s s ; 2) F K P - The f i g u r e s show v a l u e s of the r e c o v e r y c a l c u l a t e d
1;3) PVC. f r o m the f o r m u l a

F i g u r e 2 shows the indentation depth a f t e r r e m o v a l h-hi 3(1-v2)N

- - - (4)
of the l o a d as a function of lg t. In t h i s c a s e the t e s t h 4ahE '
r e s u l t s can be d e s c r i b e d by the l i n e a r function w h e r e h 1 is the depth of the indentation following r e -
m o v a l of t h e l o a d , u is P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , E is Young's
h = h o - a , lg t. (3) m o d u l u s , and a the r a d i u s of the indentation. This
f o r m u l a is b a s e d on the following c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . We
It follows f r o m F i g s . 1 and 2 t h a t the c r e e p r a t e , a s s u m e that a f t e r the l o a d h a s b e e n r e m o v e d we o b -
which is p r o p o r t i o n a l to a, is g r e a t e s t for t e f l o n , t a i n a r e s i d u a l i n d e n t a t i o n of a c e r t a i n d i a m e t e r and
POLYMER MECHANICS 213

r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e , tf the load is r e a p p l i e d , then up at low p e n e t r a t i o n depths the r o u n d i n g r a d i u s is c o m -

to the o r i g i n a l depth of the u n r e c o v e r e d i n d e n t a t i o n the m e n s u r a t e with the p e n e t r a t i o n depth. This leads to
load m u s t obviously be p u r e t y e l a s t i c . But if this is so, e x a g g e r a t e d v a l u e s of the h a r d n e s s . At a p e n e t r a t i o n
it c a n be c a l c u l a t e d from Hertz~s known f o r m u l a s for depth much g r e a t e r t h a n the r o u n d i n g r a d i u s the p r o -
the c a s e of c o n t a c t b e t w e e n a s p h e r e and an indentation. c e s s indeed b e c o m e s s e l f - s i m i l a r . In s u b s e q u e n t t e s t s
Since the load and the depth of the u n r e c o v e r e d i n - the loads on the cones w e r e such that the h a r d n e s s was
d e n t a t i o n a r e known, H e r t z ' s f o r m u l a c a n be used to not affected.
find the a p p r o a c h or, ifi our c a s e , the r e c o v e r y [Eq. (4)].
T h i s method of c a l c u l a t i o n was f i r s t p r o p o s e d in ¢
[8]. As m a y be s e e n f r o m the g r a p h s , the r e l a t i v e r e -
c o v e r y i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e in the p e n e t r a t i o n angle
or, c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , with d e c r e a s e in the m e a n value
of the d e f o r m a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with indentation. M o r e -
o v e r , at the s a m e p e n e t r a t i o n angle the r e l a t i v e r e -
,ooo
.i//
c o v e r y for cones is l e s s than for b a l l s . T h i s is b e c a u s e
for cones the d e g r e e of d e f o r m a t i o n in the v e r t e x zone
is much g r e a t e r than for b a l l s at the s a m e p e n e t r a t i o n
angle.
C a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d on (4) give r e s u l t s c l o s e to the o 20 oo 50
e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s for t h e r m o s e t s (K-17-2; a m i n o -
plast) and t h e r m o p l a s t i c c r y s t a l l i n e teflon. F o r PVC Fig. 7. True stresses as a
the t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e s Iie b e t w e e n the e x p e r i m e n t a l function of the nominal com-
data for c o n e s and b a l l s . F o r p l e x i g l a s s and p o l y - pressive strains: I) amino-
ethylene the r e c o v e r y is much g r e a t e r than follows plast, 2) K-17-2, 3) plexi-
f r o m c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d on (4). This is due to the high glas, 4) FKP-I, 5) PVC, 6)
r a t e of r e l a x a t i o n r e c o v e r y (see Fig. 2). Thus, the teflon, 7) polyethylene.
r e c o v e r e d i n d e n t a t i o n s c a n be used to c a l c u l a t e the
e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s or d e t e r m i n e s o m e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n The object of t h e s e t e s t s was to d e t e r m i n e the c o n -
h a r d n e s s and s t r e n g t h only for m a t e r i a l s of the t h e r m o - d i t i o n s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p o l y m e r h a r d n e s s . We will
s e t t i n g or teflon type. G e n e r a l l y , the i n d e n t a t i o n s at a now c o n s i d e r the r e s u l t s of the t e s t s . Fig. 5 p r e s e n t s
g i v e n i n s t a n t c a n not c h a r a c t e r i z e e i t h e r the s t r e n g t h g r a p h s of the f u n c t i o n HB(C~) for d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s
or the e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l . Fig. 4 shows indented with b a l l s of v a r i o u s d i a m e t e r and cones with
how the h a r d n e s s H B for cones depends on the load. As v a r i o u s v e r t e x angles. The t e s t s showed that the r e -
m a y be s e e n f r o m Fig. 4, the h a r d n e s s at f i r s t falls s u l t s of m e a s u r e m e n t s at the s a m e p e n e t r a t i o n angle
s h a r p l y with i n c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e and only c e a s e s to ( s i m i l a r i t y c r i t e r i o n ) a r e a l m o s t i n d e p e n d e n t of the
depend on the p r e s s u r e at a c e r t a i n load. F r o m e l e - ball d i a m e t e r , as was to be expected. F o r b a l l s H B
m e n t a r y t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s it follows that r e a c h e s a l i m i t i n g value and c e a s e s to depend on the
s i n c e the p r o c e s s of p e n e t r a t i o n of the cone is s e l f - p e n e t r a t i o n angle at 60 ° _< ~ -< 90 °, which c o r r e s p o n d s
s i m i l a r , the h a r d n e s s should not depend on p r e s s u r e . to a r a t i o 0.72 <- d / D -< 0.87. The cone h a r d n e s s at
s m a l l a n g l e s is m u c h t e s s t h a n the ball h a r d n e s s , but
60
.MkgfJm
"/ ! at a n g l e s g r e a t e r than 650-75 ° b e c o m e s g r e a t e r than
the ball h a r d n e s s . We note that for s o m e m a t e r i a l s
~3 ( p l e x i g l a s s , a m i n o p l a s t , F K P - 1 , polyethylene) the
cone h a r d n e s s at l a r g e cone a n g l e s (120 ° ) is c l o s e to
JO the l i m i t i n g h a r d n e s s ; t h e n the h a r d n e s s i n c r e a s e s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y and again a p p r o a c h e s the l i m i t i n g value
at cone angles of the o r d e r of 65°-75 ° . F o r teflon,
PVC, and K - 1 7 - 2 the cone h a r d n e s s at l a r g e cone
0.~ 5.8 f.2 a n g l e s is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n the l i m i t i n g h a r d n e s s ,
0
and only at a n g l e s of 6 5 ° - 7 0 ° h a s v a l u e s c l o s e to the
Fig. 6. Hardness H M versus l i m i t i n g value. The p r e s e n c e of a l i m i t i n g value is
ratio of radius of indentation due to the d e f o r m a t i o n g e o m e t r y a s s o c i a t e d with the
~o radius of ball: i, la) amino- penetration of balls. If the relation HM(d/D) is con-
plast; 2, 2a) PVC; 3, 3a) teflon; structed, the hardness will increase monotonically
a denotes straight lines cal- up to d/D ~ 1 (see Fig. 6), without any character-
culated from the Hertz formula. istic points.
T a b l e 1 gives v a l u e s , o b t a i n e d in t e n s i l e and c o m -
However, this p r e s u p p o s e s a n i d e a l l y s h a r p cone. In p r e s s i v e t e s t s , of ~S o r crB (for b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s ) and
fact~ the tip of t h e cone is always s l i g h t l y r o u n d e d and the r a t i o of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s and the l i m i t i n g h a r d n e s s .
 214 M EKHANIKA POLIMEROV

The r a t i o O-S,B/HB, b a s e d on data obtained in c o m - The c o r r e s p o n d i n g data a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 1 (a T

p r e s s i o n , f l u c t u a t e s b e t w e e n 0.44 and 0.82, i . e . , is column). A c o m p a r i s o n of t h e s e data with the t e s t
always much g r e a t e r than for m o s t m e t a l s . v a l u e s of a S or ~B shows that t r a n s i t i o n to h i g h - e l a s -
tic or p l a s t i c s t r a i n s takes place at a m e a n < a S , B c o m p /
/2. E v e r y author who has s t u d i e d c o n t a c t s t r e n g t h
(see, for e x a m p l e , [9, t0]) points out that in c a l c u l a -
t i o n s b a s e d on the t h i r d o r fourth t h e o r i e s of s t r e n g t h
p l a s t i c flow u n d e r c o n t a c t loads b e g i n s at ~ m e a n s
~ 1.1o-s, i. e . , at s t r e s s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y exceeding
those obtained in our t e s t s .
D i s c u s s i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s . Above we noted that for
~ m 2 the p o l y m e r s t e s t e d a s / H B p r o v e d to be much g r e a t e r
0 20 ~0 60 than for m o s t m e t a l s . This r a t i o is also g r e a t e r than
the t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e obtained in s o l v i n g the a x i s y m -
Fig. 8. U l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o r yield m e t r i c p r o b l e m of the p e n e t r a t i o n of a ball into a n o n -
point in c o m p r e s s i o n v e r s u s slope h a r d e n i n g m a t e r i a l [11], n a m e l y , 0.38. In o r d e r to
of the s t r a i g h t line HM(d/D ) for the u n d e r s t a n d the s i t u a t i o n , it is n e c e s s a r y to keep in
m a t e r i a l s tested. m i n d that the t h e o r e t i c a l solution was obtained on the
a s s u m p t i o n that the m a t e r i a l was r i g i d - p l a s t i c , while
the r a t i o aS,B/H B = 0 . 3 3 - 0 . 3 5 was obtained in t e s t s
When t e n s i l e data a r e used, the p i c t u r e is e v e n on c a r b o n s t e e l s for which the r a t i o a s / E = 2 . 1 0 -3
m o r e indefinite; however, it is quite obvious that in and the s t r a i n in h a r d n e s s t e s t s is two o r d e r s g r e a t e r
a t t e m p t i n g to e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s between h a r d n e s s than the s t r a i n at a s t r e s s equal to the y i e l d point.
and other m e c h a n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s it is n e c e s s a r y Thus we m a y a s s u m e that t e s t s on s t e e l s a r e conducted
to take the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s obtained in c o m p r e s s i o n , u n d e r conditions that l a r g e l y c o r r e s p o n d to the h y -
a state of s t r e s s c l o s e r to that e x i s t i n g d u r i n g h a r d - pothesis or r i g i d - p l a s t i c behavior. In t e s t i n g p o l y m e r
n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s . T e n s i o n s o m e t i m e s l e a d s to h a r d n e s s the s i t u a t i o n is r a t h e r different. In this c a s e
p r e m a t u r e f r a c t u r e and, obviously, in t h i s c a s e the the e l a s t i c s t r a i n is 3 - 8 % and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , the s t r a i n
u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h can not be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the p r o d u c e d in m e a s u r i n g h a r d n e s s is a l t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l
hardness. t i m e s g r e a t e r than the e l a s t i c s t r a i n , and the r a t i o
F r o m the r e s u l t s of H B m e a s u r e m e n t s we d e t e r - crs/E is of the o r d e r of 0 . 1 - 0 . 0 3 (see T a b l e 1). A c -
m i n e d the value of the exponent n in the M y e r s f o r - c o r d i n g l y , it is now a m a t t e r of the e l a s t o p l a s t i c d e -
mula f o r m a t i o n of a m a t e r i a l whose Young's m o d u l u s is
N = ad n . is c o m m e n s u r a b l e with the applied l o a d s , so that in
(5)
this c a s e the h y p o t h e s i s of r i g i d - p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r is
As m a y be s e e n f r o m the t a b l e , n l i e s within the l i m i t s quite i n a p p l i c a b l e .
2.51 _< n -<- 2.84.
F o r m e t a l s n v a r i e s within the l i m i t s 2 _< n -< 25.
F o r n o n h a r d e n i n g or h e a v i l y w o r k - h a r d e n e d m e t a l s 30~;-;-kgf/mm~
n = 2; for a n n e a l e d , s t r o n g l y h a r d e n i n g m e t a l s n ~ 2.5. ' ! I I t2
The t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e of n for a p e r f e c t l y p l a s t i c 20}--; - - - ~ : ~
j i ,

m a t e r i a l is n = 2, while for p u r e l y e l a s t i c d e f o r m a -
tion n = 3. Thus the b e h a v i o r of p o l y m e r s in ball i n -
d e n t a t i o n t e s t s , as d i s t i n c t f r o m the b e h a v i o r of m o s t
m e t a l s , is c l o s e r to the b e h a v i o r of m a t e r i a l s that 0 f,:7 ZO 30 ~'0
d e f o r m e l a s t i c a l l y , r a t h e r than p l a s t i c a l l y . At the
indicated v a l u e s of n the r e l a t i o n HM(d/D ) c a n be Fig. 9. Ultimate strength or yield
v i r t u a l l y a p p r o x i m a t e d by a s t r a i g h t l i n e , as follows point in compression versus hard-
f r o m the g r a p h s in Fig. 6, which also shows the ness H B.
s t r a i g h t l i n e s HM(d/D) c a l c u l a t e d f r o m the f o r m u l a
that c a n be obtained f r o m H e r t z ' s f o r m u l a s if it is
We have not b e e n able to o b t a i n solutions of c o n -
a s s u m e d that a plane s u r f a c e is p e n e t r a t e d by a n a b -
t a c t p r o b l e m s using the P r a n d t l - R e u s s e q u a t i o n s ,
s o l u t e l y r i g i d ball:
which take into a c c o u n t the e l a s t i c p a r t of the s t r a i n
d E
Hz = 0.38 ~ _--X-~2.
1 (6) and the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of the m a t e r i a l . However, to
e s t i m a t e the l i m i t i n g v a l u e s of the r e s i s t a n c e to d e -
The points of intersection of theselines with the ex- f o r m a t i o n u n d e r t h e s e conditions it is p o s s i b l e to
perimental lines should give the values of the mean employ the s o l u t i o n of e l a s t o p l a s t i c p r o b l e m s on the
stresses and ratios d/D at which transition from e x p a n s i o n of a s p h e r i c a l or c y l i n d r i c a l cavity in an
elastic to plastic or high-elastic strains takes place. infinite body s t a r t i n g f r o m zero d i a m e t e r . T h e r e is
POLYMER MECHANICS 215

e v e r y r e a s o n to s u p p o s e [12, 13] that the w o r k r e - c a l c u l a t i o n s it is n e e e s s a r y to e m p l o y M o h r ' s t h e o r y

q u i r e d to f o r m such a c a v i t y (without a l l o w i n g for o r s o m e o t h e r t h e o r y t a k i n g into account the effect of
f r i c t i o n ) should not depend on the m e t h o d of f o r m a - the s p h e r i c a l s t r e s s t e n s o r , t t o w e v e r , in using M o h r ' s
tion of the c a v i t y and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , the l i m i t i n g r e - t h e o r y the e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s e s at the c e n t e r of the in-
s i s t a n c e to the p e n e t r a t i o n of a b a l l and the e x p a n s i o n d e n t a t i o n w i l l be I e s s than when the effect of h y d r o -
of the c a v i t y should be s i m i l a r . static pressure, increasing as this pressure increases.
F o r the e x p a n s i o n of a s p h e r e [121 Thus, in t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s it is n e c e s s a r y
to e m p l o y M o h r ' s t h e o r y o r s o m e o t h e r t h e o r y t a k i n g
2 i1 in E 1. (7) into a c c o u n t t h e e f f e c t of the s p h e r i c a l s t r e s s t e n s o r .
~ l i m = - 3 es + 3(l--v)es
H o w e v e r , in u s i n g M o h r ' s t h e o r y the e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s -
In s o l v i n g the r i g i d - p l a s t i c p r o b l e m t h e l i m i t i n g s e s a t t h e c e n t e r of the i n d e n t a t i o n will be l e s s than
r e s i s t a n c e to p e n e t r a t i o n for the p l a n e p r o b l e m [12] when the e f f e c t of h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e is n e g l e c t e d
is q t m / 2 k = 1 + 7r = 4.14, w h e r e k is the y i e l d point and h e n c e the m e a n l i m i t i n g s t r e s s w i l l be even g r e a t e r
i n s h e a r . If we s e t E/cr 8 = 4 . 1 0 2 , ~ = 0 . 3 3 , E q . (7) t h a n in o r d i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d on the t h i r d t h e o r y
g i v e s Olim/CrS = 4.3. of s t r e n g t h . H o w e v e r , in the c a s e of p e n e t r a t i o n of a
Thus, the s o l u t i o n for a s p h e r e is d o s e to t h i s b a l l , a p a r t f r o m the zones of o m n i d i r e e t i o n a I n o n -
solution. If we now s u b s t i t u t e in (7) the c o r r e s p o n d i n g u n i f o r m c o m p r e s s i o n , t h e r e a r e zones with a p u r e
v a l u e s for p o l y m e r m a t e r i a l s , t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 1, s h e a r s t a t e of s t r e s s at the edge of the indentation and
we o b t a i n the following r e s u l t s (in all e a s e s ~ = 0.33). r e g i o n s of t e n s i l e s t r e s s beyond the edge of the i n d e n -
As follows f r o m T a b l e 2, the r a t i o Crlim/Cr8 for t a t i o n . In the p r e s e n c e of f r i c t i o n the t e n s i l e zone u p -
p o l y m e r m a t e r i a l s is l e s s by a f a c t o r of two o r m o r e p r o a e h e s the edge of the indentation. The m a g n i t u d e
t h a n follows f r o m the s o l u t i o n of the c o n t a c t p r o b l e m of the r e d u c e d s t r e s s in t h e s e a r e a s m a y r e a c h 0 . 2 -
f o r a r t g i d - p l a s t i e body and f r o m t e s t s on m e t a l s 0.3 P0, w h e r e P0 is the m a x i m u m s t r e s s at the e e n t e r
with a r e l a t i v e l y high Young's m o d u l u s . O b v i o u s l y , of the indentation, and the c a l c u l a t e d s t r e s s in this
t h i s is b e c a u s e at a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l YoungVs m o d u l u s zone is the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . F r o m the data
( l a r g e r a t i o ~8/E) t h e s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the m a - of T a b l e 1 it follows that for b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s the u l t i -
t e r i a l s u r r o u n d i n g the c o n t a c t d e f o r m a t i o n zone is m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h is two to f o u r t i m e s l e s s than the
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l e s s . N a t u r a l l y , in t h i s e a s e the y i e l d point o r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h . Of e o u r s e , when
h a r d n e s s will a l s o be r e l a t i v e l y l e s s , and t h e r a t i o b a i l s o r c o n e s p e n e t r a t e b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s the t r a n s i t i o n
crs c o m p / H B r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r than f o r m e t a l s with to h i g h - e l a s t i c s t r a i n s o c c u r s a t s t r e s s e s much l o w e r
a small ~8/E ratio. than foIlows f r o m the a s s u m p t i o n that the c r i t i c a l point
H o w e v e r , f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n of the v a l u e s of H B / is l o c a t e d a t the c e n t e r of the indentation. T h i s r e a -
/c~s, B p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e I and the v a l u e s of O l i m / s o n i n g is c o n f i r m e d by the d a t a of T a b l e 1 f r o m which
/or8 p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 it follows t h a t in a n u m b e r it folIows (Iast column) t h a t the r a t i o eTtens/CrS,B,
of c a s e s t h e s e r a t i o s a r e s i m i l a r , and s o m e t i m e s w h e r e a T is the s t r e s s at the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
H B c o m p / ( r S , B > O l t m / e S. At the s a m e t i m e , t h e h a r d - the s t r a i g h t l i n e s in Fig. 6, is c l o s e to unity f o r a l l
n e s s m u s t be much s m a l l e r than Olim, s i n c e it is m a t e r i a l s e x c e p t p o l y m e t h y l m e t h a e r y l a t e , f o r which
m e a s u r e d at s m a l l e r s t r a i n s . It is m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g the r a t i o is about 1:2. The r e a s o n s for t h i s a r e stiI1
that for p e n e t r a t i o n the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of the unclear.
s t r e s s at which t r a n s i t i o n , f r o m e l a s t i c to p l a s t i c Thus, the s t r e n g t h of b r i t t l e p l a s t i c s under c o n t a c t
s t r a i n s o c c u r s is much t e s s than the v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d l o a d s is d e t e r m i n e d by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t e n -
t h e o r e t i c a l l y on the b a s i s of H e r t z ' s s o l u t i o n u s i n g the s t l e c u r v e , and p l a s t i e o r h i g h - e l a s t i c flow e v i d e n t l y
t h i r d t h e o r y of s t r e n g t h . This can be e x p l a i n e d if one b e g i n s at the s u r f a c e on the edge of the indentation.
k e e p s in m i n d the fact that the r e s i s t a n c e of p l a s t i e s F o r p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s the d e f o r m a t i o n p i c t u r e c o t -
to d e f o r m a t i o n and h e n c e the y i e l d point depend i m - r e s p o n d s to the d e f o r m a t i o n of d u c t i l e m e t a l s (teflon,
p o r t a n t l y on the h y d r o s t a t i e p r e s s u r e , i n c r e a s i n g a s poIyethylene).
t h i s p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s . Thus, in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g T a b l e 1 g i v e s v a l u e s of n for the m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d .

Table 1

Compression Tension Compression I ensio~

I d
Material rye, o B c q. dlv °S ." E
,2 '< ~- ~f-~~ %7;;
2
kgf/cm 2 kgf/cm 2 >7- ] ~7 a Ica

FKP-I 12.0 2.55 0.77 0.16 0.0~ 23.0 0.87 0,84 2.84 i 2.5 t 0,98
K-l?-2 20,0
24.4
7.0
6,3
0,50
0.58
0,20
0.15
0.0~ 47.5 0.82 0.83 2.80 7.5 1.07
o.o; 60.0 0.86 0.85 22%
86 ~.5 ~.~9
Aminoplast
8.8 4,5 0.65 0.332 0.0, t6.8 0.75 '.).81
PVC
Plexiglass 12,8 8,0 0.69 1.00
0.43 0.0~ 25.0 0,90 O,81 2.72 4.5 0,56 L5 I
Teflon 1.4 1,4 0,39 0.36 0.0: 2.0 0,87 0,75 2.52 [ 0 1,14
Polyethylene 0,4 0.9 0,26 -- 19 0,85 9.83 2.8~ OIaG 0.90
216 MEKHANIKA P O L I M E R O V

Table 2

Material FKP-1 K-17-2 Aminoplast PVC Pelxiglass Teflon

qlio] 1.57 1.74 I 1.64 1.91 1.82 2.03

~s

T h i s q u a n t i t y is c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n for m e t a l s U s i n g d i a m o n d p y r a m i d i n s t r u m e n t s with a tip angle

and r e a c h e s 2.87. In [8] it was shown that the of 136 ° gives v a l u e s of the h a r d n e s s f a r r e m o v e d f r o m
g r e a t e r the v a l u e of n, the g r e a t e r the exponent in the the l i m i t i n g value. F o r s o m e m a t e r i a l s the p y r a m i d
a p p r o x i m a t e equation a = ee x d e s c r i b i n g the d e p e n d e n c e h a r d n e s s will be c l o s e to, for o t h e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y in
of s t r e s s on s t r a i n . However, a(e) for the m a t e r i a l s e x c e s s of, the l i m i t i n g value. Only at angles of 65 °-
t e s t e d in no way c o r r e s p o n d s to a power law (Fig. 7). 70 ° a r e the b a l l and p y r a m i d h a r d n e s s e s l i k e l y to be
As follows f r o m the f i g u r e , beyond the yieId point, up s i m i l a r . The s i m i l a r n a t u r e of the dependence of the
to c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e s of the s t r a i n the s t r e s s e i t h e r cone h a r d n e s s on c~ or d / D is due to the fact that in
r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t or e v e n d i m i n i s h e s . But in this c a s e both the e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c r e g i o n s the r e s i s t a n c e to
the value of x will be c l o s e to zero. At the s a m e t i m e , p e n e t r a t i o n of a cone is g r e a t e r than the r e s i s t a n c e to
the effect of o m n t d i r e c t i o n a I c o m p r e s s i o n on the r e - p e n e t r a t i o n of a ball at the s a m e p e n e t r a t i o n angle
s t s t a n c e to d e f o r m a t i o n is not taken into account. In [12, 15]. T h e r e f o r e , if we plot HM(C~) c u r v e s for a ball
[141 is was shown that this effect is c o n s i d e r a b l e for and a cone, then at all points the c u r v e for a cone will
p o t y m e r m a t e r i a l s . Obviously, the d e e p e r the p e n e - l i e above that for a ball, the r a t i o HM c o n e / H M ball
t r a t i o n of the b a l l and the g r e a t e r the r a t i o d/D, the b e i n g of the o r d e r of 1 . 3 5 - 1 . 4 5 for atl the m a t e r i a l s
g r e a t e r the h y d r o s t a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n and the g r e a t e r t e s t e d . The s i t u a t i o n will be d i f f e r e n t when the B r t n e l l
the i n c r e a s e in the r e s i s t a n c e to d e f o r m a t i o n . We go h a r d n e s s is m e a s u r e d . At l a r g e ce the cone h a r d n e s s
o v e r , as it w e r e , f r o m one or(e) c u r v e to a n o t h e r , c o r - will be g r e a t e r t h a n the ball h a r d n e s s . With d e c r e a s e
r e s p o n d i n g to a g r e a t e r value of ahy d. As a r e s u l t , the in ~ the h a r d n e s s will be g r e a t e r than the ball h a r d -
a(e) c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s d / D will n e s s . With d e c r e a s e in ~ the s u r f a c e a r e a of the cone
be quite steep, and the value of n l a r g e , as obtained in i n c r e a s e s m o r e r a p i d l y than the s u r f a c e a r e a of the
t e s t s . A p p a r e n t l y , this also e x p l a i n s the f a c t t h a t at d / D ~ s p h e r i c a l s e g m e n t . T h u s , at 6 0 ° - 7 0 ° the HB for a cone
~ 0.8 the h a r d n e s s was close to the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h c a l - is equal to the HB for a ball, and s u b s e q u e n t l y b e -
culated without allowance for the h y d r o s t a t i c c o m p r e s - comes less.
sion effect. If this effect is t a k e n into account, then We will now t u r n to the p r o b l e m of the r e l a t i o n s h i p
the e x p r e s s i o n in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s in (7) c h a n g e s only b e t w e e n h a r d n e s s and yield point and u l t i m a t e strength.
slightly, s i n c e with i n c r e a s e in h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e It follows f r o m what has b e e n said that owing to the
E and a S i n c r e a s e by a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e a m o u n t . influence of the h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o n t h e m e c h a n i c a l
The m u l t i p l i e r in f r o n t of the b r a c k e t s a s i n c r e a s e s p r o p e r t i e s t h e r e c a n not be a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -
by a factor of 1 . 5 - 2 . olt m and the r a t i o Otim/H B i n - tween HM(d/D ) and a(e) in u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n or c o m p r e s -
c r e a s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . As a r e s u t t , it b e c o m e s s i o n (as with m e t a l s ) . T h e r e f o r e it is not p o s s i b l e to
roughly the s a m e as for m e t a l s (of the o r d e r of 1 . 5 - 2 ) . employ the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a s / H B and n p r o p o s e d in
TabIe 1 gives the v a l u e s of d / D at w h i c h the B r i - [8], s i n c e tn our c a s e the c a l e u l a t l o n witl give s o m e
n e l l h a r d n e s s c e a s e s to depend on the p r e s s u r e . F o r f i c t i t i o u s value of o-S, which, h o w e v e r , is of i n t e r e s t
all the m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d t h e s e v a l u e s of d / D fell within in c o n n e c t i o n with the study of the effect of h y d r o -
the l i m i t s 0 . 7 2 - 0 . 8 7 . In [8] a f o r m u l a was obtained static p r e s s u r e on the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of m a -
for c a l c u l a t i n g the value (d/D)ltm at which the h a r d - t e r i a l s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e m u s t obviousIy be some
n e s s c e a s e s to depend on the toad as a function of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the y i e l d point and the p a r a m e t e r s
quantity n, n a m e l y of the s t r a i g h t l i n e HM (d/D). At the point of i n t e r -
s e c t i o n of the s t r a i g h t l i n e s in Fig. 6 the values of
( d )lirr~ (n_ l ) _, [n(n_ l ) ],/2 ' (8) HM, as shown above, a r e close to the yield point or
ultimate tensile strength. Moreover, investigations
If we s u b s t i t u t e the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of n, we have have shown that t h e r e is a definite r e l a t i o n s h i p between
(see T a b l e 1) 0.75 _< d / D -< 0.84. C I e a r l y , the c a l - the slope of the s t r a i g h t l i n e HM(d/D), denoted by E ' ,
c u l a t e d and e x p e r i m e n t a I r e s u l t s a r e s i m i l a r . and the u l t i m a t e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h (Fig. 8). It is
In the new (as in the old) Soviet s t a n d a r d on m e t h - e a s y to u n d e r s t a n d the e x i s t e n c e of this r e l a t i o n s h i p
ods of m e a s u r i n g the h a r d n e s s of p o l y m e r s , it is i n - if it is r e c a l l e d that HM lira is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a I
d i c a t e d that the depth of p e n e t r a t i o n of the b a l l should to crS (see (7)) and In E/aS, while the r a t i o E / a S v a r i e s
l i e within the l i m i t s 0 . 2 - 0 . 6 ram. But even at h = l i t t l e for d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s and the l o g a r i t h m of this
= 0.6 m m d / D = 0.7, and the m e a s u r e d h a r d n e s s will r a t i o s t i l l l e s s . The e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a for the c u r v e
depend on the load. Thus, d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s m a y shown in Fig. 8 is as follows:
obtain d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s for the h a r d n e s s of the s a m e
m a t e r ial. (~s., = 0.85E'O.8~. (9)
POLYMER MECHANICS 217

We note that the h a r d n e s s HB, m e a s u r e d for d / D > 4. F o r p l a s t i c s the value of the exponent n is not
> (d/D)lim, a l s o has a s i n g i e - v a l u e d d e p e n d e n c e on d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d with the p a r a m e t e r s of the or(e) c u r v e
aS, B. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g g r a p h is p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 9. owing to the s t r o n g d e p e n d e n c e of t h e i r m e c h a n i c a l
The equation of this c u r v e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e in the p r e s -
s u r e r a n g e typical of the c a s e of c o n t a c t loads.
~s.B = 0.87HB°'ga . (1 O)
5. F o r b r i t t l e p l a s t i c s the value of the s t r e s s at
T h u s , to d e t e r m i n e the s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s it which t r a n s i t i o n f r o m e l a s t i c to p l a s t i c s t r a i n s o c c u r s
is p o s s i b l e to find the h a r d n e s s I-IM at two loads, c o m - d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n is c l o s e r to the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e
pute the value of E ' f r o m the f o r m u l a E' = (HI"M - s t r e n g t h . C o n s e q u e n t l y , flow b e g i n s at the s u r f a c e of
- H ' M ) / [ ( d / D ) " - (d/D)'] , and find ors,B f r o m the graph the t e s t piece. In the c a s e of ductile m a t e r i a l s flow
in Fig. 8. The graph in Fig. 9 can also be used for a p p a r e n t l y b e g i n s , as with m e t a l s , b e n e a t h the s u r -
this p u r p o s e , a f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g HB for d / D > (d/D)li m. face of the t e s t piece.
The yield point o r t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h c a n be e s t i m a t e d 6. Methods and f o r m u l a s a r e p r o p o s e d for c a l c u l a -
a f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n of the two t i n g s t r e n g t h and e l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m the data
s t r a i g h t l i n e s HM(d/D) for the e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c r e - of h a r d n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s and f r o m the data of m e a -
gions in Fig. 6. To plot the graph HM(d/D)e 1 it is n e c - s u r e m e n t s of HM in the e l a s t i c region.
c e s s a r y to know E/(1 - ~2); this quantity can also be
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s . Indeed, H e r t z ' s REFERENCES
f o r m u l a for the p e n e t r a t i o n of an a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d b a i l
1. A. D. K u r i t s y n a and P. G. M e i n s t e r , in c o l -
into a ptane is w r i t t e n : d / D = 2.62 (1 - u2)Crmean/E.
l e c t i o n : P l a s t i c s as A n t i f r i c t i o n M a t e r i a l s [in R u s s i a n ] ,
If we take Crmean/E = 0.02, t h e n for a l l m a t e r i a l s we
Moscow, 5, 1961.
will be in the e l a s t i c r e g i o n . If u = 0.33, d / D = 0.047.
2. A. D. K u r i t s y n a and P. G. M e i n s t e r , in c o l -
If we take D = 50 ram, then d -~ 2.5 ram, and the
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depth of the i n d e n t a t i o n h ~= 0.12 ram. Both t h e s e q u a n t -
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tries a r e e a s y to m e a s u r e , s i n c e they a r e quite l a r g e ;
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=2.6 OlimV -~[. (12)
8. D. T a b o r , The H a r d n e s s of M e t a l s , C l a r e n d o n
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T h u s , u s i n g f o r m u l a s (9)-(12) o r the c o r r e s p o n d i n g 10. A. N. Dinnik, Selected Works, 1 [in R u s s i a n ] ,
g r a p h s , with the aid of the r e s u l t s of h a r d n e s s m e a - Kiev, 201, 1944.
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m e c h a n i c a l and e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of p l a s t i c s . 12. R. Hill, M a t h e m a t i c a l T h e o r y of P l a s t i c i t y
[ R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ] , Gostekhizdat, 1956.
SUMMARY 13. S. B. A i n b i n d e r , Izv. AN LatvSSR, 7, 92, 1953.
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d i t i o n s , the s t r e s s and s t r a i n depend l i n e a r l y on the 15. I. Ya. S h t a e r m a n , The Contact P r o b l e m of
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2. In the e a s e of low r e c o v e r y r a t e s the e l a s t i c
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r e c o v e r y after r e m o v a l of load can be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
Hertz~s f o r m u l a s .
3. When ball i n d e n t o r s a r e used, the h a r d n e s s of
p l a s t i c s should be m e a s u r e d at d / D _ 0.8 f r o m the
depth or d i a m e t e r of the u n r e e o v e r e d indentation.
When a p y r a m i d or cone is employed, the v e r t e x angle
should be 60°-65 °. If the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of the ex- 31 D e c e m b e r 1965 I n s t i t u t e of P o l y m e r
i s t i n g Soviet s t a n d a r d a r e followed, the h a r d n e s s will M e c h a n i c s AS L a t v i a n
depend on the load. SSR, Riga