PHYSICS 2

FINAL TERM NOTES

CHAPTER 2: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY & ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL

• RENEWABLE ENERGY v. NON-RENEWABLE

ENERGY
o Renewable energy can have its sources
replenished over time ➢ CASE 2: To bring the object from A to B
o Non-renewable energy source takes o Work is done by 𝐹𝑔
millions of years to replenish itself o 𝑈𝐴 > 𝑈𝐵

➢ If you do work against gravity, the gravitational

field stores that energy as Gravitational
Potential Energy, GPE
MECHANICS VS. ENERGY
MECHANICS ELECTRICITY
FORCE, F Force of gravity; a Electric force; a
conservative conservative
force force
FIELD IS DUE Object with a Object with a
TO mass charge (either +
or -) ➢ If you do work against an electrostatic force, the
WORK, W 𝑊 =𝐹∗𝑑 𝑊 =𝐹∗𝑑 electric field stores that energy as Electric
= 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Potential Energy, EPE
POTENTIAL 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑊 =𝐹∗𝑑 ➢ Electric Force & Gravitational Force are
ENERGY, U = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑 analogous in many ways. In this context,
REFERENCE ℎ = 0 (ground) 𝑑 compare the forces, fields, work & energy
POINT = ∞ (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦) involved in the following cases.
UNIT OF W & 𝐽 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) 𝐽 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) o OBJECTS moving in a gravitational field
U

➢ Since 𝐹𝑔 is a conservative force, the work-energy

theorem applies in cases involving it

o CHARGES moving in an electric field

➢ CASE 1: To bring the object from A to B

o Work is done by an external force
o 𝑈𝐴 < 𝑈𝐵
 potential energy) since electric force is a
conservative force
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY, U (pp. 47-48) CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
➢ It is the measure of the work needed to move a
charge to and from points of different electric
potentials in an electric field
o 𝑊 = 𝑈 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑
o E= electric field intensity
o 𝑞0 = mass of charge
o 𝑑= distance
▪ It is always defined relative to
some reference point where
➢ Using the work-energy theorem
U=0
➢ 𝑊 = ∆𝐾
o 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 = ∆𝐾
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY & WORK
▪ 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 = 𝐾𝐵 − 𝐾𝐴
• 𝑈𝐴 + 𝐾𝐴 = 𝑈𝐵 + 𝐾𝐵

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, V
➢ The electric potential energy per unit charge
associated with a test charge at that point
➢ The work done per unit charge to move it from
infinity to an arbitrary point
If the charge moved o Note: reference point= infinity
➢ In the direction of the electric field, the electric 𝑈
potential energy, DECREASES o 𝑉=
𝑞0
➢ Opposite the direction of the electric field, the ▪ 𝑉= electric potential at an
electric potential energy, INCREASES arbitrary point
o 𝑊 = 𝑈 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑑 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑 ▪ 𝑈= electric potential energy
o A test charge 𝑞0 moves in the same ▪ 𝑞0 = positive test charge at that
direction as the electric field point
o The electric field “exerts” a downward o Unit: V= J/C (a scalar quantity)
force
o The electric force does positive work on ➢ If the electric potential is due to a point charge,
𝑞0 as it moves from A to B it can be expressed as
𝑈 𝑞 𝐸𝑑
o 𝑉 = = 0 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑞0 𝑞0
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC
▪ 𝑉= electric potential at arbitrary
FIELD
point
➢ An electric potential energy that is analogous to
▪ 𝐸= electric field
gravitational potential exists
∆𝑈 ▪ 𝑑= distance from the point
o 𝐹= 𝑜𝑟 𝐹∆𝑥 = −∆𝑈, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐹∆𝑥 = charge
∆𝑥
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
o 𝑊𝑨→𝑩 = −∆𝑈 = −(𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 ) = ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 ➢ By definition
𝑈
o 𝑉=
WORK DONE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC 𝑞0
FIELD ➢ Can also be described in terms of electric field
𝑞 𝐸𝑑
➢ If a charged object is moved from point A to o 𝑉 = 0 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑞0
point B 𝑞
➢ But 𝐸 = 𝑘 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = distance from the point
➢ 𝑊𝑨→𝑩 = −∆𝑈 𝑟
o −(𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 ) of the charge so,
𝑞
▪ 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 o 𝑉=𝑘
𝑟
o The work done is equal to the negative
of the charge in the EPE (electric
 o When 𝑟 → ∞, the electric potential
1 1
approaches zero (𝑉 → 0) since = =
𝑟 ∞
0
o Thus, the reference level of electric
potential is at infinity

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
➢ If there were twice as much charge on one of
the objects, would the electrical potential
➢ Points A, B, and C lie in a uniform electric field
energy be the same or would it be twice as
(see figure). What is the potential difference
great?
between points A and B, or ( 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 ? )
o 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎
➢ Point C is a t a higher potential energy than
point A. True or false?
o False

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (Due to several point charges)

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
o It would be twice as great ➢ Due to several point charges:
➢ Would the electric potential be the same or 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
o 𝑉=𝑘 1+𝑘 2+𝑘 3
would it be twice as great? 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
o It would be the same ➢ Along a continuous charge distribution
𝑑𝑞
o 𝑉 = 𝑘 ∫ (Eq 2.5., p.52)
𝑟
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, 𝑽𝑨𝑩

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1., p.48

➢ A point charge of 3.0 nC with a mass of 4.0g is
moved from x = 1.0m to x = 1.5m in an electric
field of 5.0 N/C with the same direction as the
➢ The work done by the electric force in moving a
motion of charge. (a) How much work is done
unit positive charge from point A to point B
on the charge by the electric force? (b) What is
(assuming A is not on the ground or infinity)
o 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −(𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 ) = 𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 the charge in the potential energy of the
o Note: work done is INDEPENDENT of the charge? (c) Assuming that the charge started
path taken in getting from point A to from rest, what is its speed at x = 1.5m
point B

➢ Practical example:
o Capacitors

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
 ➢ All points are the same due to the distance
being similar (equipotential surfaces in Fig 1)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2., p.49 o (Fig 1) Equal distance/ radius thus equal
➢ A charge of 6𝑥10−7 𝐶is transferred from infinity charge
o (Fig 2) P, M will have work done since
to point B. If the work done by the electric force
they have equipotential field lines
to do this is 1.2𝑥10−5 𝐽, what is the potential ➢ W=0 by the electric field is moving a charge
energy at point B? along an equipotential surface, why?
o O, R, N will have NO work done
o Because there is no equipotential field
passing through the points

CHAPTER 2.2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY & ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL

➢ There will be a charge if equipotential line is

perpendicular; but in this case, the birds are
PARALLEL so they won’t be electrocuted

SAMPLE PROBLEM
➢ The potential difference between the metal
plates shown here is 40V.
a) Which plate is at a higher potential?
b) How much work must be done to
carry a +3.0 charge from B to A?
From A to B?
c) How do we know that the electric
field is in the direction indicated?
d) If the plate separation is 5.0 mm,
what is the magnitude of the
electric field?

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
(A)
➢ Take note of unit conversion (convert to m)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3., #1, p.50

➢ A point charge of −6.00 𝑥10−9 is 3.00m from
point A and 5.00m from point B. (a) Find the
potential at point A and point B. (b) How much
work is done by the electric field in moving a
2.00 nC particle from point A to point B?

➢ Positive field goes to the RIGHT, if the sample

charge goes in the same direction as the electric
field, the source has the higher potential
(B)

➢ Positive for 𝑊𝐵→𝐴 because it is going towards

the positive (+) field, exerting work
➢ Negative for 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 because it is going towards
the negative (-) field, removing a charge
(C)

(D)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3, #2, P.51

➢ Four charges 𝑞1 = 5.00 𝑥 10−7 𝐶, 𝑞2 =
−3.00 𝑥 10−7 𝐶, 𝑞3 = −2.00 𝑥 10−7 𝐶, 𝑞4 =
 6.00 𝑥 10−7 𝐶, are situated at the corners of a
square side 4.00m, find the potential at the
center of the square?

CHAPTER 2.3. CAPACITANCE

IMPORTANCE OF CAPACITORS

➢ We can store charges between the plates of

what is known as Parallel Plate Capacitor,
provided there is an electric field between the
said plates
o Energy storage
➢ Use Pythagorean theorem since a square sliced o Signal processing
in half forms a right triangle. To get the distance o Power conditioning
of the center of the square, get the hypotenuse o Sensors
of the right triangle formed and divide by 2 CAPACITORS
➢ Basically, capacitors consists of two metal plates
separated by an insulator. The insulator is called
a dielectric.

DIALECTRIC
➢ An insulator
➢ Placed between the plates of a capacitor
➢ RESULTS
o A lower potential difference with the
same charge, due to the polarization of
the material
o Increases the capacitance
EXAMPLES OF CAPACITORS 𝐴
➢ 𝐶 = ∈ (𝐸𝑞 2.7, 𝑝. 55)
𝑑
➢ Paper, plastic, ceramic, and mica capacitors
➢ Where:
➢ Electrolytic capacitors
o 𝝐 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
➢ Air capacitors
(insulating material
o 𝑨 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (of the plates)
ENERGY STORES IN A CAPACITOR
o 𝒅 = distance between the plates
➢ To charge a capacitor
o Move q charges from one plate directly
TABLE OF PERMITTIVITY
onto the other plate against a potential
difference V between the plates, such
that one plate has +q on it, while the
other plate has -q
➢ The potential difference increases as more
charges are transferred
➢ If the capacitor is initially uncharged, the
potential difference is zero.

CAPACITANCE

➢ The ability of a capacitor to store charges

𝑞
o 𝐶=
𝑣
➢ Where:
o C= capacitance
o q= charge of one of the plates ➢ Inserting a dielectric other than air/vacuum
o V= potential difference between the increases the capacitance to an equal amount to
plates 𝜖𝑅 times its original value
𝐶
o Unit: 𝐹 = (Farad)
𝑉
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5, #1, pp.56-57
➢ A capacitor consists of two square metal plates,
each measuring 5.00 𝑥 10−2 𝑚 on a side. In
between the plates is a sheet of mica measuring
1.00 𝑥 10−4 𝑚 thick. (a) What is the
capacitance of this capacitor? If the charge in
one plate is 2.00 𝑥 10−8 𝐶, what is the (b)
potential difference, and (c) electric field
between the plates
(A)

(B)
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
• IN SERIES CIRCUIT

(C) • IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5, #2, p.57

➢ The capacitance for a parallel plate air capacitor
is 350.0 𝜇𝐹. When a sheet of dielectric is
inserted between he plates, the capacitance
increases to 2100.0 𝜇𝐹. What is the permittivity
of the dielectric?
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
➢ The work done to move a total charge vs. the
average potential difference is equal to the
product of these two
𝟏
o 𝑾 = 𝒒𝑽
𝟐
➢ The energy stored in a capacitor is equal to this
work
➢ This energy can be thought of as residing in the
electric field between the conductors
➢ Based on the definition of capacitance, the
energy stored can be expressed as:
1 1 1 𝑞2 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6, #2, p.60
o 𝑈 = 2 𝑞𝑉 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 𝐶
➢ Unit: J (joules)

SUMMARY
➢ A CAPACITOR is a device for storing charges
➢ CAPACITANCE is the ratio of the charge in
one of the plates of a capacitor and the
potential difference between the plates
𝑄
o 𝐶=𝑉 ➢ Half area for glass and mica
➢ Capacitance depends on the AREA OF ONE
OF THE PLATES, the DISTANCE between the
plates and the DIELECTRIC (insulator)
between the plates.

➢ The ENERGY required to change a capacitor

C to a potential difference V & a charge 𝑞𝑇 is
equal to the energy stored in the capacitor
➢ This energy can be thought of as residing in
the electric field between the conductors
1 1
o 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2 2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6, #1, pp.59-60

Fig A= series
Fig B= parallel
Fig C= series for C1 and C2; parallel for C3
FOR LT #2
CHAPTER 3: ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE &
EMF

How can I be safe with electricity?

➢ Knowledge of fundamental concepts is
essential in safely handling electricity ➢ ELECTRON CURRENT: negative to positive

CURRENT
➢ Current is the amount of charge passing
through any point in a conductor per unit
time
𝒒
o 𝑰=
𝒕
𝑪
o 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕: 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝒔

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF CHARGES

TYPES OF CURRENT
➢ DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

➢ No electric field
➢ Net flow of Q=0
➢ ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

➢ Electric field is present

➢ Electrons are being “pushed” by 𝐹𝐸

DIRECTIONS OF CURRENT ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

➢ CONVENTIONAL CURRENT: positive to ➢ The opposition of a material to the flow of
negative charges (or electric current)
o UNIT: ohms Ω
 ➢ The temperature dependence of resistance
and resistivity is nearly linear if the change
in temperature is not very big.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 + 𝑅0𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇0) = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)

COLOR CODE FOR RESISTORS (p.77)

Where:
➢ 𝑅𝑇 = resistance at temperature T
➢ 𝑅0 = resistance at temperature 𝑇0
➢ 𝑇0 = reference temperature
(0°𝐶 𝑜𝑟 20°𝐶)
➢ 𝛼= temperature coefficient of
resistance,
( /C°)
o For 𝛼, , refer to Table 3-3, p.83

➢ First 3 bands: first 3 digits of R

➢ 4th band: power of 10 multiplier
➢ 5th band: manufacturer tolerance
➢ 6th band: temperature coefficient of
resistance
TABLE 3-3, p.83 Temperature coefficient of some
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE materials at 𝟐𝟎°𝑪
𝑳
➢ 𝑹 = 𝝆𝑨
➢ Metal: resistivity increases with increasing
temperature
Where:
➢ 𝑅= resistance
➢ 𝐿= length of the conductor
➢ 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area
➢ 𝜌= resistivity, dependent on the nature
of the material, (Ω ∙ 𝑚)
➢ Semiconductor: resistivity decreases with
increasing temperature

➢ Superconductor: at temperatures below 𝑇𝐶 ,

, the resistivity is zero.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, 𝜺
➢ Work done by a source in driving a unit
charge around a complete circuit
➢ Potential difference across the terminals of a
battery when no current is flowing
➢ Voltage indicated in a battery
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, 𝝈
➢ A physical property of a material that TERMINAL VOLTAGE, TV
determines the ease by which charges flow ➢ Potential difference across the terminals of a
through it when subjected to an electric battery when current is flowing
field. ➢ Voltage of an external load
o Reciprocal of resistivity 𝑻𝑽 = 𝜺 − 𝒍𝒓
𝟏
o 𝝈=𝝆

EMF & POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

ANALOGY
➢ Water flows from higher pressure to lower
pressure. The flow will cease when the
difference in pressure ceases.
➢ Water continues to flow because a
difference in pressure is maintained with the
THREE-IN-ONE: CURRENT, RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE
pump.
OHM’S LAW: A REVIEW
➢ Resistance is defined as the ratio of voltage
to the resulting current
𝑽
o 𝑹= 𝑰
Where:
➢ 𝑅 = resistance, in Ω
➢ 𝑉 = voltage or potential difference, in V
What parts of an electric circuit is similar in ➢ 𝐼 = current, in A
function to the water pump?
➢ Power source CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS
➢ OHMIC RESISTOR
VOLTAGE
➢ The potential energy per coulomb of charge
available to electrons moving between
terminals
➢ Provides the “electric pressure” to move
electrons between the terminals in a circuit

➢ NON-OHMIC RESISTOR
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.1., p.74
➢ A steady current of 2.0 flows in a wire for
16.0s. (a) How many coulombs of charge
flow through the wire? (b) How many
electrons flow through the wire over the
given time interval?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.6, p.80

➢ A wire is 100.0 cm long and has a resistance
of 25.0Ω. It is cut into five equal parts. (a)
What is the resistance of each piece of wire?
(b) If the five parts were bundled together,
what is the resistance of the resulting wire?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.5, p.80

➢ The ratio of resistances of two wires made
of the same material and having the same
length is 1:4. Find the ratio of their areas
and diameters.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.8, p.84

➢ The resistance of a platinum wire at 30°C is
15.0Ω. Find its resistance at 45°C. Note that
𝛼 = 0.0039°𝐶 𝑎𝑡 20°𝐶
LT #3: CHAPTER 4, PART 1
DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

➢ Current flows in one direction (like

smartphones)
o May be composed of a cell,
capacitor, and resistor
o Kirchhoff’s Law and Ohm’s Law

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
➢ A group of electrical components that are
connected to form a complete path for
charges to flow

.
 o Tweak resistance to change value of
current

o Direct current: one direction

o Alternating current: both directions
➢ Insert picture example of circuits REVISITING OHM’S LAW TO PREDICT V, I, R
CURRENT & RESISTANCE
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

• The current outside the branches of a

RESISTORS IN SERIES combination circuit is everywhere the same
• The current inside the branches is always
less than that outside the branches.
• When comparing the current of two
parallel-connected resistors, the resistor
with the lesser resistance will have the
greater current.
✓ 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = ⋯ = 𝐼𝑁 • The current within a single branch will be
✓ 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑁 the same above and below the resistor.
✓ 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
EXAMPLES:
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL 1. 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐵
2. 𝐼𝐵 > 𝐼𝐸
3. 𝐼𝐺 < 𝐼𝐹
4. 𝐼𝐸 > 𝐼𝐺
5. 𝐼𝐵 > 𝐼𝐹
6. 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿
7. 𝐼𝐻 < 𝐼𝐼

✓ 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2+ … + 𝐼𝑁 VOLTAGE & RESISTANCE

✓ 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑁
1 1 1 1 1
✓ 𝑅 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 +⋯+𝑅
𝑇 1 2 3 𝑛

COMBINATION OF SERIES AND PARALLEL

 • The voltage drop across a resistor is
dependent on the current in the resistor and
resistance of the resistor
• In situations in which the current is the same
for both resistors (such as for series-
connected resistors), the resistor with the
greater resistance will have the greater
voltage drop.

EXAMPLES:
1. 𝑉𝐵𝐶 > 𝑉𝐽𝐾
2. 𝑉𝐵𝐾 > 𝑉𝐷𝐼
3. 𝑉𝐸𝐹 = 𝑉𝐺𝐻
4. 𝑉𝐸𝐹 = 𝑉𝐷𝐼
5. 𝑉𝐽𝐾 > 𝑉𝐷𝐼
6. 𝑉𝐿𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵𝐾

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1, #2, p.104 SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1, #3, p.105-106
➢ Three resistors with values of 60.0Ω, , 30.0 ➢ Find the equivalent resistance of the
Ω, and 20.0 Ω, , respectively, are connected combination of resistors shown below.
in series to a 110.0V battery of negligible
internal resistance. Draw a circuit diagram
and find the (a) equivalent resistance of the
combined resistors, (b) current flowing
through each resistor, (c) voltage drop
across each resistor, and (d) power
dissipated by each resistor

BATTERIES
 ➢ A combination of cells

TABLE 4-2: PROPERTIES OF SERIES AND PARALLEL

COMBINATION OF CELLS

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.4., #1, p.112

➢ Twelve identical cells, each of 𝜀 =
2.0𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 0.5Ω, are used to form a
battery. Determine the electromotive force
and internal resistance of the battery if it
consists of (a) all cells in series, (b) all cells in
parallel, and (c) three parallel groups of four
cells in series COMBINATION OF SERIES AND PARALLEL

KIRCHOFF’S RULES
• KIRCHOFF’S FIRST LAW
 1. Label the current in each branch as
𝐼1, 𝐼2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛..
o A.k.a. junction rule or nodal rule 2. Assume a direction for each current
o The algebraic sum of all currents 3. In writing the junction equation,
entering and leaving a junction must a. Positive (+): current enters a junction
be equal to zero b. Negative (-): current leaves a
o 𝚺𝑰 = 𝟎 junction
4. In applying the loop rule, begin at a point in
• KIRCHOFF’S SECOND LAW the loop & go around in a clockwise or
counterclockwise manner
5. In writing the loop equation:

o A.k.a. loop rule or voltage law 6. The unknown current are usually
o The algebraic sum of the determined by solving simultaneous loop
electromotive forces and the voltage equations as well as junction equations
drops in any loop must be equal to
zero.
o 𝚺𝑽 = 𝟎
o A consequence of the
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• B: Top junction
o 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0
• Loop ABCDA:
o −𝐼2 𝑅1 + 𝑉 = 0
▪ −𝐼2 𝑅1 : Goes same direction
as loop, hence NEGATIVE
STEPS WHEN APPLYING KIRCHOFF’S RULES (p.114) ▪ +𝑉: flows through negative
to positive terminals of
power source, hence
POSITIVE
 • Loop BEFCB:
o −𝐼3 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑅1 = 0
▪ −𝐼3 𝑅2 : Goes same direction
as loop, hence NEGATIVE
▪ +𝐼2 𝑅1 : Opposite direction as
loop, hence POSITIVE

Using LOOP RULE or VOLTAGE LAW,

o 𝚺𝑽 = 𝟎

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.5, pp. 115-117

➢ Determine I1, I2, and I3, give that 𝜀1 =
5.00𝑉, 𝜀2 = 10.00𝑉, 𝜀3 = 12.00𝑉, 𝑅1 =
2.00Ω, 𝑅2 = 3.00Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 4.00Ω

RC CIRCUIT
 ➢ A circuit containing resistors and capacitors
➢ 1st order RC circuit has one resistor and one
capacitor

➢ At t=0, just as the switch is turned on, the

𝜀
CURRENT can be represented as 𝐼 = 𝑅. This
is the maximum current in the circuit
CHARGING A CAPACITOR, pp. 118-119 ➢ After some time, NO CHARGES will move
➢ At t=0, with the switch open, the capacitor is from the power source towards the
uncharged capacitor, since the capacitor has become
➢ When the switch is closed, current flows fully charged
through the circuit and the capacitor starts ➢ Thus, it can be concluded that the CURRENT
to charge. decreases exponentially with time
➢ By Kirchoff’s Loop Rule
o 𝜺 − 𝑰𝑹 − 𝑽𝑪 = 𝟎

➢ As a capacitor charges, the VOLTAGE across

the capacitor increases
➢ When a capacitor becomes fully charged,
the VOLTAGE across the resistor become
equal to ZERO
o Capacitor is equal to EMF

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.6, pp. 120-121

➢ An RC circuit consists of a 25𝜇𝐹 capacitor
and a 125Ω resistor connected to a 30.0V
DC source. Find the (a) time constant, (b)
maximum current, (c) maximum charge on
CHARING THE CAPACITOR, p.120 the capacitor and (d) charge on the
capacitor after 2𝜏
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.7, p.123

➢ After the capacitor in an RC circuit had
acquired charges, the battery was removed.
As a result, the capacitor discharged. The
time constant of the RC circuit is 1.25s. Find
th time after the battery was removed, such
that the charge in the capacitor is 65% of its
initial charge