Aashwvi/Dr.

KarishmaKaushal/XI/Cell

Cell – The Unit of Life

Living vs. Non-living

 Living organisms are made up of cells.

 Non-living things lack cells.
 Cell = basic unit of life.
Types of Organisms

 Unicellular organisms:
 Made of a single cell.
 Capable of:
i) Independent existence.
ii) Performing all essential life functions.
 Multicellular organisms:
 Made up of many cells (e.g., humans).
Fundamental Concept

 Anything less than a complete cell cannot ensure independent living.

 Hence, cell = fundamental structural and functional unit of life.
Historical Contributions
 Antonie von Leeuwenhoek: First saw and described a live cell.
 Robert Brown: Discovered the nucleus.
 Microscope invention + electron microscope: Helped reveal detailed structure of cells.
Cell Theory
Scientist Contribution
Matthias Schleiden
Studied plants; concluded all plants are composed of different kinds of cells forming tissues.
(1838)
Studied animals; observed thin outer layer (plasma membrane);
Theodor Schwann
concluded cell wall is unique to plants; proposed that animals & plants are composed of cells
(1839)
and cell products.
Rudolf Virchow Explained that new cells arise from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula); modified
(1855) Schleiden & Schwann’s hypothesis.

Cell Theory (as understood today):

1. All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Basic Structure (Plant vs Animal Cells)

 Onion cell (Plant cell):

 Has distinct cell wall as outer boundary.
 Just inside is the cell membrane.
 Human cheek cell (Animal cell):
 Has outer membrane (plasma membrane) as delimiting structure.
Nucleus

 Dense membrane-bound structure present inside each cell.

 Contains chromosomes → which contain DNA (genetic material).
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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus Absent (no membrane-bound nucleus) Present (membrane-bound nucleus)
Have distinct membrane-bound organelles (ER, Golgi complex,
Organelles No membrane-bound organelles
lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies, vacuoles)
Semi-fluid matrix, site of cellular
Cytoplasm Semi-fluid matrix, site of cellular activities
activities

Cytoplasm
 Present in both prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells.
 Main arena of cellular activities.
 Various chemical reactions occur here → keeps cell in living state.
Cell Organelles

 Membrane-bound organelles (present in eukaryotes only): ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria,
microbodies, vacuoles (in plants), plastids (in plants).
 Double membrane bound organelles (present in eukaryotes only): Nucleus, Mitochondria, Plastids
(Chloroplasts, Chromoplasts, Leucoplasts)
 Non-membrane bound organelles (in all cells): Ribosomes.
 Found in cytoplasm, chloroplasts (plants), mitochondria, and rough ER.
 Animal cells special organelle: Centrosome (non membrane bound)→ helps in cell division.
Cell Diversity – Size, Shape, Activities

 Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas → 0.3 μm in length.

 Bacteria: 3–5 μm.
 Largest isolated single cell: Egg of ostrich.
 Human RBCs: ~7.0 μm in diameter.
 Nerve cells: Among the longest cells.
 A typical eukaryotic cell: (10-20 mm)
 PPLO: about 0.1 mm
 Viruses: 0.02-0.2 mm)

Cell shape variations:

 Disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread-like, irregular.
 Shape depends on function performed.

Prokaryotic Cells :
Shapes of bacteria
Shape Description Examples (from NCERT)
Bacillus Rod-shaped Lactobacillus, Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium tetani
Coccus Spherical-shaped Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Diplococcus
Vibrio Comma-shaped Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus
Spirillum Spiral/coil-shaped Spirillum volutans, Helicobacter pylori, Treponema pallidum
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Example: Bacteria, Blue-green algae, Mycoplasma, and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms)
General Features

 Smaller and multiply more rapidly than eukaryotic cells.

 Show wide variety of shapes and functions, but fundamental organisation is similar
Cell Structure

 Cell wall: Present in all prokaryotes (except mycoplasma).

 Cell membrane: Lies below cell wall.
 Cytoplasm: Semi-fluid matrix filling the cell.
Nucleus & Genetic Material

 No well-defined nucleus.
 Genetic material: Naked DNA, not enclosed by nuclear membrane.
 Genomic DNA: Single chromosome / circular DNA.
 Plasmids: Small circular DNA present outside genomic DNA.
 Confer unique phenotypic characters (e.g., antibiotic resistance).
 Used to monitor bacterial transformation with foreign DNA.
Cell Organelles

 Absent: Membrane-bound organelles (found in eukaryotes).

 Present: Ribosomes (only organelle found in prokaryotes).
Unique Features

 Inclusions: Present in cytoplasm.

 Mesosome:
 Specialised, differentiated form of cell membrane.
 Formed as infoldings of cell membrane.
 Characteristic feature of prokaryotes.
Cell Envelope and its Modifications 3 Layers
Layer Description Function
Outermost layer; varies in composition & thickness. •
Glycocalyx Loose sheath → Slime layer • Thick & tough → Provides protection
Capsule
Determines cell shape;
Cell Wall Middle layer Provides structural support;
Prevents bursting/collapsing
Plasma Innermost layer; selectively permeable; structurally Interacts with outside world;
Membrane similar to eukaryotes Regulates entry/exit of substances

Gram Staining
• Developed by Christian Gram (1884).
• It is a differential staining technique used to classify bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negative
groups based on differences in their cell wall composition.

Procedure
1. Bacteria are stained with crystal violet (primary stain).
2. Treated with iodine solution (mordant – helps dye bind).
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3. Washed with alcohol or acetone (decolorizer).

4. Counterstained with safranin (secondary stain).
Feature Gram-positive Bacteria Gram-negative Bacteria
Cell wall Thick peptidoglycan layer Thin peptidoglycan layer
Outer membrane Absent Present (lipopolysaccharide layer)
Staining reaction Retain crystal violet → Purple/Violet Lose crystal violet, take safranin → Pink/Red
Resistance More resistant to physical disruption More resistant to antibiotics & chemicals
Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus
Examples Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae
anthracis

Membranous Extensions
Structure Origin Form Functions
Cell wall formation, DNA replication & distribution
Extension of plasma Vesicles, to daughter cells, Respiration, Secretion, Increase
Mesosome
membrane tubules, lamellae surface area of plasma membrane, Increase
enzymatic content
Extensions into
Pigmented
Chromatophores cytoplasm (in Contain pigments
structures
cyanobacteria)

Motility Structures
Structure Description Function
Flagella Thin filamentous extensions from cell wall Motility
• Filament – longest, extends outside cell
Parts of Flagellum Structural components of flagellum
• Hook • Basal body

Other Surface structures

Structure Description Function
Elongated tubular structures made of special
Pili Not for motility
protein
Small bristle-like fibres sprouting from cell Help in attachment to rocks in streams & to host
Fimbriae
surface tissues

Difference between Flagella, Pili, and Fimbriae

Character Flagella Pili Fimbriae
Longer than fimbriae but shorter than
Short, fine, bristle-like hair
Structure Long, thin, whip-like appendages flagella; hollow tubular structures
structures
made of pilin protein
Number Usually 1–few per cell 1–10 per cell Hundreds per cell
Conjugation (transfer of DNA Attachment to surfaces, host
Function Locomotion (motility) between bacteria) → also called sex tissues (important in
pili pathogenicity)
Arises from cell envelope (plasma Arises from cell envelope (plasma Arises from cell envelope
Origin
membrane + cell wall) membrane) (plasma membrane)
Present in both Gram +ve & Gram
Presence Mostly in Gram-negative bacteria Both Gram+ve & Gram–ve
–ve (more common in Gram –ve)

Ribosomes in prokaryotes
Feature Description
Association Attached to plasma membrane
Size 15 nm × 20 nm
Subunits • 50S • 30S Together form 70S ribosome
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Feature Description
Function Site of protein synthesis
Several ribosomes attached to a single mRNA forming a chain; translates mRNA into
Polysome (Polyribosome)
proteins

Inclusion Bodies
Feature Description
Location Cytoplasm
Membrane Not membrane-bound; free in cytoplasm
Function Storage of reserve materials
Examples • Phosphate granules • Cyanophycean granules • Glycogen granules
Special Case Gas vacuoles present in blue-green, purple, and green photosynthetic bacteria

Eukaryotic cell
Feature Description
Groups Included Protists, Plants, Animals, Fungi
Compartmentalisation Extensive, due to presence of membrane-bound organelles
Nucleus Organised; surrounded by nuclear envelope
Other Structures Variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures
Genetic Material Organised into chromosomes
Similarity All eukaryotic cells are not identical
Plant Cells Possess cell wall, plastids, large central vacuole (absent in animal cells)
Animal Cells Possess centrioles (absent in almost all plant cells)

Cell membrane of Eukaryotic cell

Feature Description
Discovery Detailed structure studied after electron microscope (1950s).
Chemical Studies Human RBC membrane studies → showed composition of lipids & proteins.
Major Lipids Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer.
Polar heads (Hydrophilic)→ outer sides;
Lipid Arrangement
Hydrophobic tails → inner part (protected from aqueous environment).
Other Lipids Cholesterol present in membrane.
Other Components Membrane also has protein & carbohydrate.
Protein-Lipid Ratio Varies in different cell types; in human erythrocytes → ~52% protein, 40% lipid.
Integral proteins → partially/totally buried in membrane;
Protein Types
Peripheral proteins → lie on surface.
Cell membrane Model Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer & Nicolson, 1972): widely accepted
Quasi-fluid Nature Lipids allow lateral movement of proteins → property called fluidity.
Importance of Fluidity Functions like cell growth, intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division.
Selective Permeability Plasma membrane allows selective transport of molecules.
Movement without energy:
Passive Transport # Simple diffusion: neutral solutes move from high → low concentration.
# Osmosis: water moves from high → low concentration.
Facilitated Transport Polar molecules use carrier proteins to cross nonpolar bilayer.
Movement against concentration gradient (low → high). Requires ATP.
Active Transport
Example: Na⁺/K⁺ Pump.
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Cell wall
Feature Description
Definition Non-living rigid structure, outer covering of plasma membrane in fungi & plants.
- Gives shape to cell
- Protects from mechanical damage & infection
Functions
- Helps in cell-to-cell interaction
- Provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules
In Algae Cell wall made of cellulose, galactans, mannans, minerals (CaCO₃)
In Higher Plants Cell wall made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins
Primary Wall Found in young plant cells; capable of growth
Secondary Wall Formed on inner side (towards membrane) as cell matures
Middle Lamella Layer mainly of calcium pectate; holds neighbouring cells together
Plasmodesmata Connections through cell wall & middle lamella; connect cytoplasm of neighbouring cells

Endomembrane System
Topic Details
Membranous Organelles Organelles that are bounded by a membrane (single or double) are called membranous
organelles.
Endomembrane Membranous organelles distinct in structure & function, but considered together as
System functions are coordinated.
# Endomembrane system Includes: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi complex,
Lysosomes, Vacuoles.
# Endomembrane system does not included: Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Peroxisomes
(functions not coordinated with above).

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Topic Details
Endoplasmic Reticulum - Network/reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in cytoplasm.
(ER)
ER divides - Divides intracellular space into luminal (inside ER) and extra-luminal (cytoplasm)
compartments.
- Ribosomes attached on outer surface.
Rough Endoplasmic
- Seen in cells actively involved in protein synthesis & secretion.
Reticulum (RER)
- Extensive & continuous with outer nuclear membrane.
- No ribosomes attached.
Smooth Endoplasmic
- Major site of lipid synthesis.
Reticulum (SER)
- In animal cells: lipid-like steroidal hormones synthesised in SER.

Golgi bodies
Topic Details
- First observed by Camillo Golgi (1898) as densely stained reticular structures near nucleus.
Discovery
- Later named Golgi bodies after him.
-Made of flat, disc-shaped sacs called cisternae (0.5 – 1.0 µm diameter).
- Cisternae are stacked parallel and arranged concentrically near the nucleus.
- Two distinct faces:
Structure
# Cis face (forming face): Convex, oriented towards ER.
# Trans face (maturing face): Concave, oriented towards plasma membrane.
- Cis and trans faces are structurally and functionally different, but interconnected.
Functions - Important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
- Packaging and transport: Packages materials into vesicles for delivery to intracellular targets or
secretion outside.
Packaging: Modified molecules are enclosed in new vesicles that bud off from the trans face of Golgi is
known as packaging.
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Topic Details
By this process of packaging, the Golgi apparatus forms important structures:
• Lysosomes (contain hydrolytic enzymes packaged into vesicles).
• Secretory vesicles (carry hormones, enzymes, proteins for exocytosis).
• Transport vesicles (deliver materials to plasma membrane, vacuoles, or other organelles).
- Modification of proteins: Proteins from ER are chemically modified inside Golgi cisternae (e.g.,
glycosylation).
- Secretory pathway: Vesicles from ER fuse with cis face, move through cisternae, and bud off from
trans face.

Flow Diagram: Packaging and Transport by Golgi Apparatus

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
⬇ (proteins & lipids synthesized)
Transport vesicles from ER
⬇ (fuse with cis face of Golgi)
Cis face (forming face) of Golgi
⬇ (receives materials)
Golgi cisternae
⬇ (processing & modification: glycosylation, glycolipid formation)
Trans face (maturing face) of Golgi
⬇ (materials sorted & packaged into vesicles)
Vesicles
➡ To intracellular targets (lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane)
➡ To outside cell (via exocytosis → secretion of proteins, hormones, enzymes, etc.)

Lysosomes
Topic Details
Formed by the process of packaging in the Golgi apparatus.
Origin
- Called suicidal bag of cell
Structure Membrane-bound vesicular structures.
- Rich in almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases).
- Examples of hydrolases: lipases, proteases, carbohydrases.
Enzymes
- Optimally active at acidic pH.
- Enzymes can digest carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
- Intracellular digestion: Break down proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
- Autophagy (self-eating): Digest old, damaged, or worn-out organelles within the cell.
Functions - Defense against pathogens: Destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign particles entering the cell.
- Autolysis: In case of cell injury or death, lysosomes rupture and release enzymes → digest the whole
cell (hence “suicidal bags”)

Vacoules
Topic Details
Definition Membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
Contents Contains water, sap, excretory products, and other materials not useful for the cell.
Membrane Bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
Size in Plants Vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the cell volume.
Function of Facilitates transport of ions and other materials against concentration gradient into the
Tonoplast vacuole → concentration is higher in vacuole than in cytoplasm : Active transport
In Amoeba Contractile vacuole is important for osmoregulation and excretion.
In Protists Food vacuoles are formed by engulfing food particles.

Mitochondria
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Topic Details
Visibility Not easily visible under microscope unless specifically stained.
Number per cell Variable, depends on physiological activity of the cell.
Variable; typically sausage-shaped or cylindrical Diameter: 0.2–1.0 μm (average 0.5 μm)
Shape & Size
Length: 1.0–4.1 μm.
Membranes Double-membrane bound structure:
- Outer membrane: forms continuous limiting boundary.
- Inner membrane: forms infoldings (cristae) towards matrix → increases surface area.
Compartments Divided into two aqueous compartments: - Outer compartment - Inner compartment (matrix).
Dense homogeneous substance; contains circular DNA, few RNA molecules, 70S ribosomes,
Matrix
components for protein synthesis.
- Site of aerobic respiration.
Functions
- Produces ATP (cellular energy) → called “power house of the cell”.
Division Mitochondria divide by fission.
Enzymes Both membranes have their own specific enzymes related to mitochondrial function.

Plastids
Topic Details
Occurrence Found in all plant cells and euglenoids.
Visibility Large; easily observed under microscope.
Pigments & Colour Plastids contain specific pigments → impart colours to plants.
1. Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll & carotenoids → photosynthesis.
2. Chromoplasts: Contain fat-soluble carotenoids (carotene, xanthophylls, etc.) → yellow,
Types (based on
orange, red colour.
pigments)
3. Leucoplasts: Colourless, varied shapes & sizes, store nutrients: • Amyloplasts → starch
(e.g., potato) • Elaioplasts → oils & fats • Aleuroplasts → proteins
- Found mainly in mesophyll cells of leaves.
Chloroplast
- Shapes: lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid, ribbon-like.
(structure &
- Size: Length 5–10 μm, Width 2–4 μm.
occurrence)
- Number: 1 per cell in Chlamydomonas (green alga) to 20–40 per mesophyll cell.
Membranes Double-membrane bound. - Outer membrane. - Inner membrane (less permeable).
Stroma - Space inside inner membrane.
- Contains: • Enzymes for carbohydrate & protein synthesis • Small circular DNA (double-
stranded) • Ribosomes (70S).
- Thylakoids: Flattened membranous sacs in stroma.
- Arranged in stacks (grana; singular: granum).
Thylakoids & Grana
- Stroma lamellae: Flat tubules connecting thylakoids of different grana.
- Thylakoid lumen: Space inside thylakoid.
Pigments Chlorophyll pigments located in thylakoids.
Ribosomes 70S ribosomes (smaller than cytoplasmic 80S ribosomes).

Ribosomes
Topic Details
Discovery First observed as dense particles under electron microscope by George Palade (1953).
Nature - Granular structures - Made of RNA + proteins - Not membrane-bound
Types (based on organisms) - Eukaryotic ribosomes: 80S - Prokaryotic ribosomes: 70S
- 80S ribosomes → 60S (large) + 40S (small) - 70S ribosomes → 50S (large) + 30S
Subunits
(small)
Svedberg’s Unit → measure of sedimentation coefficient, indirectly indicates density
‘S’ meaning
& size.
Structure Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits (one large + one small).
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Cytoskeleton
Feature Details
Definition Elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm
Components - Microtubules - Microfilaments - Intermediate filaments
Functions - Provide mechanical support
- Help in motility
- Maintain shape of the cell

Cilia and Flagella

Feature Details
Definition Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane
- Small structures
Cilia
- Cause movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid
- Comparatively longer
Flagella
- Responsible for cell movement
Prokaryotic vs Prokaryotic bacteria also have flagella, but they are structurally different from eukaryotic
Eukaryotic flagella
- Covered with plasma membrane
Axoneme (Core)
- Contains microtubules running parallel to the long axis
Arrangement (9+2 - Nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules
Array) - One central pair of microtubules
- Central tubules connected by bridges
- Enclosed by a central sheath
Other Structures
- Each central sheath connected to peripheral doublets via radial spokes (9 in number)
- Peripheral doublets interconnected by linkers
Origin Both cilia and flagella emerge from centriole-like structures called basal bodies

Centrosomes and centrioles

Feature Details
Centrosome Organelle usually containing two cylindrical centrioles
Surrounding Material Surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar material
Orientation of
Two centrioles lie perpendicular to each other
Centrioles
Organisation Each centriole has a cartwheel-like structure
Composition - Made of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein
- Each fibril is a triplet
- Adjacent triplets are linked
- Proximal region has a proteinaceous hub
Central Part
- Hub connected to peripheral triplets by radial protein spokes
- Form basal body of cilia and flagella - Form spindle fibres during cell division in animal
Functions
cells

Nucleus

Feature Details
Discovery First described by Robert Brown (1831)
Chromatin Term Name given by Flemming (stained nuclear material)
State in Interphase Contains chromatin, nuclear matrix, and nucleoli
- Double membrane (inner + outer) - Space between = perinuclear space (10–50 nm)
Nuclear Envelope
- Outer membrane continuous with endoplasmic reticulum and bears ribosomes
- Formed by fusion of two membranes
Nuclear Pores
- Allow bidirectional movement of RNA and proteins between nucleus & cytoplasm
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Feature Details
- Usually one per cell
Number of Nuclei - May vary (multinucleate cells also exist)
- Some mature cells lack nucleus (e.g., mammalian RBCs, sieve tube cells)
Nuclear Matrix
Contains nucleolus + chromatin
(Nucleoplasm)
- Not membrane-bound
- Continuous with nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
- Site of rRNA synthesis
- Larger & numerous in protein-synthesizing cells
- Loose network in interphase nucleus
Chromatin - Contains DNA + histones (basic proteins) + non-histone proteins + RNA - During
cell division → condenses into chromosomes
DNA Length A single human cell has ~ 2 metres of DNA distributed in 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
- Each has a primary constriction (centromere) - Kinetochores: disc-shaped structures
Chromosome Structure
on centromere
- Metacentric: Centromere in middle → two equal arms
Types of Chromosomes (by - Sub-metacentric: Centromere slightly away → one short + one long arm
centromere position) - Acrocentric: Centromere near end → one very short + one very long arm
- Telocentric: Centromere at terminal position
- Every metaphase chromosome has a primary constriction = centromere.
- In some chromosomes, an additional narrow region is present → called secondary
Secondary Constrictions constriction.
- If a chromosome has a secondary constriction at one end, the small fragment beyond
it is called a satellite.

Microbodies
Feature Details
Nature Membrane-bound minute vesicles
Contents Contain various enzymes
Occurrence Found in both plant and animal cells