Unit 3: Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Network: A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous

computing devices so as to exchange information or share resources. The term
autonomous means that no computer on the network can start or stop the working of
another computer. In other words we can say that when two or more computers are
connected together to share information or resources is known as Computer Network.

Advantages of Network: A Computer networks are very useful and has the following
advantages:
1) Resource Sharing: Computer networks facilitates resource sharing, resources
like printers, storage, software etc. can be shared on a Network.
2) Reduced Cost: Since resources can be shared on a Computer Network, this
indirectly affects the cost and reduces the cost.
3) Faster Communication: Through Computer Networks communication is fast and
cost effective. It improves communication and messages can be sent from one
place to another in a fraction of seconds.
4) Reliability of Data: Reliability means backup of data, i.e. data can be copied and
stored on multiple computer’s. In a network system, all computers are connected
to each other thus the information or message which is shared by each device is
stored on their respective workstations and due to some reasons the data gets
corrupted, then a copy of the same data can be accessed from another
workstation.
5) Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node that can be
shared and made available to each every user connected with the network.

Evolution of Network:
The network did not evolve in a single day, it took decades to become more powerful,
efficient and reliable. The network has passed through several stages, which are:
 ARPANET (Advance Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET was jointly
designed and named by the Advance Research Project Agency (ARPA) and US
Department of Defence (DoD), was the first network and came into existence in
1969. It was a project that connect a handful of computer at different universities
and US DoD for sharing of data and messages and playing long distance games,
and socializing with people to share their views.
 NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid 80’s another
federal agency NSFNET (National Science Federation Network), created a new
network which was more efficient than ARPANET. Its main aim was to use network
only for academic research and not for any private business activity. Later many
private companies combine their own private networks with ARPANET and NSFNET
to make a more capable and broad network i.e. the Internet. It is a network that
links two or more networks to make a large network for sharing information and
messages.
ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET
 Internet: In 1990’s, Internet which is a network of networks came into existence.
The Internet has evolved from ARPANET. The computer’s are connected through
World Wide web (WWW) that comprises a Large network and shares a common
communication protocol TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). It
allows computers of different types to exchange information and is known as
Internet.
  Interspace: It is a software that allows multiple user’s in a client-server
environment to communicate with each other by sending or receiving data of
various types such as data files, video, audio and textual data in a 3-d
environment. It facilitates online real-time exchange of data and is the most
advanced term of communication available on the Internet today.

Elementary Terms related to Network: There are various terms that are related to
computer network, which are:
1) Nodes (Workstation): The term node refers to computers that are attached to a
network and are seeking to share resources.
2) Server: A Computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware
resources on the network.
3) NIC (Network Interface Card)/NIU (Network Interface Unit)/LAN Card (MAC
Address: A NIC/NIU/LAN card is an interpreter that helps in establishing
communication between the server and the clients.
4) IP Address: Every machine on a TCP/IP network has a unique identifying number
called an IP Address.
5) Domain Name: It is a way to identify and locate the computer connected to the
Internet. It must be unique.

Types of Networks: A computer network may be small or big depending upon the
number of computers and other network devices attached to it. Thus, network vary in
size, complexity and geographical spread. On the basis of geographical spread computer
networks can be classified into following types:
1) PAN (Personal Area Network)
2) LAN (Local Area Network)
3) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
4) WAN (Wide Area Network)

1) PAN (Personal Area Network): PAN are small networks used to establish
communication between a computer and other hand held devices in the proximity
of up to 10 metres using wired USB connectivity or wireless systems like Bluetooth
or Infrared. PAN is used to connect Computer’s, Laptops, Mobiles and other IT-
enabled devices to transfer files including e-mails, digital photos, audio, video, etc.
2) LAN (Local Area Network): LAN is privately owned computer networks covering
a small geographical area like home, office or a building such as a school. It can
cover an area spread over a few metres to a radius of a few Kilometres. Sometimes
a LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. A LAN is owned, controlled and
managed by a single person or organization.
A LAN can be setup using wired media or wireless media. A LAN setup by using
wireless media is known as WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network). The main
purpose of establishing a LAN is to share resources like share data, programs,
printer, disk, modem, etc. The Data Transfer Rate over a LAN (Local Area Network)
can vary from 10 MBPS to 1 GBPS.
3) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a
city and its surrounding areas. A MAN usually interconnects a number of LANs and
individual computers. It also shares computing resources among users. MAN is an
extended form of LAN and covers a larger geographical area like a city or town.
Data Transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps but is considerably less as
compared to a LAN. A good example of MAN is the interconnected offices of a
 Multinational Corporation (MNC) or Cable television network available in the whole
city. The kind of network can be extended up to 30 – 40 km.
4) WAN (Wide Area Network): A WAN is a telecommunication network. This type of
network spread over a large geographical area across countries and continents.
WAN are generally used to interconnect several other types of networks such as
LANs, MANs etc. WAN provides fast and efficient exchange of information at high
speed and low cost. A WAN uses common carriers like satellite systems, telephone
lines etc. A WAN covers an area with a radius spanning hundreds of kilometers and
all types of guided or unguided media are used to setup WAN. A network of ATMs,
banks, government offices, international organization offices, etc. spread over a
country, continent or covering many continents are examples of WAN. The best
known example of a WAN is Internet.

Network Devices: Network Devices are the components used to connect computers or
other electronic devices together so that they can share files or resources. Some of the
commonly used network devices are:
1) Modem: A MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator) is an electronic device that enables a
computer to transmit data over telephone lines. It is a network device which is
used to convert analog signals to digital and digital signals to analog. There are
two types of modems i.e. Internal modem and External modem. It is mainly used to
transmit data from a sender to a receiver or to get connected with the Internet i.e.
while browsing the Internet at the sender end digital data is converted to an
analog signal and the medium carries the signal to the receiver and at the receiver
end the analog signal is again converted into digital.
2) RJ-45 Connector: It is a standard type of connector for network cables. The RJ-45
(Registered jack) connector are the plug-in devices used in networking and
telecommunication application and are primarily used to connect LAN’s particularly
Ethernet.
3) Ethernet Card: It is a hardware device used to connect nodes within a network. It
is also known as network card, network adapter, NIC (Network Interface Card), NIU
(Network Interface Unit) or LAN Card. It is a card that allows computer’s to
communicate over a computer network. Ethernet card is the physical address of
each communicating computer which is also known as MAC address that helps to
uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
4) HUB: It is a multiport and unintelligent network device which simply transfers data
from one port of the network to another. It is a networking device which is used to
connect several computers together with different ports. When data packet
reaches to one port it is copied to all other ports of the hub without changing the
destination address. Hubs can be either active or passive and can usually support
8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports.
5) Switch: It is also a network device which is used to interconnect computer’s or
devices on a network. It is also known as intelligent hub as it filters and forward
data packet only to one or more devices for which the packet is intended across a
network. It is different from hub as the hub replicates what it receives on one port
onto all other ports, while the switch keeps a record of the MAC addresses of the
devices attached to it. A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or
corrupted. It drops such signals and ask the sender to resend them.
6) Bridge: A bridge is a network device that connects two sub-networks as a part of
same network that follow same protocol. It is an Ethernet device that simply
receives electrical impulses from one wire and re-sends them on another wire. It is
a device that works on the physical layer as well as on data link layer and connects
 multiple network segments at the data link layer. The main advantage of using
bridge is that it is a smarter hub as it can filter traffic on the basis of MAC
addresses.
7) Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. In Internet,
several networks are communicating with each other and each network has a
different configuration. In order to make reliable communication between then
Gateway is used. Gateway is a device which establishes an intelligent connection
between a Local Area Network and external network with completely different
structure.
8) Repeater: Sometimes the signals on the Internet becomes weaker before
reaching the destination node to amplify the signals repeaters are used. A repeater
is an electronic device that receives a signal before it becomes too weak and
regenerates retransmit it at a higher level or higher power so that the signals can
cover longer distances. It is a two-port network device that strengthens the signal
intensity and connects two identical networks. Repeaters are also extensively used
in broadcasting where they are termed as translators or boosters.
9) Router: A router is a network device that forward data packets from the source
machine to the destination machine over a network by using the shortest path. In
other words we can say that it is a device which is responsible for routing traffic
from one to another network. The networks could be a private company network or
a public network. It is just Like a Traffic Police that directs different network traffic
to different directions. It can connect networks with different architectures.
10) Wi-Fi Card: A Wi-Fi card is either an external or internal Local Area Network
adapter with built-in wireless radio antenna. It is used in a desktop computer that
enables a user to establish an Internet connection. It allows the user to setup
connection without any wire and are widely used in notebook computers and the
most commonly used Wi-Fi card is PCI-express.

Network Topology:
Topology is the way of connecting devices with each other either physically or logically.
In other words we can say that the interconnection of nodes or the geographical
arrangement of computers in a network is called Topology. Computer network topology
is the physical communication scheme used by connected devices. The following factors
should be kept in mind while making or choosing topologies:
a) Cost
b) Flexibility
c) Reliability
There are basically five types of topologies and each topology has some advantages and
disadvantages. The Topologies are:
1) Bus Topology
2) Ring Topology
3) Star Topology
4) Tree Topology
5) Mesh Topology

1) Bus Topology: It is one of the popular topology for data network, which is also
known as Linear Topology. In this topology several devices are connected to a
main long cable (usually coaxial cable) which acts as the backbone. Nodes are
connected by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection between the long
cable and devices and taps are connectors that are punctured inside the main
cable. The data flows from one end of the cable to the other end. The cable has
 terminators at both the ends which absorb signals when the signal reaches the end
preventing signal bounce.

Bus Topology
Advantages:
a) Nodes can be connected or removed easily from bus network.
b) It requires less cable length than a Star Topology.
c) It is easy to implement and can be extended up to a certain limit.
d) It works well for small networks.
Disadvantages:
a) If there is a fault or break in the main cable, the entire network shuts down.
b) Fault isolation is difficult to detect if the entire network shuts down.
c) The signals become weaker if number of nodes become large.
d) It is not suitable for network spanning more than one building.
2) Ring Topology: The Ring Topology also known as Loop or Circular topology is a
topology in which each node is connected to two and only two neighboring nodes.
Data or signals is transmitted only in one direction along the ring in a circular
fashion. After passing through each node it returns to the sending node which
removes it. Any damage of the cable of any node or device results in the
breakdown of the whole network. Ring Topology now has become almost obsolete
and can be found in offices, schools or small buildings.

Ring Topology
Advantages:
a) The data is transmitted in one direction only hence the transmission rate
increases.
b) Short cable length.
c) Suitable for optical fibre.
d) It is relatively cheaper as compared to Star Topology.
Disadvantages:
a) Node failure causes network failure.
b) Network reconfiguration is difficult.
c) Transmission speed become slower with the increase in number of nodes.
 d) For proper communication between each node, it is required that each
computer must be turned on.
3) Star Topology: In this topology each communicating device is connected to a
central controller called Hub/Switch with an individual independent wire by a single
path. If the data is required to be sent from one computer and received by another
computer then this can be accomplished only by the central controller as each
data is first sent to the hub/Switch, which then relays that data to the destination
computer. It is the topology used in most existing information networks or voice
communication and can be implemented in home, offices, schools or even in a
building. The most popular and widely used LAN technology currently operates in
Star Topology.

Star Topology
Advantages:
a) Installation and maintenance of network is easy and takes less time.
b) It is easy to detect faults in this network as all computers are dependent on the
central hub.
c) The rate of data transfer is fast as all the data packets or messages are
transferred through central hub.
d) Removal or addition of any node is this topology is easy and does not affect the
entire network.
Disadvantages:
a) More cabling is required as compared to any other topology as all nodes are
connected directly to a central hub/switch.
b) Central node dependency, if there is any problem in hub/switch then entire
network shut down.
c) Extra hardware is required for installation of central controller known as
hub/switch.
4) Tree Topology: In tree topology all or some of the devices are connected to the
central hub called an active hub and some of the devices are connected to the
secondary hub, which may be an active hub or passive hub. An active hub contains
the repeater that regenerates the signal when it becomes weaker with longer
distance. A passive hub simply provides a connection between all other connecting
nodes.
 Tree Topology
Advantages:
a) It is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot implemented individually.
b) Fault identification is easy.
c) Easy to extend.
d) It is most suitable in networking multiple departments of a university or
corporation.
Disadvantages:
a) Dependent on the root.
b) As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends
heavily on the bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
5) Mesh topology: In mesh topology each computer is connected with the other
computer. There is a point-to-point link between each dedicated node. In this type
of topology, the link carries traffic only between the two connected devices. A fully
connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2 links, where n is the total number of
connecting nodes. It is mostly used in WAN for e.g. Internet.
Advantages:
a) A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not affect the
entire system.
b) Point-to-Point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages:
a) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult.
b) It is highly expensive to set-up and involves high maintenance cost.

Introduction to Internet and Web Services:

Internet: The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that
uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.
It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless, and optical networking technologies. It is just because of Internet to access
almost any information, communicate with anyone across the world and carry out
several Internet based tasks. All these tasks can be executed by connecting a computer
to Internet, which is also called going online

How Internet works?:

Internet came into existence in 1969 from four host computer system to tens of
thousands. Our computer or smart phones get linked to Internet using phone lines or
mobile ISP (Internet Service Providers, like BSNL, Airtel, JIO, MTNL, etc) and usually
becomes a part of LAN. This LAN is further connected to ISP using a high speed phone
line. ISPs then connect to larger ISPs which maintain fiber optic backbone for an entire
region. In this manner every computer on the Internet is connected to each other for
communication and sharing of resources. Thus internet is a classification of WAN,
working with the help of various networking devices and protocols (especially TCP/IP) to
forward data from source to destination devices.
It is monitored and maintained by the Internet Society, a non-profit group established in
1992 that oversees the formation of the policies and protocols that define how we use
and interact with the Internet.

Features or Services of Internet: Internet offers several important and extensively

used features or services, which are:
1) WWW (World Wide Web): Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are quite
different in their overall working and concepts. Internet is a huge network of
computers all connected together where as the World Wide Web (WWW) is a
collection of web pages found on this network of Computers and the web browser
uses the Internet to access the WWW.
The World Wide Web created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in Geneva is
an information service used for sending and receiving information over the Internet
through interlinked hypertext documents known as web pages that may contain
images, videos and other multimedia components. A WWW client is called a web
Browser and a WWW server is called a Web Server. . Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web. Web
services also use HTTP for communication between software systems for
information transfer, sharing and exchanging business data
2) Domain Name: The Domain Name is the unique name assigned to a website.
Every computer connected to Internet has a unique address known as IP address
and the different website on the internet also have their IP address. A domain is
the URL of a website or we can say that it is the unique name of a website and is
used in URL to identify a particular web server. For example:
https://www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.htm
A domain name generally consists of the following parts:
a) A Top Level domain name or primary domain name
b) Sub-domain name(s)
For example:
.in is the primary domain name
.nic is the sub-domain of .in
cbse is the sub-domain of .nic
The top Level domain are of two types:
i) Generic or Non-geographical domain names such as .com
(Commercial Business), .edu (Educational Institutions), .gov (Government
Agencies), .mil (Millitary), .net (Network Organizations) and .org (Non-
profit organizations)
ii) Country-specific or Geographical domain names such as .in
(India), .au (Australia), .ch (China), .nz (New Zealand), .pk (Pakistan), .jp
(Japan), .us (United States of America), etc.
Domain Name Resolution: To communicate over the Internet, we can use IP
addresses, but it is not possible to remember the IP address of a particular website
or computer every time as it consists of a series of numbers. Domain Name
Resolution or System makes it easier to resolve IP addresses into names and is the
process of obtaining corresponding IP address from a domain name and this can be
 achieved by assigning names to some computer (Web servers) and maintain a
database of these names and their corresponding IP addresses thus makes it
easier to memorize and recognize websites address on the Internet.
3) URL: It stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is a uniform way to locate a
resource on the internet. The URL specifies the address of a file and every file on
the internet has a unique address. It is an addressing scheme that web browsers
use to retrieve a file from the computer on which it resides. The actual URL is a set
of four numbers separated by dot(.), for e.g.:
202.147.23.8
but the numbers are difficult to memorize that is why these numbers are
represented in alphanumeric form that is more descriptive and easy to remember
which is known as URL. The URL consists of:
1) Protocol : http
2) Host Computer Name : www
3) Domain Name : Microsoft
4) Domain Type : .com
5) Path : /en/us/
6) File Name : default.html
For e.g.:
http://www.microsoft.com/en/us/default.html
Note: It is a FQDN (Full Qualified Domain Name)
There are three type of URL’s:
a) Absolute URL:
An absolute URL is the complete internet address / path to give the location of a
resource. An absolute URL contains the protocol, host and name of resource.
For e.g.:
http://www.cbse.nic.in/home.html
b) Relative URL:
A relative URL points to a file / directory in relation to the present file or
directory (folder). Relative URL helps in website maintenance. For e.g.:
<img src=”d:/wallpapers/lotus.jpg”>
c) Fragment URL:
The fragment URL points to an internal hyperlink which is used to connect or
link one section of a webpage with another section of the same webpage.
Fragment URL is created by anchor <A>___</A> tag. For e.g.:
<a name=”Top”>

4) E-mail: E-mail also known as Electronic mail is a method of exchanging messages

(mail) distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more
recipients via a network. To send or receive E-mail one must have an E-mail
account on E-mail service provider website like Gmail, yahoo, etc. In other words
we can say that E-mail is one of the most widely used features of the Internet,
along with the web. It allows us to send and receive messages to and from anyone
with an email address, anywhere in the world. There are various advantages of
using E-mail, some of them are:
1) Email is a free tool and is quick, simple and is easy to use.
2) Email allows for the easy and quick access of information and contacts.
3) Email allows for easy referencing. Messages that have been sent and
received can stored, and searched through safely and easily.
4) Email is accessible from anywhere – as long as there is an internet
connection.
 5) Email is paperless, and therefore, beneficial for the planet.
6) Email allows for mass sending of messages, we can send one particular
message to several recipients all at once.
7) Email allows for instant access of information and files.

Parts of an E-mail Message: An E-mail when send has the following main parts:
a) Header: It contains information about the sender and recipients. Generally,
header contains Subject (Description of the topic of the message),
Sender(From) (Senders E-mail address), Date & Time received(On) (Date & time
an E-mail was sent usually include automatically), Recipient(To) (First/Last
name of the recipient) and Recipient’s E-mail address (Receivers E-mail
address)
b) Cc and Bcc: To send a message to multiple recipients the Cc (Carbon copy)
and Bcc (Blind carbon copy) is used.
c) Body: It contains the actual text or content of the email.
d) Attachment: It consists of the files that are attached to the message.
e) E-mail Address: It is a unique identifier for an E-mail account and is used to
send and receive email messages. It has two parts i.e. a username comes
before @ and the domain name comes after @. For e. g. [email protected]

Protocols used in E-mail: There are various protocols that are used in E-mail,
such as:
a) SMTP: It stand for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and is used for sending E-mail
messages to other networks or computers. It handles only outgoing messages
and not incoming messages and forward messages between client servers. It
uses TCP to send messages to another hosts.
b) IMAP: It stands for Internet Mail Access Protocol and is used for accessing and
storing E-mails from a mail server over a TCP/IP connection.
c) POP3: It stands for Post Office Protocol 3 and is simple or standard method to
access mailbox or download messages or to receive messages. The main
advantage of this protocol is that once the messages are downloaded a user
can read all the messages offline and an Internet connection is no longer
needed.

5) Chat:
Chat refers to the process of communicating, interacting and/or exchanging
messages over the Internet in real-time manner. It involves two or more individuals
that communicate through a chat-enabled service or software. Chat is also known
as chatting, online chat or Internet chat.
Chat may be delivered through text, verbal, audio, visual or audio-visual (A/V)
communication via the Internet. If conducted through a desktop, chat requires
software that supports Internet Relay Chat (IRC) or an instant messenger
application, where a central server manages chat communication between
different end user clients.
There are also online chat services that require users to sign up with a valid email
address. After signing up, a user may join a group chat room or send a private
message to another individual.

6) VoIP: It stands for Voice over Internet Protocol and is a technology that allows us
to make voice calls using a broadband internet connection instead of regular
phone line. VoIP service converts our voice into a digital signal that travels over
 the Internet. It allows us to make call directly from a computer or a special VoIP
phone. In addition wireless hotspots in locations such as Airports, Parks and Cafes
allow us to connect to the Internet and may enable to use VoIP service wirelessly.
Advantages of VoIP:
a) Less cost
b) Accessibility
c) Flexibility
d) Better voice quality
e) Extra/Less expensive features
Disadvantages of VoIP:
a) Reliable Internet connection required
Some common examples of VoIP are Skype, WhatsApp, Google Hangouts,
Facebook Messenger, Aircall, Viber etc.

Website: A website is a collection of webpage’s that are linked to one another in such a
way that it presents information in an organized manner. In other words we can say that
a website is collection of web pages, images, video, audio or other kinds of digital assets
and related contents that is identified by a common domain name and published on at
least one web server. For e.g: cbse.nic.in, Wikipedia.org, google.com, amazon.com etc.
The web pages of a website are written using HTML and the information is transferred
over the Internet through HTTP protocol. The first page of a website is called a Home
page and generally contains information and Links of all the related web pages.

Web Page: A webpage is an individual web document created by the help of HTML and
CSS that contains information about a particular specific topic. In other words we can say
that a webpage is a specific collection of information provided by a website and
displayed to a user in a web browser, webpage are of two types:
a) Static Webpage
Static webpage are those webpage that do not respond to the user generated
events and are only used to display information in the form of text, images etc.
b) Dynamic Webpage
Dynamic webpage are those webpage that respond to the user generated events
and update information on daily basis. By the help of Dynamic webpage we can
search and locate information (such as a search feature of search engines or
database listing), submit information (such as feedback, rating, voting) etc. such as
HTML forms, feedback form, online order form etc.

Web Server: A Web server is a server that stores web pages and when a web client
sends any request to a server, the server responds to the request and display the
requested web pages. A web server is a program that runs on a computer connected to
the Internet. The Web Server with an Internet connection waits for a request from the
visitor / client and when it receives a request it finds the document, generates the
information and sends it back to the browser that requested the required information. A
Web Server performs the following four major functions:
1) Serving Webpage
2) Running Gateway program and returning output.
3) Controlling access to the server.
4) Monitoring and Login the server access statistics.
There are lots of Web Servers, such as:
 Apache Web Server
 Netscape Enterprise Web Server
  Microsoft Windows inbuilt IIS (Internet Information Services) server in both client
and server operating systems. IIS in-built with client operating system such as
Windows XP, Vista & 7 is usually sufficient for websites having few visitors. We can
install IIS on Windows Vista & 7.

Web Hosting: It is a service which is provided by companies to its clients to allow them
to construct their own websites which are accessible to the Internet users via World Wide
Web (WWW) and such companies are known as Web Hosts. These companies provide
space on a web server they own for use by their clients as well as provide Internet
connectivity. In other words we can say that the process of hosting the contents of a
website to a web server is called Web Hosting.
Preparing for publishing or hosting a website
Before we publish a website, we need to verify the website’s functionality. Hyperlinks
(internal & external) should be checked and replaced if necessary. for publishing a site
the following list of standard procedures must be followed prior, such as:
 Examining Structure of a website: Create a visual diagram of hyperlinks of a
website. This helps to understand the navigation structure or to trap any broken
links.
 Estimating Size of a website: The size occupied by files in a website, helps to
determine whether we have sufficient web space (as allocated by Web Hosts) or
even determine the time. Time taken to download before visitor can view the web
page.
 Removing slow pages: Remove the items that may possibly slow down a page.
 Fixing Errors: Fixing errors and bugs if any in the website.
 Code Optimization: Before we publish a website, we need to cleanup the web
pages for any unnecessary code that can result in reducing page size. The process
of removing unnecessary code from webpage’s of a website is called Code
Optimization. This in turn will help in faster downloads. We can use the in-built
optimizer tool to remove unnecessary code.

Web Browser:
A web browser also known as a browser is a software application for accessing
information on the World Wide Web. In other words we can say that a web browser is a
software on client computer which is used to navigate the WWW or Internet. When
a user requests a particular website, the web browser retrieves the necessary content
from a web server and then displays the resulting web page on the user's device.
A web browser is not the same thing as a search engine. For a user, a search engine is
just a website, such as Google Search, Bing, or DuckDuckGo, that stores searchable data
about other websites. However, to connect to a website's server and display its web
pages, a user must have a web browser installed.
Web browsers are used on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets,
and smart phones. In 2019, an estimated 4.3 billion people used a browser. The most
used browser is Google Chrome, with a 64% global market share on all devices, followed
by Safari with 17%. Some other web browsers are: Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Netscape Navigator, Opera etc.

Major Functions of Web Browser: The major functions of a web browser are:
 Send and receive Internet resources.
 Access, render and display web pages.
 Select and save favorite pages.
 Print documents
  Keep records of our activities.
 Store information on the cloud
 Install applications.

Commonly used Web Browsers: Some of the most popularly used web browsers are:
1) Google Chrome: It is an open source and free source web browsers developed by
Google Inc. in 2008 and is supported by almost all the Operating Systems.
2) Mozilla Firefox: It is an open source and free source web browsers developed by
Mozilla Corporation and the Mozilla Foundation in 2002 and works on Microsoft
Windows, Mac OS and Linux Operating System. It features a pop-up blocker, anti-
phishing and anti-malware warnings.
3) Apple Safari: It is a free and closed source web browsers developed by Apple Inc.
in 2003 and works on OS X, IOS and Microsoft Windows Operating System. It is
faster and more energy efficient than other browsers.
4) Internet Explorer: It is one of the most popular web browser developed by
Microsoft Corporation and integrated in Microsoft Windows Operating system in all
its versions. It was launched in 1995 and was overtaken by Google Chrome in
2011. It supports add-ons, improved security and power-saving features.
5) Microsoft Edge: It was first released for Windows 10 and Xbox One in 2015, then
for Android and OS in 2017, for Mac OS in 2019 and as a preview for Linux in
October 2020.
6) Opera: It is a web browser developed by the company Opera Software. It is
compatible mainly with Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems and
was launched in 1995.

Browser Settings:
Web browsers can typically be configured with a built-in menu. Depending on the
browser, the menu may be named Settings, Options, or Preferences. The menu has
different types of settings. For example, users can change their home page and
default search engine. They also can change default web page colors and fonts. Various
network connectivity and privacy settings are also usually available.

Add-ons:
Add-ons are tools which get integrated into our browser. They are similar to regular apps
or programs, but only run when the browser runs. Add-ons can allow the viewing of
certain types of Web content, such as Microsoft’s Silverlight or Adobe Flash Player,
necessary for Netflix movies and YouTube videos, respectively. Add-ons can work within
the framework of the browser, such as changing the appearance or adding a search
provider, or they can provide separate functions, such as performing custom functions or
adding a status bar.

Installing Add-ons:
There are two key ways in which add-ons become installed:
1) Through an external installer and through the browser’s own add-on service. The
add-on service is the most reliable way of installing an add-on, with the browser
service providing a relative secret process for the general safety of the add-on.
2) Through outside programs add-ons can also be install in our browser as part of its
separate installation process. Microsoft Office, for example, may place an add-on
which speeds up the in-browser opening of office documents. These outside
installers, however, are also favored by malware companies.
Removing Add-ons:
Add-ons can be removed in one of two ways:
1) Some add-ons, particularly ones installed outside of the browser, create an entry in
the “Programs” portion of the control panel. Removing these is done in the same
way as we uninstall any other program.
2) Many add-ons, however, can only be removed through the browser’s add-on
manager. For e.g. Internet Explorer offers the add-on manager by clicking or
tapping the “Tools” button and clicking or tapping “Manage Add-ons.”

Plug-ins or Add-ins:
It is a software component that adds a feature to an existing computer program. In other
words we can say that Add-ins extends the capability of the main program by adding
enhanced custom commands and specialized features.
For e.g.: Plug-ins in web browser to add new features such as Adobe Flash Player, Quick
time Player etc. Some of the main reasons to use Plug-ins or Add-ins are:
1) It helps third party developers to create ability to extend an application.
2) It helps us to support in adding easily new features.
3) It helps to reduce the size of an application.

Add-ins or Plug-ins can be downloaded from:

 http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/expression/jj873995.aspx
 http://www.webassist.com/go/xweb-add-ins
 http://www.expressionextras.com/products/lightbox.htm
 http://www.dotnetcurry.com/ShowArticle.aspx?ID=534

Once we have downloaded an Add-in, use the following procedure to install the Add-in:
1) Select Tools > Add-ins. The Manage Add-ins dialog box appears.
2) Select Install…. Browse and select the Add-in and then click Open.
3) Select Yes.
4) Repeat the procedure to include more Add-ins.

Cookies:
A cookie or an HTTP cookie also called web cookie, Internet cookie or browser cookie is a
small piece of data sent from a website and stored as text files on the user's computer
by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a
reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added
in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity
(including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in
the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the
user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and
credit-card numbers. Cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. There are
various types of Cookies, such as:
1) Authentication Cookies: These cookies are the most common method used by
web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they
are logged in with. Without this, the site would not know whether to send a page
containing sensitive information, or require the user to authenticate themselves by
logging in. The security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the
security of the issuing website and the user's web browser, and on whether the
cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be
read by a hacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access (with
the user's credentials) to the website to which the cookie belongs.
2) Tracking Cookies: Tracking cookies, and especially third-party tracking cookies,
are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing
histories
3) Session Cookies: A session cookie, also known as an in-memory cookie, transient
cookie or non-persistent cookie, exists only in temporary memory while the user
navigates the website. Web browsers normally delete session cookies when the
user closes the browser. Unlike other cookies, session cookies do not have an
expiration date assigned to them, which is how the browser knows to treat them as
session cookies.
4) Persistent Cookies: Persistent cookies are sometimes referred to as tracking
cookies are used by advertisers to record information about a user's web browsing
habits over an extended period of time. However, they are also used for
"legitimate" reasons (such as keeping users logged into their accounts on
websites, to avoid re-entering login credentials at every visit).
5) Secure Cookies: A secure cookie can only be transmitted over an encrypted
connection (i.e. HTTPS). They cannot be transmitted over unencrypted connections
(i.e. HTTP). This makes the cookie less likely to be exposed to cookie theft via
eavesdropping. A cookie is made secure by adding the Secure flag to the cookie.
6) Http-only cookie: An http-only cookie cannot be accessed by client-side APIs,
such as JavaScript. This restriction eliminates the threat of cookie theft via cross-
site scripting (XSS). However, the cookie remains vulnerable to cross-site
tracing (XST) and cross-site request forgery (XSRF) attacks. A cookie is given this
characteristic by adding the HttpOnly flag to the cookie.