lOMoARcPSD|39047854

A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

A2.2 Cell structure

What are the features common to all cells and the features
that differ?
IMAGE 1 shows a hot spring
extremophile community. This
community thrives in 75°C water in the
hills of New Mexico. The community in
the picture is made up of sulfur
bacteria (purple), algae and protozoa,
all one celled organism. How does the
cell theory take into account the
diversity of cell structure? What
features of cells are universal? What
are some examples of features that are
unique to certain cells? What are the
implications of the cell theory? What
are the limits to what the cell theory
predicts or explains?

IMAGE 1: Scanning electron micrograph of a https://www.sciencephoto.com/

hot spring extremophile community

How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?

IMAGE 2: Colored scanning electron micrograph
The human eye has limited resolving
(SEM) of a mouse embryo.
power. What does resolution refer to
with respect to optical devices? What is
the actual limit to the resolving power of
the human eye? How does this
compare to a bird of prey like an
eagle? How large are cells?
Organelles? Membranes? What is the
resolving power of the different type of
microscopes like light and electron
microscopes? A scanning electron
microscope was used to prepare the
image shown IMAGE 2, which is an
embryo. What is the value of a SEM over
a transmission electron microscope?

https://www.sciencephoto.com

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A2.2.1 Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms

Individual cells are fundamental units of life. IMAGE 3: Robert Hooke’s drawing of cork cells
Some small organisms consist of a single cell,
but larger organisms are multicellular. It has
been estimated that a 70 kg human consists of
3.8 × 1013 cells—that is nearly 40 trillion cells.
Large multicellular organisms have many
different cell types, each specialized for a
particular role.
The statement that living organisms consist of
cells is an example of a theory. This theory was
developed when Robert Hooke and other
biologists from the 17th century onwards used
microscopes to look at the structure of living
organisms. Plant cells are relatively easy to
view with a microscope. By the 19th century,
animal tissues could also be examined. Both
https://pixels.com/
types of tissue were found to consist of cells.
From this, scientists concluded that all
IMAGE 4: Robert Hooke’s microscope organisms are made of cells. They had not
looked at all parts of all organisms, but they
had found a trend that allowed them to make
general predictions about the structure of
organisms.
Since the development of cell theory,
researchers have discovered some structures
in living organisms that do not consist of typical
cells; some of these structures are described
later. Despite these exceptions, however, the
cell theory is still useful and it has not been
rejected. If a new organism is discovered, we
can be reasonably confident that some or all
of it will consist of cells.
The cell theory consists of three basic tenets
that function to describe the organization of
life.
According to the cell theory:
• The cell is the smallest unit of life
• Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/ • All living things are composed of cells (or
cell products)

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Observations, theories and inductive reasoning

IMAGE 5: The cell theory was developed by inductive reasoning Biologists are interested in
the natural world and
look carefully at it—they
act as observers and
make observations.
Sometimes biologists
notice a trend or pattern
in their observations and
from this they develop a
general theory.
Theories developed from
specific observations are
an example of inductive
reasoning— going from
the specific to the
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION.
general.
In the case of the cell theory, the specific discovery that parts of diverse organisms consisted
of cells led to the generalization that all organisms consist of cells.

IMAGE 6: A team of researchers at Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI), led by Kakani
Katija, has been researching marine organisms called larvaceans. The photograph on the left shows a
larvacean’s “house” which consists of two non-cellular mucus structures. The large coarse-mesh outer
structure excludes coarse non-food particles. The inner fine-mesh structure captures smaller food
particles. The larvacean itself is too small to be seen in this image. The photograph on the right shows
a magnified view of a larvacean (the blue tadpole-like organism) adjacent to the inner part of its
mucus house. By beating its tail, the larvacean pumps water through the inner and outer mucus filters
to extract food particles from the surrounding seawater. The actual organism is about 3 to 5 centimeters
long but the non-cellular house it makes and lives inside can be up to a meter in diameter. The MBARI
research shows there are still exciting discoveries to be made about the natural world. It also shows
that there are some exceptions to the theory that living organisms make everything out of cells

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION.

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A2.2.2 Microscopy skills

Lenses allow scientists to look at structures that are too small to see with the naked eye—
anything smaller than about 0.1 millimeters. A single convex lens is useful for magnifying up to
20 times (20×). However, this is not enough for studying the structure of cells. Microscopes with
two or more lenses make much smaller structures visible because the magnification of the
lenses is multiplied. For example, a 10× eyepiece lens combined with a 40× high power
objective lens gives a total magnification of 400× . This allow scientist to see structures as small
as 0.0001 millimeters (0.1micrometres). Using a microscope is an essential skill for biologists.
released from water as separated protons (hydrogen ions) and electrons.

Using a light microscope

IMAGE 7: Parts of a light microscope
Try to improve your skill at
using microscopes as
much as you can.
• Learn the names of
parts of the
microscope.
• Understand how to
focus the microscope
to get the best possible
image.
• Look after your
microscope so it stays in
perfect working order.
• Know how to
troubleshoot problems.
Look after your
microscope by following
these guidelines:
• Always focus by
moving the lens and
the specimen further
apart. Never move
them closer to each
other.
• Make sure the upper
and lower surfaces of
the slide are clean and
dry before putting it on
https://bio-33-lab-manual.webflow.io/
the stage.

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• Never touch the surfaces of the lenses Making temporary mounts of cells and
with your fingers or anything else. tissues and using stains
• Carry the microscope carefully with a The slides you examine with a microscope
hand under it to support its weight can be permanent or temporary. Making
securely. permanent slides is very skilled and takes a
long time, so these slides are normally made
Course and fine focusing by experts. Permanent slides of tissues are
• Put the slide on the stage, with the most
made using very thin slices of tissue.
promising region in the center of the
window in the stage that the light comes Making temporary slides is quicker and
up through. easier, so you can do this for yourself.
• Always focus at low power first, even if you • Place the cells on the slide, in a layer not
need high power magnification more than one cell thick.
eventually. • Add a drop of water or stain. Stains help
• Focus with the larger coarse-focusing structures that are pale or transparent to
knobs first. When you have nearly got the show up more clearly.
image in focus, use the smaller fine- • Carefully lower a cover slip onto the drop.
focusing knobs to make it really sharp. Try to avoid trapping any air bubbles.
• If you want to increase the magnification, • Remove excess fluid or stain by putting
move the slide so the most promising the slide inside a folded piece of paper
region is exactly in the middle of the field towel and pressing lightly on the cover
of view and then change to a higher slip.
magnification lens.
Use these hints to troubleshoot when you are IMAGE 8: Making a temporary mount.
focusing:
TABLE 1:

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION.

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Sketches and instructions for six different cell types are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2:
1 Moss leaf 4 Leaf lower epidermis
Use a moss plant with very thin Peel the lower epidermis off a leaf.
leaves. Mount a single leaf in a drop The cell drawn here was from
of water or methylene blue stain. Centranthus. Mount in water or in
methylene blue.

2 Banana fruit cell 5 Human cheek cell

Scrape a small amount of the soft Use a cotton bud to scrape cells
tissue from a banana and place on from the inside of your cheek. Smear
a slide. Mount in a drop of iodine them on a slide and add methylene
solution. blue to stain.

3 Mammalian liver cell 6 White blood cell

Scrape cells from a freshly cut Smear a thin layer of mammalian
surface of liver (not previously blood over a slide and stain with
frozen). Smear onto a slide and add Leishman’s stain.
methylene blue to stain.

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

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Observing, drawing and Usually, the lines on a drawing represent the

photographing cells edges of structures. Do not show
When you have focused at high power on unnecessary detail and only use faint
plant or animal cells, it is useful to record your shading. The cell membrane is too thin to
observations by drawing a typical cell. see, but you can deduce its position and
Alternatively, you could use a smartphone to you should include it in your drawing. For
take a photo through the microscope. example, it forms the outer edge of a blood
cell.
IMAGE 9: Onion epidermis cells photographed
with a smartphone. Some of the cells have a red Drawings and diagrams are more
pigment in their cytoplasm. The black-edged informative if they are annotated. Use a ruler
circles are air bubbles; this is a common fault in to draw a straight line from each structure of
temporary microscope slides. They are a type of interest to a position off the diagram. Then
artefact—something not naturally present that add notes there. You might simply identify
was introduced during preparation of the slide. the structure with a name, or you can add
other details such as the function.

Drawings of structures seen using a

microscope are larger than the actual size—
the drawing shows structures magnified.
Everything on a drawing should be shown to
the same magnification and the
magnification should be calculated and
indicated.
Photography is an alternative to drawings.
The advantage of photographs is that they
contain real data rather than one biologist’s
subjective interpretation of it. Digital
microscopes are increasingly common, and
they make it very easy to take photos.

IMAGE 9: Qualities in drawings

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION

Measuring sizes using an eyepiece

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

A biological drawing of a cell is a type of graticule

diagram because cell structure is shown with The actual sizes of structures visible through
some features only, such as the nucleus. a microscope can be measured by using a

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scale inside the eyepiece, called a A typical school microscope has three levels
GRATICULE. The graticule has to be of magnification:
calibrated so you know what size each unit • 40× (low power)
on the scale indicates. This will be different for • 100× (medium power)
each objective lens. For example, if one unit • 400× (high power)
on the scale represents 2.5 micrometers at
If you take a photo down a microscope, you
400× magnification (high power), it will
can magnify the image even more. A photo
represent 25 micrometers at 40×
of a microscope image is called a
magnification (low power).
PHOTOMICROGRAPH, often abbreviated to
IMAGE 10: Microscope image photographed MICROGRAPH. Electron micrographs are
using a smartphone, showing a fruit of taken using an electron microscope. When
Centranthus ruber and a graticule scale. 100 you draw a specimen, you can make the
graticule units = 5 millimeters or 5,000 drawing larger or smaller, so the
micrometers magnification of the drawing is not
necessarily the same as the magnification of
the microscope.
To find the magnification of a micrograph or
a drawing, you need to know two things: the
size of the image (in the drawing or the
micrograph) and the actual size of the
specimen. Then you use this formula:
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏

Size of the image (ruler)

Actual size of the specimen
(theory)/scalebar
If you know the size of the image and the
magnification, you can calculate the actual
size of a specimen.
When using this formula, you must make sure
you use the same units for the size of the
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION
image and the actual size of the specimen.
They could both be millimeters (mm) or
Calculating actual size, magnification micrometers (µm) but they must not be
and scale different, otherwise the calculation will be
Structures seen using a microscope appear wrong. You can convert millimeters to
larger than they actually are. Most micrometers by multiplying by 1,000. You
microscopes have more than one objective can convert micrometers to millimeters by
lens, so you can magnify specimens by dividing by 1,000.
different factors.

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Scale bars may be put on micrographs or 30mm=30x10-3m

drawings, or shown alongside them. A scale
3 µm=3x10-6m
bar is a straight line, labelled with the actual
size that the bar represents. For example, a 𝟑𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑
10 mm long scale bar on a micrograph with 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔
a magnification of ×10,000 would be
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑿
labelled 1 µm.
Or
30mm=30 000µm
Worked example
The length of an image is 30 mm. It 𝟑𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
represents a structure that has an actual size 𝟑
of 3 µm. Determine the magnification of the 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑿
image.

Calculating Magnification
a. Things to remember.
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

Size of the image (ruler)
Actual size of the specimen (theory)/scalebar
b. SI units
TABLE 3: Metric conversions

https://www.ib.bioninja.com.au
c. Theorical data
TABE 4
MAGNIFICATION DIAMETER OF THE FIELD OF VIEW(µm)
Low 4000
Medium 1600
High 400

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d. Procedure
1. Make sure to convert all the units to make them the same (choose the appropriate)
2. Measure with a ruler what is needed, try to be as accurate as possible, APPROXIMATE
TO THE HIGHER NUMBER (when needed)
3. If needed, when writing the result USE THE APPROPRIATE UNITS
4. If needed use scientific notation
5. The answer should be written with two decimals and with the unit

e. Examples
1. If Mr. X is using low power to examine a cheek cell and he has counted 14 cells across the
field of view, what will the magnification be if his drawing is 6 cm across?
4000µ𝑚 60 000 µm
Size of 1 cell = 285.71µ𝑚 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
14 285.71µm
Size of the image 6cm
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟑 ≈ 𝟐𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎
1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
6cm x 𝑥 = 60 000 µm
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚

2. Calculate the magnification of this scale bar.

Size of the image, ruler = 2cm
Actual size 2 µm

1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
2,3cm x 𝑥 = 23 000 µm https://pro.arcgis.com/
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚

23 000 µm 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑿

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
2µm

3. Calculate the actual size

Size of the image, ruler = 2,1cm

Magnification 15 000X

2,1𝑐𝑚
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 =
15 000𝑋 https://www.researchgate.net/

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎

Use the correct UNITS.

1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
𝟏, 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎 x 𝑥 = 1,4 µm
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚

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4. A cell is 80 m in length. If drawn 600 times actual size, how long will the drawing be in
cm.
Actual size of the specimen = 80 m
Magnification 600X
Use the correct UNITS.
1𝑥10−6 𝑚 1𝑐𝑚
𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 600 𝑥 80m 48 000µm x 𝑥 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝒄𝒎
1µm 1𝑥10−2 𝑚
𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 48 000m

5. The real diameter of a red blood cell is 7µm, calculate the

magnification.
Actual size of the specimen = 7 m
Size of the image, ruler = 3,3cm

1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
3,3cm x 𝑥 = 33 000 µm
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚
33 000 µm
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
7µm

https://www.researchgate.net/
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 4714,2857𝑋 ≈ 𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟒, 𝟐𝟗X

6. Below is a real spider and a drawing of the spider,

calculate the magnification

Actual size of the specimen = 1,3 cm

Size of the image, ruler = 5,4cm

5,4cm
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
1,3𝑐m

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 4,1538𝑋 ≈ 𝟒, , 𝟏𝟓X

https://content.time.com/

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7. A. Determine the magnification of the

image.
B. Determine the size of the organism

A.
Size of the image, ruler = 2cm
Actual size 50 µm

1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
1,6cm x 𝑥 = 16 000 µm
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚
16 000µm
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
50µm

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑿

B. https://www.ib.bioninja.com.au
Size of the image, ruler = 7,7cm
Magnification 320X
7,7𝑐𝑚
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 =
320

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 = 0,0240626𝑐𝑚

Use the correct UNITS.

1𝑥10−2 𝑚 1µ𝑚
0,0240626𝑐𝑚 x 𝑥 = 240,625µm ≈ 𝟐𝟒𝟎, 𝟔𝟐µ𝐦
1𝑐m 1𝑥10−6 𝑚

A2.2.3 Developments in microscopy

IMAGE 11: Leeuwenhoek microscope of about 1670
Microscopes were first invented in the
17th century. Since then, there have
been many technological
developments in microscopy, which
have made new and more detailed
observations possible. Improved light
microscopes in the second half of the
19th century allowed the discovery
of bacteria and other unicellular
organisms. Chromosomes were seen
for the first time and the processes of
mitosis, meiosis and gamete
formation and fertilization were
discovered. https://sciencephotogallery.com/

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More advanced microscopes also revealed the IMAGE 11: Zeiss microscope of 2020
complexity of organs such as the kidney, and the
presence of mitochondria, chloroplasts and other
structures in cells.
Two important parameters in microscopy are
magnification and resolving power, or resolution
a. MAGNIFICATION: is the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
b. RESOLUTION: is a measure of the clarity of the
image; it is the minimum distance two points can
be separated and still be distinguished as two
points. (Making the separate parts of an object
distinguishable by eye). TABLE 5 shows the
maximum resolution of the unaided eye, the light
microscope and the electron microscope, using
three different SI size units.
e.g. What appears to the unaided eye, as on
star in the sky maybe resolved as twin stars with
https://www.zeiss.com/
the telescope.
TABLE 5 A third important parameter
in microscopy is CONTRAST,
which accentuates
differences in parts of the
sample. Most improvements
in light microscopy have
been involved with new
methods for enhancing
contrasts, such as staining or
labelling
cell components to stand out
visually.
At magnifications of more than 400×, it becomes increasingly difficult to produce a focused
image with a light microscope. Imagine a pair of dots that appear closer together as they
become smaller. Eventually, it will be impossible to see them as separate dots. A hand lens
or microscope allows smaller details to be distinguished but there is a limit because of
distortions caused by the wavelength of light.
This problem was overcome by the development of microscopes that use beams of
electrons instead of light. The wavelength of electrons is much shorter than the wavelength
of visible light. The first electron microscopes were designed and constructed in Germany
during the 1930s. They came into use in research laboratories in the 1940s and 50s. Some
electron microscopes can give magnifications up to 1,000,000×

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Because electron microscopes have better resolution, they

can give much higher magnification. This means much
smaller structures can be seen than with a light microscope.
Electron microscopes have allowed scientists to investigate
the detailed structure (ultrastructure) of cells. Variations in
ultrastructure between different cell types are described
later.

IMAGE 12: Size of printed periods (full stops) used for punctuation
can be used to test the resolution of the naked eye, and of the
eye aided by one or more lenses. Font size is the maximum height
of letters and is measured in “points”. In desktop publishing fonts,
1 point is 0.353 mm. The diameter of a period is just less than one-
tenth of the overall font size, so a period at font size 30 has a
diameter of approximately 1 mm. The table shows a row of 10
periods at font sizes from 30 to 1. Which sizes of period can you Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY
distinguish as individual dots? COURSE COMPANION

There are two types of electron IMAGE 13: A scanning electron microscope (sem); image of
microscope the wombat fly

1. SCANNING ELEECTRON
MICROSCOPE (SEM) is especially
useful for detailed study of the
surface of specimen
• The electron beam scans the
surface of the sample, which
is usually coated with a thin
film of gold
• The beam excites electrons
on the surface, and these
secondary electrons are
detected by a device that
translates the pattern of
electrons into an electronic
signal to a video screen
• The result is an image of a
specimen’s topography.
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• The SEM has great depth of field, resulting in an image that appears three-dimensional

2. TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM) is used to study the internal ultra-structure

of cells
• The TEM aims an electron bean through a very thin section of the specimen, similar to
the way a light microscope transmits light through a slide

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IMAGE 14: Transmission electron microscope • The specimen has been stained with
(tem) image of a thin section cut through an area atoms of heavy metals, which attach
of mammalian lung tissue ( image shows a to certain cellular structures, thus
mitochondria) enhancing the electron density of
some parts of the cell more than
others.
• The electron passing through the
specimens are scattered more in the
denser regions, so fewer are
transmitted.
• The image displays the pattern of
transmitted electrons. Instead of using
glass lenses, the TEM uses
electromagnets as lenses to bend the
path of the electrons, ultimately
focusing the image onto a screen for
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As previously mentioned, electron

microscopes do have some
disadvantages. They can only give
black and white images, so any color
in electron micrographs has to be
added artificially. The methods used
to prepare material for the electron
microscope always kill the cells. In any
case, cells would die inside an
electron microscope because there is
a vacuum, and the beams of
electrons are very destructive. In
contrast, light microscopes can be
used to examine living material and
produce images in color. Therefore,
both types of microscopes are very
useful in research and continue to be
widely used.

IMAGE 15: An electron microscope in use

at the Max-Planck Institut in Halle,
Germany. Three of the many
technological developments in
microscopy are described here
https://www.alamy.com/

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IMAGE 16: The fluorescent stain 1. Fluorescent stains and immunofluorescence

(yellow) may be linked directly to the Most of the chemicals in cells are white or colorless so
antibody that binds to the target
they are difficult to distinguish unless stained. Stains
antigen (green). Alternatively, it may
used in microscopy are colored substances that bind
be linked indirectly by an antibody
that binds to the primary antibody to some chemicals but not others. For example,
methylene blue binds to DNA and RNA so it stains the
nucleus dark blue and cytoplasm a lighter blue.
Fluorescence is when a substance absorbs light and
then re-emits it at a longer wavelength. Fluorescent
stains have been used for over 100 years. Some
absorb ultraviolet light and re-emit it as blue light, for
example. Special fluorescence microscopes have
been designed and built with intense light sources
such as high power LEDs or lasers that emit a single
wavelength. This light is absorbed and re-emitted by
the sample, generating particularly bright images.
Immunofluorescence is a development of
fluorescent staining. Antibodies that bind to particular
chemicals (antigens) in the cell are produced. Then
fluorescent markers of different colors are linked to
these antibodies. A multicolored fluorescent image
can then be produced showing where the chemicals
are located. There are many research applications of
this technique; for example, it can be used to find out
if one specific type of protein is being produced in a
cell.

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY

COURSE COMPANION

IMAGE 17: In this image produced by

immunofluorescence, DNA in the
nuclei is stained cyan. Microtubule
proteins of the cytoskeleton, which
are normally invisible, are stained
magenta. This image was produced
using a Nikon RTS2000MP custom
laser scanning microscope
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

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2. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy

This technique is used to produce images of surfaces within cells. A sample is plunged into
liquefied propane at –190°C so it rapidly freezes. A steel blade is then used to fracture the
frozen sample. The fracture goes through the weakest points of the cells. Some of the ice
at the fractured surface is removed by vaporization, to enhance the texture of the surface.
This is called etching. Then a vapor of platinum or carbon is fired onto the fracture surface
at an angle of about 35° to form a coating. This creates a replica of the fracture surface.
IMAGE 18: The freeze-fracture process

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The replica is removed from the frozen sample and can be examined using an electron
microscope. It is about 2 nanometers thick on average, but the thickness varies because of
the angle at which the coating is
applied. This gives the impression of a
3D image through shadowing.
The weakest point in cells is usually the
middle of membranes, between the
two layers of phospholipid. The freeze-
fracture process gives a unique image
of this part of cells. When these images
were first produced, they led to a
fundamental change in theories about
membrane structure. This is described in
Topic B2.1

IMAGE 19:
Freeze-fracture image of a yeast cell,
showing a large vacuole, smaller vesicles
(unlabeled), plasma membrane (PM), cell
wall (CW) and a lipid droplet (LD). The
vacuole, vesicles and plasma membrane
appear convex or concave because the
fracture followed the center of the
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION
membrane, which was curved. The lipid
droplet is cross fractured because it is not
surrounded by a membrane

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3. Cryogenic electron microscopy

This technique is often called cryo-EM. It is principally used for researching the structure of
proteins. A thin layer of a pure protein solution is applied to a grid. The solution is ash-
frozen, to create smooth vitreous ice and prevent the formation of water crystals. Liquid
ethane just above its melting point of –182.6°C is usually used as the coolant.
The grid with the frozen protein solution is placed in an electron microscope and detectors
record the pattern of electrons transmitted by individual protein molecules. Because the
protein molecules are randomly orientated in the layer of frozen solution, many different
patterns are produced. Using computational algorithms, these patterns are combined to
produce a 3D image of the protein molecules.
Previous methods for analyzing protein structure only produced images of a protein in its
most stable form. However, cryo-EM analyses proteins at the instant in time when the water
around them froze. This allows scientists to research proteins that change from one form to
another as they carry out their function.
Since 2010, cryo-EM techniques have improved rapidly. They can now give resolutions of
0.12 nanometers. This allows the generation of images of individual atoms in a protein or
other molecules. Over 10,000 protein structures have now been shared in the Electron
Microscopy Data Bank (EMDB). The 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Jacques
Dubochet, Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson for their work in developing cryo-EM.
IMAGE 20 and 21 show an example of this.

IMAGE 20: Pyocin is a protein produced by

bacteria to kill other bacteria by bursting
their cell wall and membrane. The cryo-EM
image (a) shows pyocin pre-contraction
and post-contraction. The scale bar
represents 30 nm. Two computer-generated
colored images of pyocin (b and c) show
components of the protein before and after
it contracts Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

IMAGE 21: This sequence of diagrams shows how pyocin binds to and then pierces its target

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

IMAGE 22: Light microscopy vs. electron microscopy

A. Light microscopes
• Can be used to view living specimens in their natural colors
• These microscopes use glass lenses to bend light in order to magnify images (extent of
magnification is determined by the lenses used)
• The clarity of cellular sub-structures can be improved via the use of fluorescent labelling
• Synthetic dyes can be used to bind particular cellular compounds in order to resolve specific
structures (e.g. DAPI is a fluorescent dye that stains DNA)
• Immunofluorescence staining uses antibodies that are conjugated to fluorescent probes to
specifically target a cellular component of choice

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B. Electron microscopes
• Can generate images at a much higher magnification and resolution, however cannot view
living specimens in natural color
• These microscopes use electromagnets to focus electrons and produce monochromatic
images (to which false color may be applied)
• There are two main types of electron microscopes that allow for different visual
representations of a biological specimen
a. Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) pass electrons through a specimen to generate
a cross-section image

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b. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) scatter electrons over a surface to differentiate

depth and map in 3D

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A2.2.4 Structures common to cells in all living organisms

Cells vary considerably in size, shape and structure, but they share some common features:

1. Plasma membrane
This is the outer boundary of the cell and encloses all of its contents. The plasma membrane
controls the entry and exits of substances. It can pump substances in, even if the
concentration outside the cell is very low. It is also very effective at preventing the entry of
unwanted or even toxic substances. It allows a cell to maintain concentrations of substances
that are very different from those in the surrounding environment. The permeability of the
plasma membrane relies on a structure based on lipids.
Occasionally the plasma membrane of a cell bursts. This is known as lysis and can be caused
by excess pressure or by viruses. It can even be carried out by the cell itself (autolysis). Lysis
always leads to the death of the cell; this shows that the plasma membrane is a vital structure.

2. Cytoplasm
Water is the main component of cytoplasm and there are many substances dissolved or
suspended in this water. Enzymes in the cytoplasm catalyze hundreds or even thousands of
different chemical reactions. These reactions are the metabolism of the cell.

Metabolism provides a cell with energy and produces all the proteins and other substances
that make up the structure of a cell. Proteins are quite easily damaged, so even when a cell
is not growing the cytoplasm must continuously break down and replace its proteins.

3. DNA
Genes, made of DNA, contain the information needed for a cell to carry out all its functions.
Many genes hold the instructions for making a protein. Some proteins are structural so are
needed for growth and repair. Others act as enzymes, without which a cell cannot control
chemical reactions and does not have a functioning metabolism.

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DNA can be copied and passed on to daughter cells, so the information it stores is heritable.
Plant and animal cells have a nucleus that contains almost all their DNA. Bacteria do not have
a nucleus, and their DNA is in the cytoplasm instead. Use of DNA as a genetic material is
therefore common to all cells, but the location of this DNA is not universal.

A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structure

IMAGE 23: All prokaryotic cells share a number of key cellular Organisms can be divided into
components: two groups, prokaryotes and
• The genetic material is found within a region of the cytosol eukaryotes. Bacteria are
called the nucleoid (the single DNA strand is called the prokaryotic. Plants, animals,
GENOPHORE)
fungi and a variety of other
• Prokaryotes may contain additional DNA molecules
organisms (such as Amoeba)
(plasmids) that can be exchanged via bacterial conjugation
(horizontal gene transfer) are eukaryotic. The key
• The ribosomes within the cell that are responsible for protein feature of eukaryotic cells is
synthesis are characteristically small in size (70S) the nucleus, which contains
• Prokaryotic cells all possess a cell wall and may possess an chromosomes. This is bounded
additional outer covering (a slime capsule called a by a nuclear envelope
glycocalyx) consisting of a double layer of
• They may possess hair-like extensions called pili, that aid in membrane. Prokaryotic cells
adhesion (attachment pili) or plasmid exchange (sex pili) do not have a nucleus.
• Additionally, many prokaryotes may possess several whip-like
projections called flagella, which facilitate movement Prokaryotes were the first
organisms to evolve on Earth
and they still have the simplest
cell structure. They are mostly
small in size and are found
almost everywhere—in soil, in
water, on our skin, in our
intestines and even in pools of
hot water in volcanic areas.
All cells have a plasma
membrane. Some cells,
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/ including prokaryotic cells,
also have a cell wall outside
the cell membrane. This structure is thicker and stronger than the membrane. It protects the
cell, maintains its shape and supports the plasma membrane to prevent it from bursting. In
prokaryotes, the cell wall contains peptidoglycan.
There is no nucleus in a prokaryotic cell, so the interior is entirely filled with cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm is not divided into compartments by membranes; instead, it is one uninterrupted
chamber. Prokaryotic cells are therefore structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells—although
they still contain a very complex mixture of biochemicals including many enzymes.

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The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contains organelles that are analogous to the organs of
multicellular organisms. Both organs and organelles are distinct structures with specialized
functions. Prokaryotes do not have cytoplasmic organelles apart from ribosomes. Prokaryote
ribosomes are smaller than those of eukaryotes: they are 70S whereas eukaryote ribosomes
are 80S. The S stands for Svedberg units, which are a measure of the rate at which a particle
sinks during centrifugation.
In many electron micrographs of prokaryotes, part of the cytoplasm appears lighter than
the rest. This region contains DNA. There is usually only a single molecule of DNA that forms
a loop or circle. The DNA is “naked”: unlike eukaryotic DNA, it is not associated with proteins.
The lighter region of the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. It is similar to a nucleus because it
contains DNA, but it is not a true nucleus. Other parts of the cytoplasm appear darker in
electron micrographs. They contain ribosomes, enzymes and other proteins.

Prokaryotes have been classified TABLE 6: Bacteria and archaea differ in the composition of
into two different domains, based membrane lipids, the structure of the cell wall, the
on key differences in structure and organization of DNA and their susceptibility to certain
genetics antibiotics

• BACTERIA: A large and diverse

range of organisms including
many pathogenic (disease-
causing) forms
• ARCHAEA: Include a variety of
extremophiles (organisms living
in extreme environments), but
also exist in normal habitats

A2.2.6 Eukaryote cell structure

Eukaryotes, like all other living organisms, have a basic cell structure with cytoplasm inside a
plasma membrane. In some eukaryotes, there is also a cell wall outside the membrane.
Whereas the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell is one undivided space, eukaryotic cells are
compartmentalized. Areas are separated from the rest of the cytoplasm by single or double
membranes. The advantages of having compartments are described in Topic B2.2. Three
other fundamental features distinguish eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells:

Nucleus
This compartment holds the cell’s chromosomes. The nucleus has a double membrane with
pores through it. Each chromosome consists of one long DNA molecule attached to proteins,
except when a cell is preparing to divide and the DNA is replicated. The DNA molecules are
linear rather than circular. The proteins are histones, arranged in globular groups like small
beads, with the DNA wound around the outside.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

IMAGE 24: Eukaryotic Cell Structure. All eukaryotic cells share a number of key cellular components:
• The genetic material is found within a double-membrane structure called the nucleus
• The ribosomes within the cell that are responsible for protein synthesis are comparatively larger in
size (80S)
• Eukaryotes all share a number of membrane-bound organelles – including mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and vesicles
• Plant cells possess chloroplasts (for photosynthesis) and have a large, fluid-filled vacuole
surrounded by a tonoplast membrane
• Multicellular fungi form filamentous hyphae that are typically separated by internal walls called
septa
ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

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IMAGE 25: Whereas the DNA of prokaryotes is naked, 80S ribosomes

DNA in eukaryotes is attached to groups of proteins Ribosomes in eukaryotic cells
called histones. There are many of these histones along
synthesize proteins, as in prokaryotes,
the chromosome, giving the overall appearance of a
but there are structural differences
string of beads
and they are larger in size. This causes
them to sink more quickly than
prokaryotic ribosomes when
centrifuged; this is quantified using
Svedberg units (S). Eukaryotic
ribosomes are 80S whereas those of a
prokaryote are 70S.

Mitochondria
The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
contains mitochondria. A
mitochondrion is surrounded by a
double membrane. The inner
membrane is usually folded inwards to
https://www.extremetech.co
increase the surface area.
Mitochondria carry out aerobic cell respiration, so in eukaryotes they are only lacking in cells
that never respire aerobically.
Nuclei, mitochondria and ribosomes are
examples of organelles. All the important
organelles of eukaryotic cells are described
in Section A2.2.10

IMAGE 26: An electron micrograph of the

unicellular fungus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(baker’s yeast). The nucleus (N), mitochondria
(m) and vacuole (V) are easily visible. The cell
wall (CW) is the thicker pale outer layer. The
plasma membrane (PM) is the thinner dark line
inside the cell wall. 80S ribosomes (R) are smaller
and more di cult to see, but many are present.
The labelled ribosomes look like a string of
beads. This cell is 8 µm long. What is the
magnification of the micrograph? Remember
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION
that 1 µm = 1,000 nm

A2.2.7 Processes of life in unicellular organisms

Living organisms are very diverse in their activities. However, some vital processes are either
universal or very widespread:
• homeostasis—maintenance of a constant internal environment in an organism
• metabolism—the sum of all the biochemical reactions that occur in a living organism •

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

• nutrition—supplying the nutrients required for energy, growth and repair in an organism
• excretion—removal of waste products of metabolism from an organism
• growth—an increase in size or number of cells
• response to stimuli—perception of stimuli and carrying out appropriate actions in
response
• reproduction—production of offspring, either sexually or asexually.
In a multicellular organism, different cell types are specialized to perform these functions, but
the single cell of a unicellular organism must perform them all. The annotated diagrams of
Paramecium and Chlamydomonas (IMAGE 27 and IMAGE 28) show how two unicellular
organisms perform the functions of life.

IMAGE 27: Paramecium

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

IMAGE 27: Chlamydomonas

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TABLE 7: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in the composition of their DNA, types of
organelles, methods of reproduction and size

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A2.2.8 Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between

animals, fungi and plants
TABLE 8
Feature Animal Fungi Plants
Plastids None None Plastids of varied types
A family of organelles with such as chloroplasts (for
two outer membranes photosynthesis) and
and internal membrane amyloplasts (to store
sacs starch)

Cell wall None Cells of fungi and plants have

A rigid layer outside the walls, composed of chitin in fungi
plasma membrane to and cellulose in plants
strengthen and protect
the cell

Vacuole Small temporary vacuoles There is often a large permanent

A flexible fluid-filled expel excess water or vacuole in cells of fungi and plants,
compartment surrounded digest food or pathogens used for storage of substances and
by a single membrane taken in by endocytosis pressurizing the cell

Centrioles Used to construct the Absent, except in fungi and plants

Cylindrical organelles that spindle that moves with swimming male gametes,
organize the assembly of chromosomes in mitosis which have a centriole at the base
structures composed of and the 9+2 microtubules of the flagellum
microtubules in cilia and flagella

Undulipodia Cilia and flagella are Absent except in fungi and plants
Cilia and flagella used to present in many animal with male gametes that swim using
generate movement of a cells, including the tail of flagella (tails)
cell or movement of fluid male gametes
adjacent to a cell

A2.2.9 Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes

According to the cell theory, all living organisms are made of cells. Each cell is expected to
have one nucleus (unless it is preparing to divide, when there may be two). However, some
structures in organisms do not follow the typical patterns. Some examples are red blood cells,
phloem sieve tube elements, skeletal muscle and aseptate fungal hyphae.

Red blood cells

In mammals, these cells do not have a nucleus. At a late stage in their development in bone
marrow, the nucleus is moved to the edge of the cytoplasm and the small part of the cell
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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

IMAGE 28: The human sartorius containing it is pinched off and destroyed by a phagocyte.
muscle can be as much as 600 Removal of the nucleus makes red blood cells smaller and
mm long. It contains muscle more flexible, but they cannot repair themselves if they are
fibers that extend from one end damaged. For this reason, they have a lifespan of only 100
to the other. Are these the
to 120 days.
longest cells in the human
body? Phloem sieve tube elements
Plants move sap through tubular vessels, made from columns
of cylindrical cells. The flow of sap would be impeded if these
cells had a typical structure. In xylem vessels, which conduct
watery sap from the roots to the leaves, all the dividing walls
between adjacent cells are removed and the plasma
membrane and all of the cell contents break down. This
creates a hollow tube that no longer consists of cells.
In phloem, which conducts sugary sap from the leaves to
other parts, the conducting vessels are called sieve tubes.
The dividing walls between adjacent cells are sieve-like, with
large pores for the sap to pass through. During development
of sieve tubes, the nucleus and most of the other cell
contents break down, but the plasma membrane remains as
it is essential for phloem transport. The subunits in a sieve tube
are usually called elements rather than cells because of their
Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY
COURSE COMPANION atypical structure. Sieve tube elements are connected to
adjacent companion cells, which have
a nucleus and mitochondria. These companion
cells help the sieve tube elements to survive IMAGE 28: A micrograph of aseptate hyphae
and carry out their function. of the fungus Rhizopus arrhizus, which is the
most frequent cause of mucormycosis. Spores
Skeletal muscle and the sporangia that produced them are
Some large multinucleate structures are formed also visible
when groups of cells fuse together. This type of
structure is a syncytium. Muscle fibers develop
in this way. Columns of cells, each with a
nucleus, are formed by cell division. These cells
then fuse together to form long muscle fibers

Aseptate fungal hyphae

In some growing cells, the nucleus divides
repeatedly without any subsequent cell
division. This results in an unusually large
multinucleate structure, known as a
coenocyte. The thread-like hyphae of some
fungi develop in this way. Walls that divide the
hyphae of other types of fungi into uninucleate Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE
COMPANION
cells are called septa, so hyphae without these divisions are aseptate.
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A2.2.10 Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and

electron micrographs Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION
In light micrographs, these features help us to identify whether a cell is from a prokaryote, a
plant or an animal.
TABLE 9
Prokaryotic cells Plant cells Animal cells
• single cells, sometimes • always multicellular apart • always multicellular apart
arranged in chains from gametes and from gametes, zygotes
• small size—cells usually zygotes and blood cells
less than 5 µm • larger size—cells usually • larger size—cells usually
• often rod-shaped (bacilli), more than 5 µm more than 5 µm
spheroidal (cocci) or • shape tends to be regular • shape tends to be
helical (spirilli) with flat sides and cell rounded with junctions
• cell wall present junctions easily visible in between cells often hard
• no nucleus: instead there tissues to see in tissues
is a paler region of • cell wall present • no cell wall
cytoplasm (nucleoid) • nucleus normally present • nucleus normally present
• simple internal structure but not always visible but not always visible
with no membrane- • plastids present, such as • no chloroplasts or stored
bound organelles chloroplasts, or starch but cytoplasm
• no vacuoles or other amyloplasts storing starch contains many other
internal membranes • large vacuole often organelles
present • only small vacuoles are
present

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

describes the structure and functions of all the main organelles of eukaryotic cells.

Nucleus

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Its dysfunctions might have an important role in
metabolic disorders, gene expression, cancer,
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The nuclear membrane is double and has pores through it. The nucleus contains the
chromosomes, consisting of DNA associated with histone proteins. Uncoiled chromosomes
are spread through the nucleus in the areas that appear pale and grainy. The small areas
that are more densely stained, mostly around the edge of the nucleus, contain parts of
chromosomes that have remained coiled up (condensed). The nucleus is where DNA is
replicated and transcribed to form mRNA, which is exported via the nuclear pores to the
cytoplasm.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

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Its dysfunctions might have an

important role in neurological disorders
like sleeping apnea, multiple sclerosis or
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Alzheimer’s disease.

The rER consists of flattened membrane sacs, called cisternae. Ribosomes are attached to
the outside of these cisternae. They are larger than in prokaryotes and are classified as 80S.
The main function of the rER is to synthesize protein for secretion from the cell. Protein
synthesized by the ribosomes of the rER passes into its cisternae. It is then carried by vesicles,
which bud off and are moved to the Golgi apparatus.

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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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Its dysfunctions might have an
important role in lipid synthesis,
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hormonal balance, calcium regulation.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum consists of a branched network of tubular membranes. In

electron micrographs, it appears as circles or ovals of membrane. The membrane is smooth
because there are no ribosomes attached. Smooth ER has a variety of functions. It is used
to synthesize lipids, phospholipids and steroids. A special type of smooth ER stores calcium
ions in muscle when it is relaxed.

Golgi apparatus

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Its dysfunctions might have an

important role in mislocation of
proteins, disruption in the apoptosis of
the cell.
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This organelle consists of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae (as in rER). However,
these cisternae are not as long, are o en curved, do not have attached ribosomes and
have many vesicles nearby. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins brought in vesicles from
the rER. Most of these proteins are then carried in vesicles to the plasma membrane for
secretion.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Lysosome

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION
Its dysfunctions might have an important
role in accumulation of waste and
disfunction of cell function.
https://www.sciencephoto.com/

These are approximately spherical with a single membrane. They are formed from Golgi
vesicles. They contain high concentrations of protein, which makes them densely staining in
electron micrographs. They contain digestive enzymes, which can be used to break down
ingested food in vesicles. These enzymes can also break down organelles or even whole
cells.

Mitochondrion

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION
Its dysfunctions might have an important role
in chronic kidney disease, hardening of
arteries, growth and development, cancer
https://www.sciencephoto.com/ development and progression.

A double membrane surrounds mitochondria. The inner membrane is invaginated to form

structures called cristae. The fluid inside is called the matrix. The shape of mitochondria is
variable but usually spherical or ovoid. They produce ATP for the cell by aerobic cell
respiration. Fat is digested here if it is being used as an energy source in the cell.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Free ribosomes

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an important role in
bone marrow failure, anemia, cancer risk
development abnormalities.
https://ubalt.pressbooks.pub/

These appear as dark granules in the cytoplasm and are not surrounded by a membrane.
They have the same size as ribosomes attached to the rER—about 20 nm in diameter (known
as 80S). Free ribosomes synthesize protein, releasing it to work in the cytoplasm, as enzymes
or in other ways. Ribosomes are constructed in a region of the nucleus called the nucleolus.

Chloroplast

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an important

role in productivity, impaired growth and
death.
https://www.dreamstime.com/

A double membrane surrounds the chloroplast. Inside are stacks of thylakoids, which are
flattened sacs of membrane. The shape of chloroplasts is variable but usually spherical or
ovoid. They produce glucose and a wide variety of other organic compounds by
photosynthesis. If chloroplasts have been photosynthesizing rapidly, they may contain
starch grains.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Vacuoles and vesicles

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an important

role in impaired storage, waste
https://www.dreamstime.com/ management, death of the cell.

These organelles consist of a single membrane with fluid inside. Many plant cells have large
vacuoles that occupy more than half of the cell volume. Some animals absorb foods from
outside and digest them inside vacuoles. Some unicellular organisms use vacuoles to expel
excess water. Vesicles are very small vacuoles used to transport materials inside the cell.

Microtubules and centrioles

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE

COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an important role in

neurogenerative disorders, development
problems, cell death.
https://www.sciencephoto.com/

These organelles consist of a single membrane with fluid inside. Many plant cells have large
vacuoles that occupy more than half of the cell volume. Some animals absorb foods from
outside and digest them inside vacuoles. Some unicellular organisms use vacuoles to expel
excess water. Vesicles are very small vacuoles used to transport materials inside the cell.

34
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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Cytoskeleton

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY

COURSE COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an

important role in impaired cell
shape, movement, and division, as
well as contributing to various
diseases like cancer,
https://www.sciencephoto.com/
neurodegenerative disorders, and
muscular dystrophy.

The cytoskeleton is constructed from several types of protein fiber. Tubulin is used to make
microtubules and actin is used to make microfilaments. These structures can easily be
constructed or deconstructed, so the cytoskeleton is dynamic. Microtubules guide the
movement of components within the cell. They help plant cells to construct cell walls. A
layer of microfilaments just inside the plasma membrane helps animal cells to maintain their
shape.

Cilia and flagella

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY

COURSE COMPANION

Its dysfunctions might have an

important role in respiratory issues,
infertility, kidney cysts, and
https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/ neurological disorders.
These are whip-like structures projecting from the cell surface. They contain a ring of nine
double microtubules plus two central ones. Flagella are larger and usually only one is
present, as in a sperm. Cilia are smaller and many are present. Cilia and flagella can be
used for locomotion. Cilia can also be used to create a current in the fluid next to a cell.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

A2.2.11 Drawing and annotation based on electron

micrographs
Electron micrographs show cell structure in great detail. However, they sometimes include
artefacts as well. (An artefact is something that is not naturally present but was introduced as
the specimen was prepared by staining and sectioning.) Therefore, a drawing of an electron
micrograph may show the structure more clearly. Basic drawing skills were described earlier
and Table 5 shows how the structure of organelles can be shown in drawings. Electron
micrographs of a prokaryotic cell (IMAGE 29) and a eukaryotic cell (IMAGE 30) are shown.
A drawing of the
prokaryotic cell is also
included, to show how its
structure can be
interpreted. Organelles in
the electron micrograph
of a eukaryotic cell are
labelled. Using your
knowledge of these
organelles, you should be
able to draw the whole
cell to show its
ultrastructure.

IMAGE 29: Electron

micrograph of Escherichia coli
(1–2 µm in length), with a
drawing to help interpret the Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION
micrograph

IMAGE 30: Electron

micrograph of a liver
cell. The plasma
membrane is visible
as a dark line. Part of
the cell on the right is
not visible.

Allot, Andrew and David

Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE
COMPANION

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

 Annotations require name and

function

Common mistakes:

https://www.noteworthyscience.com/ IMAGE 31: Drawing prokaryotic cell

 Annotations require name

and function
 The structures that have a
“*” are not organelles.

Common mistakes:

IMAGE 32: Drawing Eukaryotic

https://www.noteworthyscience.com/ plant cell (leaf)

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

IMAGE 33: Drawing Eukaryotic animal cell .

 Annotations require name and function
Common mistakes:
 The structures that have a “*” are not organelles

https://www.noteworthyscience.com/

A2.2.12 Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis

SYMBIOSIS is living together in a close association. In ENDOSYMBIOSIS, one organism (the
endosymbiont) lives inside another (the host). In the closest form of this, the endosymbiont lives
inside a cell of the host. The endosymbiont enters the host cell by endocytosis. This is the
process that cells use to make a vesicle or small vacuole by pinching off a piece of the plasma
membrane. It is described fully in Topic B2.1
Cells can use endocytosis to ingest other, smaller cells. For example, phagocytes in humans
ingest viruses or bacteria, and unicellular organisms such as Paramecium ingest the organisms
on which they feed. In those cases, digestive enzymes are added to the vacuole to break
down the ingested organisms, which are therefore killed. In other cases, the host can gain
more from the ingested organism if it is alive. The result is endosymbiosis. In a mutualistic
relationship, both the host and the endosymbiont benefit. Examples of mutualistic
endosymbiosis are studied in Topic C4.1
Endosymbiosis almost certainly contributed to the evolution of eukaryotic cells. According to
a well-established theory, mitochondria were once free living prokaryotes that developed the
process of aerobic respiration. Larger prokaryotes that could only respire anaerobically took
in these smaller prokaryotes by endocytosis; instead of killing and digesting them, they allowed
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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

the engulfed cells to live in the cytoplasm as endosymbionts. Aerobic respiration in the
endosymbiont supplied energy to the host, far more efficiently than the host’s own anaerobic
respiration. At the same time, the endosymbiont was supplied with food by the host. Natural
selection therefore favored cells that developed this mutualistic endosymbiotic relationship.
If the endosymbionts grew and divided as fast as the host cell, they could persist inside host
cells for many generations. According to the endosymbiotic theory, we can deduce that they
have persisted inside eukaryotic cells for hundreds of millions of years, evolving to become the
mitochondria of eukaryotic cells alive today.

IMAGE 34: Origins of the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts

Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION

The endosymbiotic theory also explains the origin of chloroplasts. If a prokaryote that had
developed photosynthesis was taken in by a host cell and allowed to survive, grow and divide,
it could have developed into the chloroplasts of photosynthetic eukaryotes—algae and
plants. Again, both the endosymbiont and the host would benefit from the relationship.
This explanation for the evolution of mitochondria and chloroplasts remains a theory because
it cannot be conclusively proved. However, the features of both mitochondria and
chloroplasts provide strong evidence for it:
• They have a double membrane. This would be expected if a prokaryote with a single
plasma membrane was ingested by endocytosis.
• They have their own genes, on a circular DNA molecule like that of prokaryotes.
• They transcribe their own DNA and use the mRNA to synthesize some of their own proteins.
• The ribosomes they use for protein synthesis have a size (70S) and structure more typical of
prokaryotic cells than eukaryotic.
• They can only be produced by the division of pre-existing mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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A2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

A2.2.13 Cell differentiation as the process for developing

specialized tissues in multicellular organisms
Multicellular organisms have an advantage because cells can develop differently to perform
different functions. Specialized cells develop only the features they need to carry out their
functions, which makes them more efficient. For example, red blood cells transport oxygen
using the protein hemoglobin. They produce large amounts of this protein but do not produce
other proteins that they would not use.
Some activities are needed in all cells, such as releasing energy by respiration. About 4,000
genes have been detected in human cells that are active in all cell types. They are called
housekeeping genes, and they are not associated with specialized roles. Other genes vary in
their expression and in some cases are only ever active in a single cell type.
The development of specialized cell types happens from a very early stage in the life of
humans and other organisms. Even in a tiny embryo, different cells begin to take different
pathways of development. This is the process of cell differentiation. In differentiated cells,
different genes are “switched on” and expressed, so the cell makes particular proteins and
other gene products. The control of which genes act in a cell is called gene expression.

THE ENTIRE DOCUMENT WAS OBTAINED FROM:

1. Allot, Andrew and David Mindorf. BIOLOGY COURSE COMPANION. Oxford, 2023

2. Campbell, Neil A and Jane B. Reece. BIOLOGY AP EDITION. Pearson, eight edition.

3. https://www.ib.bioninja.com.au

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