IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

SYLLABUS - 2026, 2027 and 2028

1 Data representation

1.1 Number systems

How and Why Computers Use Binary to Represent Data

Computers utilize binary code, which consists of only two digits: 0 and 1, to represent all forms
of data. This system is fundamental to how digital devices process, store, and transmit
information efficiently and reliably.

How Computers Use Binary

At the hardware level, computers are built with electronic components such as transistors that
can be in one of two states: on or off. These states are naturally represented by binary digits,
where:

• 0 typically corresponds to the off state or low voltage

• 1 corresponds to the on state or high voltage

• Numbers are represented using binary number systems (e.g., binary for decimal 5 is )

• Text characters are encoded using standards like ASCII or Unicode, which assign specific
binary codes to each character

• Images and audio are stored as binary data representing pixel and sound wave samples

Why Computers Use Binary

There are several reasons why binary is the preferred system for computers:

• Simplicity and Reliability: The two-state system reduces complexity and increases
reliability, as electronic components can easily distinguish between two states.

• Ease of Implementation: Digital circuits are easier and cheaper to design using binary
logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc which perform operations on binary data.

• Error Detection and Correction: Binary systems facilitate error detection and correction
techniques, ensuring data integrity during processing and transmission.
 • Compatibility and Standardization: Binary encoding provides a universal standard that
allows different devices and systems to communicate seamlessly.

In summary, the binary system is fundamental to digital computing because it aligns with the
physical properties of electronic components, simplifies circuit design, and ensures efficient,
reliable data processing across all types of digital data.

Understanding the Denary, Binary, and Hexadecimal Number Systems

Number systems are methods of representing numbers using different bases or radices. The
three most common systems are denary (decimal), binary, and hexadecimal. Each system has its
unique way of representing values and is used in various fields such as mathematics, computing,
and digital electronics.

Denary (Decimal) Number System

The denary system, also known as the decimal system, is the most familiar number system to
most people. It uses ten digits: 0, 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Each position in a denary number
represents a power of 10, depending on its place value. For example, the number 345 in denary
can be broken down as:

• 3 × 10² = 300

• 4 × 10¹ = 40

• 5 × 10⁰ = 5

This system is widely used in everyday life for counting, measuring, and financial transactions.

Binary Number System

The binary system is a base-2 system that uses only two digits: 0 and 1. It is fundamental in
digital electronics and computing because digital circuits operate using two states, often
represented as off (0) and on (1). Each position in a binary number represents a power of2. For
example, the binary number 1011 can be converted to denary as follows:

• 1 × 2³ = 8

• 0 × 2² = 0

• 1 × 2¹ = 2

• 1 × 2⁰ = 1

Adding these values gives 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11 in denary.

The hexadecimal system is a base-16 system that uses sixteen symbols: 0-9 to represent values
zero to nine, and A-F to represent values ten to fifteen It is often used in computing to simplify
binary representations because each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits (bits).
For example, the hexadecimal number 2F can be converted to denary as:

• 2 × 16¹ = 32

• F (which is 15) × 16⁰ = 15

Adding these gives 32 + 15 = 47 in denary.

Summary

• Denary: Uses ten digits (0-9), base 10, common in everyday life.

• Binary: Uses two digits (0 and 1), base 2, essential in digital systems.

• Hexadecimal: Uses sixteen symbols (0-9, A-F), base 16, useful for compact binary
representation in computing.

Understanding these number systems and how to convert between them is fundamental in
fields like computer science, electronics, and mathematics.

Number System Conversion Methods

Converting between different number systems is a fundamental skill in computing and digital
electronics. The main systems involved are denary (decimal), binary, and hexadecimal. Below
are the methods for converting between these systems:

(i) Converting between positive denary and positive binary

Denary to Binary:

1. Find the largest power of 2 less than or equal to the denary number.

2. Subtract this value from the denary number.

3. Mark a '1' in the binary place value corresponding to this power.

4. the process with the remainder, moving to the next lower power of 2, until the
remainder is zero.

5. li>Fill in '0's for any remaining lower powers of 2 that are not used.
Binary to Denary:

1. Write down the binary number.

2. Assign each bit a value based on its position (from right to left), starting with 2^0.

3. Multiply each bit by its corresponding power of 2.

4. Sum all the values where the bit is '1' to get the denary equivalent.

(ii) Converting between positive denary and positive hexadecimal

Denary to Hexadecimal:

1. Divide the denary number by 16.

2. Write down the remainder (this will be a value between 0 and 15).

3. Divide the quotient by 16 again, repeating the process until the quotient is zero.

4. Convert each remainder to its hexadecimal digit (0-9, A-F).

5. Read the remainders from the last to the first to get the hexadecimal number.

Hexadecimal to Denary:

1. Write down the hexadecimal number.

2. Assign each digit a value based on its position, starting from the right with 16^0.

3. Convert each hexadecimal digit to its decimal equivalent (0-15).

4. Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of 16.

5. Sum all the values to obtain the denary number.

Hexadecimal to Binary:

1. Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent:

o 0 = 0000

o 1 = 0001

o 2 = 0010

o 3 = 0011

o 4 = 0100

o 5 = 0101

o 6 = 0110

o 7 = 0111

o 8 = 1000

o 9 1001

o A = 1010

o B = 1011

o C = 1100

o D = 1101

o E = 1110

o F = 1111

2. Concatenate all the 4-bit binary equivalents to form the full binary number.

Binary to Hexadecimal:

1. Divide the binary number into groups of four bits, starting from the right.

2. Convert each 4-bit group to its hexadecimal equivalent.

3. Combine the hexadecimal digits to form the final number.

These methods provide a systematic approach to converting between different number

• Hexadecimal Overview: Base-16 number system using digits 0-9 and letters A-F.

• Compact Representation: Represents large binary values in a shorter form (1 hex digit =
4 binary bits).

• Ease of Use: Simplifies reading and writing binary data, especially in programming and
debugging.

• Color Codes: Commonly used in web design (e.g., #FF5733 for colors).

• Memory Addresses: Used in computing to represent memory locations efficiently.

• Error Reduction: Reduces the chance of errors in data entry compared to binary.

• Alignment with Binary: Each hex digit corresponds directly to a 4-bit binary sequence,
making conversions straightforward.

• Adding Two Positive 8-bit Binary Integers:

• Each binary digit (bit) can be 0 or 1.

• Example: 11001010 (202 in decimal) + 00000101 (5 in decimal) = 11001111 (207

• Concept of Overflow:

• Overflow occurs when the result of an addition exceeds the maximum value that
can be represented with the given number of bits.

• For 8-bit integers, the maximum value is 255 (11111111 in binary).

• Example of overflow: 11111111 (255) + 00000001 (1) = 00000000 (0) with

• Why Overflow Occurs:

• In binary addition, if the sum of two bits exceeds 1, a carry is generated.

• If the carry results in a bit that cannot be represented within the fixed number of
bits, overflow occurs.