Unit 3 Sequence and Series
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nalisrinu3704Unit 3 Sequence and Series
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1 Sequences
Learning objectives:
To define an infinite sequence of real numbers and to
discuss its convergence and divergence.
To define the boundedness of a sequence and to prove
that every convergent sequence is bounded.
To define Non-decreasing and Non-increasing sequences
and to discuss their convergence.
And
To practice the related problems.
Sequences
An infinite sequence of real numbers is a list of real numbers
------
in a definite order and formed according to a definite rule. Each
number in the infinite sequence is called a term and is called
the term. The suffix is called the index of and it
indicates where occurs in the list.
We can think the infinite sequence as a function that sends
a natural number to a real number (the term of ).
Thus we have a formal definition of an infinite sequence.
Infinite sequence:
An infinite sequence of real numbers is a function
The infinite sequence defined by the above function is denoted
by or , where .
From now onwards, a sequence means an infinite sequence of
real numbers.
Sequences are described by writing rules that specify their
terms, such as
, , ,
or by listing its terms (in the order as in (1) )
A sequence is said to be a constant sequence if ,
, where is a constant.
Example 1: Finding Terms of a sequence
If the formula for the term of a sequence is
, then find the terms and .
Solution: Given , . Then
; ;
; .
The sequence is
Example 2: Finding a Sequence’s Formula
Find a formula for the term of the sequence
Solution: Notice that
, , , , … … ...
Therefore, .
Recursive Definitions
Sequences are often defined recursively by giving the value(s)
of the initial term or terms, and a rule, called recursion formula
for calculating any later term from terms that precede it.
Example 3: Sequences constructed Recursively
The statements and , define
the sequence of natural numbers.
The statements and , define
the sequence of factorials.
The statements , and ,
define the sequence of Fibonacci
numbers.
Convergence and divergence
Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach a single value
as the index increases.
In the sequence , the terms approach as gets large, and
in the sequence the terms
approach as increases. On the other hand sequences like
have terms larger than any
number as increases and sequences like
bounce back and
forth between and , never approach a single value.
The following definition captures the meaning of having a
sequence converge to a limiting value.
Definitions:
The sequence of real numbers converges to a number if
for every there exists a natural number such that
for all
We say that diverges if no such number exists.
If converges to then we write or as
and call the limit of the sequence .
A sequence is said to be convergent if it converges.
A sequence is said to be divergent if it diverges.
The above definition says that if we go far enough out in the
sequence , by taking the index larger than some value ,
the difference between and the limit of the sequence
becomes less than the preselected number .
Note:
1. The natural number depends on .
2. for all for all
for all
3. The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.
Example 4: Applying the Definition
Prove that
i. The sequence converges to .
ii. Every constant sequence converges to ,
where is any constant.
Solution:
i. Let be given. We have to show that for this there
exists a natural number such that
for all .
This holds if . Let be any natural number
greater than .
Then for all , we have . Thus for each given
, a natural number such that
for all .
This proves and therefore the sequence
converges to .
ii. Let be given. We have to show that for this there
exists a natural number such that
for all .
Since , this holds for any natural number .
This proves for any constant sequence
converges to .
Subsequence:
If is a sequence and is a sequence of natural
numbers such that , then the sequence
is called a subsequence of .
The following is a property of convergent sequences.
Theorem 1:
The sequence converges to if and only if every
subsequence of converges to .
The following is a useful result.
Theorem 2:
If the subsequences and of a sequence
converges to the same limit , then the sequence
converges to .
The following is a way to prove that a given sequence is
divergent.
Theorem 3:
If two subsequences of a sequence have different limits
, then diverges.
Divergent Sequences
Example 5:
Prove that the sequence diverges.
Solution:
Notice that the subsequence converges to
and the subsequence converges to .
Thus, the given sequence has two convergent subsequences
converging to two different limits. Therefore,
diverges by Theorem 3.
We say that a sequence diverges to infinity if for every
number there is a natural number such that for all
. If this holds then write
or as .
We say that a sequence diverges to negative infinity if for
every number there is a natural number such that
for all and we write
or as .
Example 6:
Show that the sequence diverges to infinity.
Solution:
Let be any given number. We have to show that a natural
number such that , for all . This holds if
. Let be any natural number greater than ,
. Then for all , we have
This shows that the sequence diverges to and we write
.
Note: A Sequence may diverge with out diverging to or .
Example: .
Boundedness of a Sequence
A sequence of real numbers is bounded above if there exists
a number such that for all . The number is an
upper bound for .
A sequence of real numbers is bounded below if there
exists a number such that for all . The number is
a lower bound for .
A sequence of real numbers is bounded if it is both bounded
above and bounded below, i.e., if there exist numbers and
such that for all .
A number is the least upper bound (lub or supremum) for
if is an upper bound for and no number less than
is an upper bound for .
A number is the greatest lower bound (glb or infimum) for
if is a lower bound for and no number greater than
is a lower bound for .
Note:
1. If and are lower and upper bounds of a sequence then
.
2. If is an upper bound of a sequence then any number
greater than is also an upper bound of the sequence.
3. If is a lower bound of a sequence then any number less
than is also a lower bound of the sequence.
4. Least upper bound of a sequence, if exists is unique.
5. Greatest lower bound of a sequence, if exists is unique.
Example 7:
The sequence is bounded below by and
is its greatest lower bound. Since the terms are becoming
larger and larger, the sequence not bounded above. Thus, this
sequence is not bounded.
The sequence is bounded above
by and bounded below by . Thus, the sequence is bounded.
We want to show that is the lub of the sequence.
Let . We show that is not an upper bound of the
sequence. If is an upper bound then for all ,
for all . This is not possible. This shows that no
number less than is an upper bound of the sequence. Thus, is
the lub of this sequence. Further, is the glb of this sequence.
The sequence is bounded below
by and bounded above by . Therefore, it is a bounded
sequence. Further, and are the glb and lub of the sequence
respectively.
Theorem 4:
Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Proof: Let be a sequence of real numbers converging to .
. For , a natural number such that
for all , for all
. Let and
. Then we have
for . Thus is bounded. Hence the
theorem.
Note: The converse of the above theorem is not true, a
bounded sequence need not be convergent.
For example the sequence is bounded but not
convergent.
Non-decreasing and Non-increasing Sequences
Let be a sequence of real numbers.
is said to be a non-decreasing sequence if for
all .
is said to be a non-increasing sequence if for
all .
A sequence of real numbers is said to be a monotonic sequence
if it is either non-decreasing or non-increasing.
The sequences and
are non-decreasing sequences.
The sequences and
are non-increasing sequences.
It may be noted that every constant sequence is both
non-increasing and non-decreasing.
If the sequence is non-decreasing, then for all
and so for all . This shows that
Every non-decreasing sequence is bounded below and
is the greatest lower bound for .
Completeness property of real numbers
A non-decreasing sequence of real numbers that is bounded
above always has a least upper bound.
Theorem 5: The Non-decreasing Sequence Theorem
A non-decreasing sequence of real numbers converges if and
only if it is bounded above.
Proof: Let be a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers. If
is convergent then it is bounded (by Theorem 6). Therefore
it is bounded above.
Suppose that is bounded above. Then by the completeness
property of real numbers, has a least upper bound . Let
be given. Now is not an upper bound of .
Therefore a natural number such that . Since
is non-decreasing, for all . Further
for all . Thus
for . This proves for each , a natural number
such that
for all
Therefore, is convent and converges to its least upper
bound. Hence the theorem.
Theorem 5 implies that a non-decreasing sequence converges if
it is bounded above. Further, it converges to its least upper
bound.
Example 8: The sequence converges to
since it is a non-decreasing sequence which is bounded above and
is the least upper bound of the sequence.
The following is evident:
Theorem 6:
If a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers converges then it
converges to its least upper bound.
The following theorem proves that a non-decreasing sequence
diverges to infinity if it is not bounded above.
Theorem 7:
If a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers is not bounded
above then it diverges to infinity.
Proof: Let be a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers.
for all . Let be any given number. Since
is not bounded above a natural number such that
. Thus
for all
This proves that the sequence diverges to infinity.
Example 9: The sequence diverges to
infinity since it is non-decreasing sequence and not bounded
above.
The following are the corresponding results for non-increasing
sequences of real numbers
Theorem 8:
A non-increasing sequence of real numbers
is always bounded above and is its lub.
has a glb if it bounded below.
(Completeness Property of real numbers)
converges if and only if it is bounded below.
(The Non-increasing Sequence Theorem)
converges to its glb if it is bounded below.
diverges to minus infinity if it is not bounded below.
Combining the Non-decreasing Sequence Theorem and Non-
increasing Sequence Theorem we get
Theorem 9:
A monotonic sequence of real numbers is convergent if and
only if it is bounded.
IP1:
If and , then write the first ten terms
of the sequence .
Find a formula for the term of the sequence
Solution:
Given , for all . Then the first
ten terms of the sequence are
, , ,
, , ,
, ,
Therefore, the sequence is
Given sequence is
Notice that , , , ,………
, , , ,………
Therefore, for all .
IP2:
Prove that the sequence is converges to .
Proof:
Notice that , for if not , which is
not true.
Let , where . We first prove that
converges to . Let be given.
Now,
(By binomial theorem for positive integral index)
for all for all
Therefore, whenever .
Let be any natural number greater than
.
Now, for all , we have . Thus for each
given , a natural number such that
for all .
This proves converges to .
Now, for each , a natural number such that
for all .
This proves converges to .
IP3:
Prove that the sequence is convergent, where
.
Proof:
Given ,
for all
for all
Thus, the sequence is non-decreasing sequence.
Now, ,
for all
Thus, the sequence is bounded above.
Therefore, by non-decreasing theorem for sequences, the
sequence is convergent.
IP4:
Prove that a sequence of real numbers can not have two
different least upper bounds.
Prove that if is a convergent sequence, then to every
positive number there corresponds an integer such
that for all and .
and
Proof:
Let be a sequence of real numbers. Suppose and
are least upper bounds of the sequence. We intend to
prove that .
Since is a least upper bound and is an upper bound of
the sequence, Interchanging the roles of and ,
. Since both the inequalities hold, . Thus, a
sequence of real numbers can not have two different least
upper bounds.
Let be the limit of the convergent sequence . Then
for each there is a natural number such that for all
and , we have
and
Now, and
Hence the result.
P1:
If the formula for term of a sequence is
, then find the first five terms of the sequence.
Find a formula for the term of the sequence
P1:
If the formula for term of a sequence is
, then find the first five terms of the sequence.
Find a formula for the term of the sequence
Solution:
Given for all . Then the first five terms of
the sequence are
, , ,
Therefore, the sequence is
Given sequence is
Notice that
, , , , ,………
Therefore, for all .
P2:
Show that the sequence converges to .
P2:
Show that the sequence converges to .
Solution:
Let .
Now,
Let be given.
Therefore, whenever .
Let be a natural number greater than .
Now, for all , we have .
Thus for each given , a natural number
such that
for all .
This proves and therefore
the sequence converges to .
P3:
Prove that the sequence is convergent, where
.
P3:
Prove that the sequence is convergent, where
.
Proof:
Given ,
for all
for all
Thus, the sequence is a non-decreasing sequence.
Now, ,
for all
Thus, the sequence is bounded above by .
Therefore, by non-decreasing theorem for sequences, the
sequence is convergent.
P4:
The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.
Prove that a sequence converges to if and only if
the sequence of absolute values converges to .
P4:
The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.
Prove that a sequence converges to if and only if
the sequence of absolute values converges to .
Proof:
Let be a convergent sequence converging to and .
We intend to prove that .
Let be arbitrary. Then by definition there exist natural
numbers and such that
for all and for all
Let . Then
and for all
Now,
Notice that is non-negative. The only non-negative
number less than every positive number is . Therefore
. Thus . Hence the result.
converges to for each there exists a
natural number such that for all
for all for all
for all converges to .
1.1 Sequences
Exercises:
1. Find the first five terms of the sequence
2. Write the first ten terms of the sequence
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
3. Find the formula for term of the sequence
The sequence
The sequence
The sequence
The sequence
The sequence
The sequence
The sequence
4. Show that the sequence , where , for all
converges to .
5. Show that the sequence , where , for all
converges to .
6. Show that the sequence , where , for all
converges to
7. Show that the following sequences diverge to .
8. Show that the following are non-decreasing sequences
and discuss their convergence.
9. Show that the following are non-increasing sequences
and discuss their convergence.
1.2
Limits of Sequences
Learning objectives:
To state the rules for the algebra of convergent sequences.
To study the sequence versions of
Sandwich Theorem
Continuous Function Theorem
L’Hopital’s Rule
To prove some commonly occurring limits.
And
To practice the related problems.
Calculating Limits of Sequences
Computing limits of sequences through the formal definition by
calculating and would be a formidable task. Instead we
define a few basic results on limits and then use them to
compute the limits of many sequences. The following theorem
deals with the algebra of convergent sequences.
Theorem 1:
If and are convergent sequences of real numbers
converging to and respectively, then
1. Sum Rule:
2. Difference Rule:
3. Product Rule:
4. Constant Multiple Rule: , where
is any constant
5. Quotient Rule: , if .
Example 1:
(By Difference Rule )
(By Constant Multiple and Product Rules)
(By Quotient Rule)
(By Sum, Difference and Constant
Multiple Rules)
Remark:
Part of Theorem does not say that each of the sequences
and are convergent if their sum is
convergent. For example and
both diverge, but their sum : converges
to .
The following is a consequence of Theorem :
Corollary:
Every nonzero multiple of a divergent sequence diverges.
if is a divergent sequence then for every constant
the sequence is also divergent.
Proof: Assume the contrary. That is, converges for some
number . Now by Constant Multiple Rule the sequence
converges – a contradiction. Hence the result.
Sequence Versions of Limits of Functions
Since sequences are functions with domain , the set of
natural numbers, the theorems on limits of functions (studied
in the earlier classes) have versions for sequences.
The following theorem is the sequence version of Sandwich
Theorem.
Theorem 2: The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences
Let , and be sequences of real numbers and
for all beyond some index . If
, then .
The following is a consequence of the Sandwich Theorem for
Sequences
Corollary:
Let and be sequences of real numbers. If
and , then .
Proof follows from the fact and Sandwich
Theorem.
Example 2: Applying the Sandwich Theorem
Prove that the sequences , and all
converge to .
Notice that , for all and .
Therefore, by the Sandwich Theorem for Sequence.
Thus, converges to .
Notice that , for all .
Since , the result follows by the Corollary to Sandwich
Theorem for Sequences.
Notice that for all . The result follows
as in .
Theorem 3: The Continuous Function Theorem for Sequences
Let be a sequence of real numbers and let be a real
valued function defined at all . If converges to and
is continuous at , then the sequence converges
to .
Example 3:
Show that converges to .
Solution: First note that .
Let . It is defined at all the terms of the sequence
and is continuous at . By the above theorem
Example 4:
Show that converges to .
Solution: The sequence converges to . Let .
It is defined at all the terms of the sequence and it is
continuous at . By the above theorem
Using L’Hopital’s Rule
The following theorem enables us to use L’Hopital’s Rule to find
the limits of some sequences. It formalizes the connection
between and .
Theorem 4:
If is a differentiable function defined for all
and is a sequence of real numbers such that
for , then
Example 5: Applying L’Hopital’s Rule
Show that the sequence converges to .
Solution: Let , . Clearly is defined and
is differentiable for all , and for all . By
the above theorem is equal to , if the latter
exists. Now,
( By L’Hopital’s Rule)
Therefore, and the sequence is convergent
and converges to .
Example 6: Applying L’Hopital’s Rule to determine
convergence.
Does the sequence whose term is converge? If
so, find .
Solution: We notice that the leads to the indeterminate
form . Now, and
( By L’Hopital’s Rule)
Thus, as and so the sequence
converge to .
Some commonly occurring limits
Theorem 5:
The following six sequences converge to the limits listed below:
1.
2.
3. ,
4. ,
5. , for any
6. , for any
Proof:
1. See Example 5
2.
Using Formula 1 and Theorem 3
3.
Using and Theorem 3
4. Let be given. By Formula 3 . Since ,
there exists a natural number such that . Now,
. Therefore, for all .
Thus , where .
5. Let . Then
Now,
By L’Hopital’s Rule
By Theorem 4 with we conclude that
as .
6. For any number , we have
--------
We first prove . Choose a natural number .
Then and (By Formula 4). Now,
for .
Thus , for . As , by Sandwich
Theorem . The result now follows from by
Sandwich Theorem for Sequences. Hence the theorem.
Example 7:
Show that the sequences
converge and find their limits.
Solution:
( form, by L’Hopital’s Rule)
(By Formula 1)
(By Formula 2)
(By Formula 3 with )
We first note that (By Formula 4 with )
and by (By Formula 4 with ).
Now,
(By Theorem 1)
(By Theorem 1)
(By Formula 5)
(By Formula 6 with )
IP1:
Determine whether the sequences converge or diverge.
If converges, then find the limit.
Solution:
The given sequence is .
Now,
By Sum and Quotient Rules
By Continuous Function Theorem for Sequences)
Therefore, the given sequence converges to
The given sequence is .
Now,
By Sum, Difference, Quotient Rules and Continuous
Function Theorem for Sequences
Therefore, the given sequence diverges.
IP2:
Prove that the sequence converges to .
Solution:
The given sequence is . Notice that .
We have, . By Sandwich Theorem for
Sequences, . Thus, the sequence
converges to .
IP3:
Does the sequence whose term is
converge? If so, find .
Solution:
We notice that the leads to the indeterminate form .
Now,
and
Thus, as . Therefore, the
sequence converges to .
IP4:
Show that the sequences
converge and find
their limits.
Solution:
The given sequence is .
Now,
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now,
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now,
(By Sum and Quotient Rules)
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
P1:
Determine whether the sequences converge or diverge.
If converges, then find the limit.
P1:
Determine whether the sequences converge or diverge.
If converges, then find the limit.
Solution:
The given sequence is .
Now,
(By Quotient, Sum, Difference and Constant Multiple Rules)
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now,
(By quotient, Difference and Constant Multiple Rules)
Therefore, the given sequence diverges.
P2:
Prove that the sequence converges to .
P2:
Prove that the sequence converges to .
Solution:
The given sequence is . Notice that for all and
Thus,
We have, . By Sandwich Theorem for
Sequences, . Thus, the sequence converges to .
P3:
Does the sequence whose term is converge?
If so, find .
P3:
Does the sequence whose term is converge?
If so, find .
Solution:
We notice that the leads to the indeterminate form .
Now,
and .
Thus, as . Therefore, the sequence
converges to .
P4:
Show that the sequences
converge and find their limits.
P4:
Show that the sequences
converge and find their limits.
Solution:
The given sequence is .
Now,
(By Quotient Rule)
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now,
(By Sum Rule)
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now, (By Quotient Rule)
Therefore, the sequence converges to .
The given sequence is .
Now,
1.2 Limits of Sequences
Exercises:
1. Which of the following sequences converge, and which
diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence.
2. Which of the following sequences converge, and which
diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence.
3. Which of the following sequences converge, and which
diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence.
4. Which of the following sequences converge, and which
diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence.
1.3 Infinite Series
Learning objectives:
To define the convergence and divergence of an infinite
series of real numbers.
To discuss the convergence and divergence of Geometric
Series of real numbers.
To state the term test for divergence.
To prove the sum, difference and constant multiple rules
for convergent series.
And
To practice the related problems.
Infinite Series
In this module we study the infinite series of real numbers and
their convergence and divergence. We revisit the geometric
series and discuss its convergence and divergence. To the end
the term test for divergence of infinite series is given.
An infinite series of real numbers is the sum of an infinite
sequence of real numbers.
If is an infinite sequence of real numbers, then the
expression
is called an infinite series.
It is written in sigma notation as
an or simply an
n 1
and is called the term of the infinite series.
From here after a series means an infinite series of real
numbers.
The sequence defined by
n
ak
k 1
is called the sequence of partial sums, where is called
the partial sum of the series.
We say that the series an converges if the sequence of
n 1
partial sums converges.
If converges to a limit , then we say that the series an is
convergent and an converges to . Further, is called the sum
of the series and we write an l .
We say that the series an diverges if the sequence of
partial sums of the series does not converge.
Geometric Series:
Geometric Series are series of the form
n 1
ar
n 1
in which and are the fixed real numbers and . The
series can also be written as ar n .
n 0
Theorem 1:
The geometric series
converges to if
a
n 1
ar if .
n 1 1 r
diverges if .
Proof: Let be the partial sum of the geometric series
n 1
ar ,
n 1
If , then and the series diverges, since
, depending on the sign of . If , then
and the series diverges, since the partial sums alternate
between and .
If then we determine the convergence and divergence
of the series in the following way. We have,
, .
Now,
If then By Theorem 5 of Module 1.2) and
a
. Thus, ar n1 if .
n 1 1 r
If then as and the sequence
diverges. Thus, ar n 1 diverges if .
n 1
Hence the theorem.
Note: The formula for the sum of a geometric series applies
only when the summation index begins with in the
expression ar n 1 or with the index if we write the
n 1
series as ar n .
n 0
Example 1: Index starts with
n 1
11
1 1 1
The series is a geometric series
n 1 9 3 9 27 81
with and . It is convergent (since ) and
n 1
11 1
converges to . Thus, .
n 1 9 3 6
Example 2: Index starts with
The geometric series with and is
n
2 2 2 2 2 1
5 5 3 5 9 5 27 n 0 5 3
It converges to (since ) and
n
2 1 3
.
n 0 5 3 10
Example 3: A Bouncing Ball
A ball is dropped from a height of meters above a flat surface.
Each time the ball hits the surface after falling a distance , it
rebounds a distance , where is positive number less than .
Find the total distance the ball travels up and down if
and .
Solution: Let be the total distance travelled by the ball. First
the ball hits the surface after falling a distance . Then it
rebounds a distance , falls a distance and the total
distance is . Since it has fallen a distance , it rebounds a
distance , falls a distance and there by the total
distance is . The argument continues. Therefore,
If and then the total distance the ball travels up
and down is given by
Example 4: Repeating Decimals
Express the repeating decimal as a
rational number.
Solution:
.
A series is said to a telescoping series if the terms of ,
(the partial sum) other than first and last cancel out in
pairs.
Example 5: A non-geometric but Telescoping series
1
Find the sum of the series .
n 1 n( n 1)
Solution: Notice that
(By partial fraction decomposition)
Therefore, the partial sum
n 1 n 1 1
k 1 k ( k 1) k 1 k k 1
Cancelling the adjacent terms of opposite sign.
1
Now, . Thus, the series converges and its
n 1 n( n 1)
1
sum is . Therefore, 1.
n 1 n ( n 1)
Divergent Series
A reason for a series failing to converge is that its terms do not
become small.
Example 6: Partial Sums Outgrow Any Number
The series diverges.
Notice that for all .
Let be given. Choose a natural number . Then
Thus, diverges and diverges.
The series diverges.
Notice that each term of the series is greater than and so
for all . Let be
given. Choose a natural number . Then
Thus diverges and diverges.
Theorem 2:
If an converges, then .
n 1
Proof: Given an converges. Let be the sum of the series.
n 1
Then , where is the partial sum of the series.
Further, . Now,
Hence the theorem.
Corollary 1: The Term Test for Divergence
an diverges if or fails to exist.
n 1
Proof: We have a series an . Given or fails to
n 1
exist. Assume an is convergent. Then by the above theorem
n 1
exists and is equal to zero. This contradicts our
hypothesis. The result now follows.
Example 7: Applying the Term Test
n diverges, since
2
does not exist.
n 1
n 1
diverges, since .
n 1 n
n 1
(1) diverges, since does not exist.
n 1
n
diverges, since .
n 1 2n 5
Note: Theorem 2 does not say that an converges if
n 1
. It is possible for a series to diverge when
as .
Example 8: as but the series diverges.
n
Does the series ln converge or diverge?
n 1 n 1
Solution:
n
Consider the series an ln , where .
n 1 n 1 n 1
Note that
but the
series diverges.
Let be the partial sum of the series . Then
n k n
ln ln k ln( k 1 )
k 1 k 1 k 1
and . Thus, the sequence of
partial sums of the series diverges. Therefore, the series
diverges.
Combining Series:
If and are two given series then we can add them
term by term, subtract them term by term or multiply them by
constant to make new series. If the given series are convergent
then the series obtained as above are also convergent.
Theorem 3:
If and are convergent series, then
1. Sum Rule:
2. Difference Rule:
3. Constant Multiple Rule:
(where is any constant)
Proof: Let and be the partial sums of the series
and respectively. Since and ;
and . Let be the partial sum of
the series . Then,
n n n
(ak bk ) ak bk An Bn
k 1 k 1 k 1
and
(By Sum Rule for Sequences)
Thus, the series is convergent and converges to
. Therefore, .
Similarly, the difference rule for the convergent series can be
proved.
Let be the partial sum of the series . Then
and
(By Constant Multiple Rule for Sequences)
Thus, .
Hence the theorem.
Corollary 2: Every non-zero constant multiple of a divergent
series is divergent.
Corollary 3: If one of the series and converges and
the other diverges then both the series and
diverge.
Note: can converge when both and
both diverge.
For example, and
both diverge, where as
converges to .
Example 9:
Find the sum of the series
3n1 1 4
n1 n
n 1 6 n 1 2
Solution:
3n1 1 1 1
n1 n1 n1
n 1 6 n 1 2 6
1 1
Notice that n1 and n 1 are convergent (since they are
n 1 2 n 1 6
geometric series with )
1 1
n1 n1 (By Difference Rule for Series)
n 1 2 n 1 6
(Geometric Series with and )
4 1
n 4 n (By Constant Multiple Rule for Series)
n 0 2 n 0 2
(Geometric Series with )
Adding or Deleting Terms
Addition and deletion of a finite number of terms from a series
will not alter its convergence or divergence. However, the
addition or deletion of a finite number of terms from a
convergent series will change its sum.
Notice that for any , an a1 a2 ak 1 an
n 1 n k
If an converges to (say) then an also converges for any
n 1 nk
k 1
and it converges to an . Conversely if an
n 1 nk
converges to (say) for any then an also converges
n 1
k 1
and it converges to an .
n 1
Reindexing
Preserving the order of the terms of a series, we can reindex it
without altering its convergence.
To raise the starting value of the index units we replace the
index in the formula for by :
an anh
n 1 n 1 h
To lower starting value of index units we replace the index in
the formula for by :
an an h
n 1 n 1 h
Note: The partial sum of the series remains same no matter
what indexing we choose.
Example 10: Reindexing Geometric Series
1 1 1 1
n1 1 2 3
n 1 2 2 2 2
1
n
n 0 2
(By lowering the starting value of the index by units)
1
n 5
n 5 2
(By raising the starting value of the index by units)
IP1:
2n 1
∞
Find the sum of the series 2 .
n 1 n n 1
2
Solution:
Notice that
(By partial fraction decomposition)
Therefore, the partial sum
n 2k 1 n 1 1
2
k 1 k
2
k 12 k 1 k (k 1) 2
Cancelling the adjacent terms of opposite sign.
2n 1
Now, . Thus, the series converges and
n 1 n
2
n 1 2
2n 1
its sum is . Therefore, 1.
n 1 n
2
n 1 2
IP2:
A ball is dropped from a height of . Each time it strikes the
pavement after falling from a height of meters, it rebounds
to a height meters. Find the total distance the ball
travels up and down.
Solution:
A ball is dropped from a height of meters. Each time the ball
hits the surface after falling a distance meters, it rebounds a
distance meters. Then the total distance the ball travels
up and down is given by
Here and . Therefore, the total distance ball
travels up and down is
.
IP3:
1
Does the series n tan converge or diverge.
n 1 n
Solution:
1
The given series is ntan . Let .
n 1 n
Now,
( By L’Hopital’s Rule)
1
By the term test for divergence, the series ntan
n 1 n
diverges.
IP4:
for which the series ln x converges.
n
Find the values of
n 0
Also, find the sum of the series for those values of .
Solution:
The given series ln x is a geometric series with
n
and
n 0
.
The given series converges if
Therefore, the series converges to when .
P1:
1 ( 1)n
Find the sum of the series n n .
n 0 2 5
P1:
1 ( 1)n
Find the sum of the series n n .
n 0 2 5
Solution:
1 (1) n
The given series is n n .
n 0 2 5
1 ( 1) n 1 ( 1) n
n n n n (By Sum Rule for Series)
n 0 2 5 n 0 2 n 0 5
n
1 1
n
n 0 2 n 0 5
(Geometric Series with and )
1 (1) n
Thus, the series n n converges and its sum is .
n 0 2 5
1 (1) n 17
Therefore, n n .
n 0 2 5 6
P2:
Express the number as a rational number.
P2:
Express the number as a rational number.
Solution:
(Geometric Series with and )
P3:
n
1
Does the series 1 converge or diverge.
n 1 n
P3:
n
1
Does the series 1 converge or diverge.
n 1 n
Solution:
n
1
The given series is 1 . Let .
n 1 n
Now,
n
1
By the term test for divergence, the series 1
n 1 n
diverges.
P4:
n
x 1
Find the values of for which the series 3 converges.
n 0 2
Also, find the sum of the series for those values of .
P4:
n
x 1
Find the values of for which the series 3 converges.
n 0 2
Also, find the sum of the series for those values of .
Solution:
n
x 1
The given series 3 is a geometric series with
n 0 2
and .
The series converges if
Therefore, the series converges to
when .
1.3 Infinite Series
Exercises:
1. Find the sum of the following series.
1n 1 7 5
1
n
n n
n 0 4n n2 4 n 1 4 n 0 4n
5 1 5 1 2n1
n n n n n
n 0 2 3 n 0 2 3 n 0 5
2. Find the sum of the following series.
4 6
n 1 4n 3 4n 1 n 1 2n 1 2n 1
40n 1 1
n 1 2n 12 2n 12 n 1 n n 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
n 1 n 1 ln n 2 ln n 1
2 n 2 n 1
tan n tan n 1
1 1
n 1
3. Express each of the following numbers as a rational number.
4. Find which of the following series converge and which
diverge? If a series converges, then find its sum.
n
1
n 3
1
n
2
n 0 2 n 0 n 1 2n
cos n
1 n cos n
n
n
n 1 n 0 n 0 5
1 2
2 n
e ln n
n 0 n 1 n n 110
1 2n 1 n!
n , x 1 n
n 0 x
n
n 0 3 n 0 1000
nn n n
ln ln
n 1 n! n 1 n 1 n 1 2n 1
e n
n
e
ne
n 0 n 0
5. Find the values of for which the following series
converges. Also, find the sum of the series (as a function
of ) for those values of .
1n
n
1
1 x 1 x
n n
n 2n
n 0 n 0 n 0 2 3 sin x
1 x 1 x 1
2 n
n n n
2 x
n n
n 0 n 0 n 0
n
1
x 3 n
sin x
n
n 0 2 n 0
1.4
Integral Test
Learning objectives:
To state and prove integral test for the convergence and
divergence of series of positive real numbers.
To study convergence and divergence of , the -series.
And
To practice the related problems.
Integral Test
In this module we consider series with non negative terms. We
state and prove integral test for the series positive real
numbers and we discuss the convergence and divergence of
-series.
Series of non-negative real numbers
Let an be an infinite series with for all . Then
n 1
each partial sum is greater than or equal to its predecessor,
, since for all . Thus,
is a non-decreasing sequence.
By Non-decreasing Sequence Theorem, converges if and
only if it is bounded above. Thus the series an , ,
n 1
converges if and only if the sequence of its partial sums is
bounded above. Thus we have the following result.
Theorem 1:
A series an of non negative terms converges if and only if its
n 1
sequence of partial sums is bounded above.
The Harmonic Series
1 1 1 1
The series 1 is called the harmonic
n 1 n 2 3 n
series.
Theorem 2:
The harmonic series is divergent.
Solution:
1
We have the harmonic series . It is an infinite series with
n 1 n
non-negative terms. We will show that the sequence of
partial sums is not bounded above. We group the terms of the
series in the following way:
Notice that the sum of the first two terms is . The sum of the
next two terms .
The sum of the next four terms
and so on. In general, the sum of terms ending with is
greater than . Now, notice that, if , then the
partial sum .
Assume that is bounded above by (say). Then for
we have
a contradiction. Thus, is not bounded above. By Theorem 1
1
the harmonic series is divergent.
n 1 n
Theorem 3: The Integral Test
Let be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose ,
where is a continuous, positive valued decreasing function
of for , where is a natural number. Then the series
an and f ( x ) dx both converge or both diverge.
n N N
Proof:
We establish the test for the case . The proof for general
is similar.
Under the given conditions for , we notice that the rectangles
in fig (a) have areas and their sum enclose more
area than the area under the curve from to
.
n 1
Therefore, f ( x) dx a1 a2 an
1
In fig (b) the rectangles are faced to the left instead of right.
Then notice that
n
a2 a3 an f ( x) dx
1
n
Now, a1 a2 a3 an a1 f ( x) dx
1
Combining these results, we get
n 1 n
f ( x) dx a1 a2 an a1 f ( x) dx
1 1
These inequalities hold for each and continue to hold as
If f ( x) dx is finite, f ( x) dx converge, then the right hand
1 1
inequality shows that an is finite, an converge.
n 1 n 1
If f ( x) dx is not finite, f ( x) dx diverge, then the left hand
1 1
inequality shows that an is infinite, an diverge.
n 1 n 1
Hence the series and integral are both converge or diverge.
Thus, the Integral Test is proved.
1 1 1 1 1
-series: The series p
p
p
p
p
where
n 1 n 1 2 3 n
is a (real) constant is called a -series.
The -series with is the harmonic series.
Theorem 4:
The -series
1 1 1 1 1
p
p
p
p
p
n 1 n 1 2 3 n
where is a (real) constant, converges if and diverges if
.
Proof: If then is a continuous, positive valued
and decreasing function for .
Now, , and
b
1 b
p x p 1
f ( x) dx p dx lim x dx lim
b 1 b p 1
1 1 x 1
1 1 1
lim p 1 1
1 p b b 1 p
1
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test the series p
1 n 1 n
converges.
(Note: The sum of the -series is not . The series converges,
but the value to which it converges is not known)
If then and
1
1
f ( x ) dx p
1 x
dx
1
1 p b
lim b1 p 1
1
Thus, f ( x) dx diverges. By integral test the series p
1 n 1 n
diverges.
If , then we have divergent harmonic series
1 1 1 1
1
n 1 n 2 3 n
Hence the theorem.
Example 1: A Convergent Series
1
Prove that the series 2 converges.
n 1 n 1
Solution: Let . Note that is positive,
continuous and decreasing for and
1 b
2 dx lim tan x lim tan 1 b tan 1 1
1
1 x 1 b 1 b
1
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test f ( x)
n 1 n 1
2
1 n 1
also converges.
Note: is not the sum of the series.
Logarithmic -series:
The series
1 1 1 1 1
n 2 n ln n 2 ln 2 3 ln 3 4 ln 4 n ln n
p p p p p
where is a real constant is called a Logarithmic -series.
Theorem 5:
The logarithmic p-series
1 1 1 1 1
n 2 n lnn 2 ln 2 3 ln 3 4 ln 4 n lnn
p p p p p
where is a real constant, converges if and diverges if
.
Proof:
Let . Note that is positive, continuous and
decreasing for and
1 1
f ( x )dx dx du where
x ln x
p p
2 2 ln 2 u
b
u p 1 1 p 1
lim lim b p 1 ln 2
b p 1
ln 2 1 p b
1
dx lim ln(ln x )2 lim ln(lnb ) ln(ln 2 )
b
For :
2 xln x b b
Thus, f ( x) dx converges if and diverges if .
2
1
By integral test f ( n ) also converges if
n2 n2 n ln n p
and diverges if . Hence the theorem.
IP1:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
1
.
n 1 n
n 1
Solution:
Let . Note that is positive, continuous
and decreasing for and
1
f ( x) dx dx
1 1 x
x 1
b 1 b 1 du
lim dx lim 2
b 1 x x 1 b 2 u
(where )
1
Thus, f ( x) dx diverges. By integral test f (n)
1 n 1 n 1 n n 1
also diverges.
IP2:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
n
ne .
n 1
Solution:
Let . Notice that is positive, continuous and
decreasing for and
b
x
f ( x) dx xe dx lim xe x dx
1 1 b 1
b
lim xe x e x
b 1
lim beb eb 2e1
b
b
2e1 lim
b eb
1
2e1 lim b (By L’Hopital’s Rule)
b e
2e1
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test f (n) ne n also
1 n 1 n 1
converges.
IP3:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
1
.
n 1 n 1 ln n
2
Solution:
Let . Notice that is positive, continuous
and decreasing for and
1 du
f ( x )dx dx
1 1
x 1 ln x
2
0 1 u
2
(where ; )
du b
1
b 1
lim lim tan u lim tan b
b 0 1 u 2 b 0 b 2
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test
1
1
f(n)
also converges.
n 1 ln n
2
n 1 n 1
IP4:
Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent
Solution:
The given series
1
3
is convergent because it
n 1 n
is a -series with .
The given series
1 1
3
is
n 1 n n n 1 2
n
convergent because it is a -series with .
P1:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
n
2 .
n 1 n 1
P1:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
n
2 .
n 1 n 1
Solution:
Let . Note that is positive, continuous and
decreasing for and
b
x b x 1
f ( x) dx 2 dx lim 2 dx lim ln ( x 2 1)
1 1 x 1 b 1 x 1 b 2 1
n
Thus, f ( x) dx diverges. By integral test f (n) also
n 1 n 1
2
1 n 1
diverges.
P2:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
en
2n .
n 1 e 1
P2:
Use integral test to determine the convergence of the series
en
2n .
n 1 e 1
Solution:
Let . Notice that is positive, continuous and
decreasing for and
ex 1
f ( x) dx 2 x dx 2 du
1 1 e 1 e u 1
(where )
b 1 b
lim 2 du lim tan 1 u
b e u 1 b e
lim tan 1 b tan 1 e tan 1 e
b 2
en
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test f (n) 2 n
1 n 1 n 1 e 1
also converges.
P3:
Which of the following series converge and which diverge
1 1 1 1
n 2 n ln n n 2 n ln n
1.01 3 3
n 2 n ln n n 2 n ln n
P3:
Which of the following series converge and which diverge
1 1 1 1
n 2 n ln n n 2 n ln n
1.01 3 3
n 2 n ln n n 2 n ln n
Solution:
The logarithmic p-series
1 1 1 1 1
n 2 n ln n 2 ln 2 3 ln 3 4 ln 4 n ln n
p p p p p
where is a real constant, converges if and diverges if
.
1
The given series is the Logarithmic -series
n2 nln n
for . Therefore, it diverges.
1
The given series is the Logarithmic
n 2 n ln n
1.01
-series for . Therefore, it converges.
1 1 1
The given series 3
is the Logarithmic
n 2 nln n 3 n2 nln n
-series for . Therefore, it diverges.
1
The given series is the Logarithmic
n 2 n ln n
3
-series for . Therefore, it converges.
P4:
Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent
2
1.4
0.85 n 3n1.2
n 1 n n 1
P4:
Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent
2
1.4
0.85 n 3n1.2
n 1 n n 1
Solution:
2
The given series 0.85
is divergent by -series test
n 1 n
because .
The given series is n 1.4 3n 1.2 .
n 1
n
1.4 1.2 1.4
Now, n 3n 3 n 1.2
n 1 n 1 n 1
1 1
1.4 3 1.2
n 1 n n 1 n
1 1
Both series 1.4 and 1.2 are convergent by -series test
n 1 n n 1 n
because and sum of the convergent series is
also convergent. Thus, the series n 1.4 3n 1.2 is
n 1
convergent.
1.4 Integral Test
Exercises:
1. Determine which of the following series converge and
which diverge?
5 2 ln n 1
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n n 1 2n 1
1
ln n
n 2
n 11 e
n
n 1 n
n 1 ln n ln n
2
1
8 tan 1 n
sec h n sec h n
2
n 1 1 n
2
n 1 n 1
n2 2n3 1
3 4
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 3 n2 1
n2 n
2. Determine which of the following series converge and
which diverge?
3 2 8 3
3
n 1 n n 1 n n n 1 n n 1 n
1.5
Comparison Tests
Learning objectives:
To state and prove the comparison and limit comparison
tests for the convergence of the series of real numbers.
And
To practice the related problems.
Comparison Tests
We have learnt how to determine the convergence of
geometric series, -series and a few others. We can test the
convergence of many more series by comparing their terms to
those of a series whose convergence is known.
Theorem 1: The Comparison Test
Let be a series with non negative terms.
converges if there is a convergent series with
for all , for some natural number .
diverges if there is a divergent series of non negative
terms with for all , for some natural
number .
Proof:
We have the series with non negative terms.
Let be the sequence of partial sums of the series.
Clearly, it is a non-decreasing sequence.
Given that there is a convergent series with
for all , for some natural number . Thus, cn is finite
n 1
and cn is also finite. Then
n N 1
cn
n N 1
is a finite real number and for all . Thus, is
bounded above. Therefore, converges by Theorem 1 of
Module 1.4.
Given that there is a divergent series of non negative
terms with for all , for some natural number .
Let be the sequence of partial sums of . Then
is a non-decreasing sequence (since each is non-negative).
Required to prove that diverges. In the light of Theorem
of Module , it is sufficient to prove that , the sequence
of partial sums of is not bounded above.
Assume that is bounded above. Then by Theorem of
Module , is convergent. Therefore, is finite, and
so an is also finite. Then
n N 1
an
n N 1
is finite. Clearly , for all . By Theorem 1 of
Module , is convergent. – a contradiction.
The result now follows. Hence the result.
Example1: Applying the Comparison Test
Discuss the convergence and divergence of the series
1
n 0 n!
Solution:
We have the series
1 1 1 1 1
1
n 0 n! 1! 2 ! 3! 4 !
Notice that the terms are all positive and are less than or equal
to the corresponding terms of the series
1 1 1 1
1 n 1 1 2 3
n 0 2 2 2 2
1
Further, 1 n is a geometric series and converges to
n 0 2
1
. Thus, by comparison test the series
n 0 n!
converges.
Note: We see that is an upper bound for the sequence of
1
partial sums of the series . It does not mean that the
n 0 n!
1
series converges to . Infact the series converges to .
n 0 n!
Notice that for all the term
of the series is greater than the term of the
harmonic series . Since is divergent, the series is
also divergent by comparison test.
We have the series
Notice that the first three terms do not follow a pattern and so
we ignore these first three terms. After deleting these terms we
1
see that the series is n . Observe that for
n 0 2 n
1
and n is a convergent geometric series.
n 0 2
1
Therefore the series n is convergent by comparison
n 0 2 n
test. The given series is convergent since the convergence and
divergence of a series is not altered by adding or deleting a finite
number of terms.
The Limit Comparison Test
The following comparison test is useful for series in which the
term is a rational function of .
Theorem 2: Limit Comparison Test
Let and be series and , for all ,
for some natural number .
If , then and both converge or
both diverge.
If and converges, then converges.
If and diverges, then diverges.
Proof:
Suppose that . Then for , there exists a
natural number such that for all .
Thus,
If converges, then converges and
, converges by comparison test.
If diverges, then diverges and
, diverges by comparison test.
This proves the first part of the theorem.
Suppose that . Then for , there exists a
natural number such that
for all .
Thus,
If converges then converges by comparison test.
Suppose that . Given , there is a natural
number such that
, for all
Thus, . Now, diverges whenever
diverges by comparison test.
Hence the theorem.
Example 2: Using the Limit Comparison Test
Discuss the convergence and divergence of the series
Solution:
The given series is
an where ,
n 1
Clearly, . Notice that for large values of , behave
like (since leading terms dominate for large values of ).
Now, take , and consider the series . Observe
that .
By part of limit comparison test and both converge
or both diverge. Since is divergent; is also
divergent.
The given series is
an
n 1
where , Clearly, . Notice that for
large values of , behaves like . Now, take ,
and consider the series . Observe that
By part of limit comparison test and both converge
or both diverge. Since is convergent; is also
convergent.
The given series is
1 nln n
2 an
n2 n 5 n2
where , , . Clearly , ,
Notice that for large values of , behaves like .
Further, for . Now, take , , and
consider the series bn . Notice that
n 3
by L’Hopital’s Rule
by L’Hopital’s Rule
1
and bn diverges. By part of limit comparison test
n 3 n 3 n
an is also diverges.
n2
Note: grows slower than for any positive constant .
Notice that for any positive constant ,
Thus, grows slower than for any positive constant .
Example 3:
ln n
Does the series 32
converge?
n 1 n
Solution:
It is known that grows slower than for any positive
constant . Now,
for sufficiently large . Now, taking and ,
–
we have
By part of limit comparison test converges if
converges. Clearly converges if
– –
. For any , converges.
Therefore, converges.
IP1:
n
n
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 3 n 1
Solution:
n
n
The given series is . Notice that
n 1 3n 1
for all ,
n
n
the term of the series is less than the
n 1 3n 1
1 1
term of the geometric series n . Since n is convergent,
n 1 3 n 1 3
n
n
the series is also convergent by Comparison Test.
n 1 3n 1
IP2:
n 2n
Test the convergence of the series 2 n .
n 1 n 2
Solution:
n 2n 1 1
The given series is 2 n n 2 . Notice that
n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2 n
for all ,
1 1
the term of the series n 2 is less than or
n 1 n 2 n
1 1
equal to the term of the series n 2 .
n 1 2 n
1 1 1 1
Notice that n 2 is convergent, since n and 2
n 1 2 n n 1 2 n 1 n
are convergent. Thus, the given series is convergent by
Comparison Test.
IP3:
Test the convergence of the series
Solution:
The given series is
n 1q
an
n 1 np n 1
where , . Clearly, .
Notice that for large values of , behaves like .
Now, take , and consider the series bn .
n 1
Observe that
By part of Limit Comparison Test an and bn both
n 1 n 1
1
converge or both diverge. Clearly bn p q
is convergent
n 1 n 1 n
if and is divergent if .
Therefore, the given series is convergent if and is
divergent if .
IP4:
n
1 n 2
Test the convergence of the series 3 .
n 1 n n 3
Solution:
The given series is
n
1 n2
3 an , where , .
n 1 n n 3 n 1
Clearly, . Notice that for large values of , behaves
like . Now, take , and consider the series bn .
n 1
Observe that
.
By part of Limit Comparison Test an and bn both
n 1 n 1
1
converge or both diverge. Since bn 3
is convergent;
n 1 n 1 n
an is also convergent.
n 1
P1:
sin2 n
Test the convergence of the series n
.
n 1 2
P1:
sin2 n
Test the convergence of the series n
.
n 1 2
Solution:
sin 2 n
The given series is n . Notice that for all ,
n 1 2
sin 2 n
the term of the series n is less than or equal to
n 1 2
1 1
the term of the geometric series n . Since n is
n 1 2 n 1 2
sin 2 n
convergent, the series n is also convergent by
n 1 2
Comparison Test.
P2:
1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 3 ln ln n
P2:
1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 3 ln ln n
Solution:
1
The given series is . Notice that
n 3 ln ln n
for all ,
1
the term of the series is greater than the
n 3 ln ln n
1 1
term of the series . Since is divergent, the series
n 3 n n 3 n
1
is also divergent by Comparison Test.
n 3 ln ln n
P3:
n
Does the series converge or diverge.
n 1 1 n n1
P3:
n
Does the series converge or diverge.
n 1 1 n n1
Solution:
The given series is
n
an , where ,
n 11 n n 1 n 1
Clearly, . Notice that for large values of , behaves
like . Now, take , and consider the
series bn . Observe that
n 1
By part of Limit Comparison Test an and bn both
n 1 n 1
1
converge or both diverge. Since bn is divergent
n 1 n 1 n
by -series test; an is also divergent.
n 1
P4:
1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 1 ln n
P4:
1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 1 ln n
Solution:
The given series is
1
an , where ,
n 1 1 ln n n 1
Clearly, . Notice that for large values of , behaves
like . Now, take , and consider the series bn .
n 1
Observe that
1
and bn is divergent. By part of Limit Comparison
n 1 n 1 n
Test an is also divergent.
n 1
1.5 Comparison Tests
Exercises:
1. Which of the following series converge and which diverge.
1 3 1 cos n
n 1 2 n n n 1 n n n2
3
n 1
n 1 1 1
2
n 2 ln n
2
n 1 n n n 1 n3 2
1 n 1 n
2
n 1 n 1
n
n2 n n2 1 n 1 n 2
1 1 10n 1
n1 sin
n 1 3 1 n 1 n n 1 n n 1 n 2
5n3 3n tan 1 n sec 1 n
2 1.1 1.3
n 3 n n 2 n 5
2
n 1 n n 1 n
coth n tanh n 1
2 2 n
n 1 n n 1 n n 1 n n
nn n 1
2
n 1 n n 11 2 3 n
1
n 11 2 3 n2
2 2 2
1.6
The Ratio and Root Tests
Learning objectives:
To learn the Ratio Test and the Root Test for the
convergence and divergence of series of real numbers.
And
To practice the related problems.
The Ratio and Root Tests
This module is devoted for the study of two tests of
convergence and divergence of series of real numbers. The
tests under discussion are 𝑖 The Ratio Test and 𝑖𝑖 The Root
Test.
The Ratio Test measures the rate of growth (or decline) of a
𝑎 𝑛 +1
series 𝑎𝑛 by examining the ratio . For geometric series
𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑟 𝑛 +1
𝑎𝑟 𝑛 , this rate is a constant = 𝑟 and the series
𝑎𝑟 𝑛
converges if and only if its ratio is less than 1 in absolute value.
The Ratio Test is a powerful rule extending that result.
Theorem 1: The Ratio Test (D’ Alembert’s Test)
Let 𝒂𝒏 be a series with positive terms and suppose that
𝒂𝒏+𝟏
𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒍. Then
𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏
𝒊 The series converges if 𝒍 < 1
𝒊𝒊 The series diverges if 𝒍 > 1 or 𝒍 is infinite.
𝒊𝒊𝒊 The test is inconclusive if 𝒍 = 𝟏.
Proof:
𝑎 𝑛 +1
We have a series 𝑎𝑛 , with 𝑎𝑛 > 0 and lim = 𝑙.
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛
𝑖 Suppose 𝑙 < 1 and 𝑟 is a number such that 𝑙 < 𝑟 < 1. Then
𝜖 = 𝑟 − 𝑙 > 0. For this 𝜖 > 0, there is a natural number 𝑁 such
that
𝑎 𝑛 +1
< 𝑙 + 𝜖 = 𝑟 , for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁
𝑎𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑎𝑁+1 < 𝑟𝑎𝑁 ,
𝑎𝑁+2 < 𝑟𝑎𝑁+1 < 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑁 ,
𝑎𝑁+3 < 𝑟𝑎𝑁+2 < 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑁+1 < 𝑟 3 𝑎𝑁 ,
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
𝑎𝑁+𝑚 < 𝑟𝑎𝑁+𝑚 −1 < 𝑟 𝑚 𝑎𝑁 ,
… … ….
Now, consider the series 𝑐𝑛 , where 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 for 𝑛 = 1,2, … , 𝑁
and 𝑐𝑁+1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑁 , 𝑐𝑁+2 = 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑁 , … , 𝑐𝑁+𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑚 𝑎𝑁 , …
Clearly, 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑐𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 and
cn = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁−1 + 𝑎𝑁 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + ⋯
n 1
Since 𝑟 < 1, the geometric series 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + ⋯ converges
and so 𝑐𝑛 converges. By Comparison Test 𝑎𝑛 converges.
Thus, 𝑎𝑛 converges if 𝑙 < 1.
𝑎 𝑛 +1
𝑖𝑖 Suppose 𝑙 > 1 or 𝑙 is infinite. Since lim = 𝑙 > 1;
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 +1
> 1 for some index 𝑁 onwards, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑛+1 > 𝑎𝑛 , ∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.
𝑎𝑛
Thus, 𝑎𝑁 < 𝑎𝑁+1 < 𝑎𝑁+2 < ⋯
That is the terms of the series are growing and do not approach
zero as 𝑛 → ∞. Therefore, by 𝑛th Term Test the series diverges.
Thus, 𝑎𝑛 diverges if 𝑙 > 1 or 𝑙 is infinite.
1 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 Suppose 𝑙 = 1. Consider the series and .
𝑛 𝑛2
1 𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑛
For , lim = lim =1
𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
1 𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑛 2
For , lim = lim =1
𝑛2 𝑛 →∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
In both the cases 𝑙 = 1, yet the first series diverges where as
the second series converges (by 𝑝-series Test). Therefore the
Ratio Test is inconclusive if 𝑙 = 1.
Hence the theorem
Note: The Ratio Test is effective when the terms of a series
contain factorial expressions involving 𝑛 or expressions raised
to a power of 𝑛.
Example 1: Applying the Ratio Test
Investigate the convergence and divergence of the series
4n n!
2
2n 5 2n
𝑖
n 0 3
n
𝑖𝑖
n 1
n!
𝑖𝑖𝑖
n 1
2n !
Solution:
2n 5
𝑖 For the series
n 0 3
n ,
2 𝑛 +1 +5 5
𝑎 3 𝑛 +1 1 2+ 𝑛 2
lim 𝑎𝑛 +1 = lim 2 𝑛 +5 = lim 2
5 =3<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛→∞ 1+ 𝑛
3𝑛 2
2
The series converges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 = 3 < 1.
2
Note: This does not mean that 3 is the sum of the series.
n
2n 5 2
1 1 1 21
Notice that 5 5 .
n0
n n 2 1
n 0 3
3 n 0 3 1 1 2
3 3
2n
𝑖𝑖 For the series
n 1
n!
2 𝑛 +1
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1 ! 2
lim = lim 2𝑛 = lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
𝑛!
The series converges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 = 0 < 1.
4 𝑛 𝑛! 2
𝑖𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑎𝑛 = . Then
2𝑛 !
𝑎 𝑛 +1 4𝑛 +1 ∙ 𝑛+1 ! 𝑛+1 ! 2𝑛 ! 2𝑛+2
lim = lim ∙ 4 𝑛 ∙𝑛!∙𝑛! = lim =1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+2 ! 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1
Since 𝑙 = 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive.
To decide the convergence or divergence of the series, we look
for the other tests.
𝑎 𝑛 +1 2𝑛+2
Notice that = 2𝑛+1 > 1 for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵. Thus, 𝑎𝑛+1 is always
𝑎𝑛
greater than 𝑎𝑛 . Further each term is greater than or equal to
𝑎1 = 2. Therefore, the 𝑛th term does not approach to 0
as 𝑛 → ∞. Thus, 𝑎𝑛 diverges by the 𝑛th Term Test.
Theorem 2: The Root Test (Cauchy’s nth Root Test)
Let 𝒂𝒏 be a series with 𝒂𝒏 ≥ 𝟎 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝑴, for some natural
number 𝑴 and suppose that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒏 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒍. Then
𝒏→∞
𝒊 The series converges if 𝒍 < 1
𝒊𝒊 The series diverges if 𝒍 > 1 or 𝒍 is infinite
𝒊𝒊𝒊 The test is inconclusive if 𝒍 = 𝟏.
Proof:
We have a series 𝑎𝑛 , with 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 0 for 𝑛 ≥ 𝑀, for some
natural number 𝑀 and lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙.
𝑛→∞
𝒊 Suppose 𝑙 < 1. Choose an 𝜖 > 0 such that 𝑙 + 𝜖 < 1. For
this 𝜖, there exists a natural number 𝑁 ≥ 𝑀, such that
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙 < 𝜖, for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁,
𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑙 + 𝜖, for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁
⟹ 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑙 + 𝜖 𝑛 , for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.
n
Notice that l converges, since it is a geometric series
n N
with common ratio 𝑙 + 𝜖 < 1. By Comparison Test 𝑎𝑛
converges.
𝑖𝑖 Suppose 𝑙 > 1 or 𝑙 is infinite. There exists a natural number
𝑛
𝑁 ≥ 𝑀 such that 𝑎𝑛 > 1, for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑎𝑛 > 1 for all
𝑛 ≥ 𝑁. Thus, the terms of the series do not converge to zero
and therefore, 𝑎𝑛 diverges by 𝑛th Term Test.
1 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 Suppose 𝑙 = 1. Consider the series and . Notice
𝑛 𝑛2
that lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 1 in both the cases, but the first series
𝑛→∞
diverges and the second converges. These two series show that
the test is not conclusive when 𝑙 = 1.
Hence the theorem
Example 3: Applying the Root Test
Which of the following series converges and which diverges?
n
n2 2n 1
𝑖
n 1 2
n
𝑖𝑖
n 1 n
2
𝑖𝑖𝑖
n 1
1 n
Solution:
n2
𝑖 For the series
n 1 2
n
, we have
𝑛 2
𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑙 = lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim =2<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2
The series converges by the Root Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
2n
𝑖𝑖 For the series
n 1
n 2
, we have
2
𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = lim 2 =2>1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
The series diverges by Root Test, since 𝑙 > 1.
n
1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 For the series , we have
n 1 1 n
1
𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = lim =0<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛
The series converges by the Root Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
Example 4:
𝑛
if 𝑛 is odd
2𝑛
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 1 , Does the series 𝑎𝑛 converge?
if 𝑛 is even
2𝑛
Solution:
𝑛
𝑛
if 𝑛 is odd
We have 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 2
1
if 𝑛 is even
2
𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑛
Therefore, ≤ 𝑎𝑛 ≤ for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵.
2 2
1
Now, 𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 2 by Sandwich Theorem, since
𝑛→∞
𝑛
1 𝑛 1
lim = lim = 2 . Thus, the series 𝑎𝑛 converges by Root
𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛→∞ 2
Test since 𝑙 < 1.
Example 5:
Does the series
n 1n converge or diverge?
n 1 n n 1
Solution:
𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛
Let 𝑎𝑛 = = . Then
𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛 𝑛 ∙𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 1
𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = lim 1 = lim ∙ lim 1 =1∙1=1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛∙𝑛 𝑛
Since 𝑙 = 1, the test is inconclusive from the Root test. To
decide the convergence or divergence of the series we look for
other tests.
1 𝑛 𝑛
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = ; 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵. Clearly 𝑎𝑛 > 0 ∀𝑛.
𝑛 𝑛+1
1
Notice that for large values of 𝑛, 𝑎𝑛 behave like 𝑛 . Now, take
1
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵 and consider the series 𝑏𝑛 . Observe that
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 1
lim = lim = lim 1 𝑛
=𝑒>0
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛
By part 𝑖 of Limit Comparison Test, 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 both
1
converge or both diverge. Since 𝑏𝑛 = is divergent; 𝑎𝑛 is
𝑛
also divergent.
IP1:
1 3 5 2n 1
Test the convergence of the series 2 4 6 2n 3 n
1
.
n 1
Solution:
1∙3∙5⋯ 2𝑛−1
Let 𝑎𝑛 = . Then
2∙4∙6∙∙∙ 2𝑛 3𝑛 +1
𝑎 𝑛 +1 1∙3∙5⋯ 2𝑛+1 2∙4∙6∙∙∙2𝑛. 3 𝑛 +1
𝑙 = lim = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2∙4∙6∙∙∙2𝑛. 2𝑛+2 3𝑛 +1 +1 1∙3∙5⋯ 2𝑛−1
2𝑛+1 3𝑛 +1
= lim .
𝑛 →∞ 2𝑛+2 3𝑛 +1 +1
1 1
1+ 1+ 𝑛
2𝑛 3
= lim 1 1
𝑛 →∞ 1+ 3+ 𝑛
𝑛 3
1 1
=1∙3 =3
1
The series converges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 = < 1.
3
IP2:
Test the convergence of the series
nn
n
𝒊 n!e 𝒊𝒊
n 1 n 1 n!
Solution:
𝑛!
𝑖 Let 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! 𝑒 −𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 . Then
𝑎 𝑛+1 ! 𝑒 𝑛 𝑛 +1
𝑙= lim 𝑎𝑛 +1 = lim ∙ 𝑛! = lim =∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑒 𝑛 +1 𝑛 →∞ 𝑒
The series diverges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 is infinite.
𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑎𝑛 = . Then
𝑛!
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑛+1 𝑛 +1 𝑛! 𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑙 = lim = lim ∙ 𝑛 𝑛 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 ! 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
= lim 1 + = 𝑒 ∵ lim 1 + = 𝑒𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
The series diverges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 = 𝑒 > 1.
IP3:
3n
Test the convergence of the series 3 n .
n 1 n 2
Solution:
3𝑛
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 3 2𝑛 . Then
1
3𝑛 𝑛
𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 3 2𝑛
1
3 3 1 3
= lim 1 3
=2∙ 1 3
=2 ∵ lim 𝑛 = 1
𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
𝑛 𝑛 ∙2 lim 𝑛𝑛
𝑛 →∞
The series diverges by the Root Test, since 𝑙 > 1.
IP4:
n 1 n
Test the convergence of the series 3 .
n 1
Solution:
n 1n
The given series is 3 .
n 1
𝑛 3−𝑛 ∙ 3−1 , if 𝑛 is even
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 3−𝑛− −1 = −𝑛
3 ∙ 3 , if 𝑛 is odd
1
− 1 1
3−1 ∙3 𝑛 =3∙ 1 , if 𝑛 is even
𝑛 3𝑛
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 1 1
1
3−1 ∙3 = ∙3
𝑛 𝑛 , if 𝑛 is odd
3
1
𝑛 1
Therefore, 𝑙 = lim 𝑎𝑛 = ∵ lim 𝑥 = 1 if 𝑥 > 0
𝑛
𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛→∞
Thus, the series 𝑎𝑛 converges by Root Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
P1:
Test the convergence of the series
n 3 ! .
n 1 3 ! n! 3n
P1:
Test the convergence of the series
n 3 ! .
n 1 3 ! n! 3n
Solution:
𝑛+3 !
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 3!𝑛!3𝑛 . Then
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑛+4 ! 3!𝑛!3𝑛
𝑙 = lim = lim ∙
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3! 𝑛+1 !3 𝑛 +1 𝑛+3 !
𝑛+4 1
= lim =3
𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛+1
1
The series converges by Ratio Test, since 𝑙 = 3 < 1.
P2:
2n 2
Test the convergence of the series n .
n 1 2 1
P2:
2n 2
Test the convergence of the series n .
n 1 2 1
Solution:
2 𝑛 −2
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 +1 . Then
𝑎 𝑛 +1 2𝑛 +1 −2 2𝑛 +1
𝑙 = lim = lim ∙
𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 +1 +1 2𝑛 −2
2 1
2− 𝑛 1+ 𝑛
2 2
= lim 1 ∙ 2 =1
𝑛→∞ 2+2𝑛 1− 𝑛
2
Since 𝑙 = 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive. To decide the
convergence or divergence of the series we look for the other
tests.
2
2𝑛 −2 1− 𝑛
2
Now, lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = lim 1 = 1 ≠ 0 and
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 +1 𝑛→∞ 1+2𝑛
𝑎𝑛 diverges by the 𝑛th Term Test.
P3:
n2
n
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 n 1 n2
P3:
n2
n
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 n 1 n2
Solution:
2
𝑛𝑛
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 2. Then
𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑙 = lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑛+1 𝑛 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
𝑛
1 1 1
= lim 1 = 1 𝑛
=𝑒<1
𝑛→∞ 1+ lim 1+
𝑛 𝑛 →∞ 𝑛
The series converges by the Root Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
P4:
n
n 1 n 1 n 1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 n n
P4:
n
n 1 n 1 n 1
Test the convergence of the series .
n 1 n n
Solution:
−𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1
Let 𝑎𝑛 = − . Then
𝑛 𝑛
−1
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑙 = lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim −
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
1 1
= lim 1 𝑛 +1
= lim 1 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 1+ −
1
1+ 𝑛→∞ 1+ 1 1+ −1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1
= lim 1 ∙ lim 1 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 1+ 𝑛 →∞ 1+ −1
𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑥 𝑛
= <1 ∵ lim 1 +𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑒−1 𝑛→∞
The series converges by the Root Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
The Ratio and Root Tests
Exercises:
I. Which of the following series converge and which diverge.
n 2 n!
1 n 2 n 2e n 3 n
n 1 2 n 1 n 110
n n
n10 n2 3
4 n 5 6 1
n 110 n 1 n n 1 n
7 1
1
n
ln n n 1 1
n
8 9 2
n 1 3n n 1 n n
n
n 1 n
n 1 n 2
n ln n
10 n
11 12 e n n3
n 1 2 n 1 n! n 1
n 2n n 1 ! n! n!
13 14 15 n
n 1 3n n! n 1 2n 1 ! n 1 n
n n n!ln n
16 17 18
n 2 ln n n 2 ln n n 1 n n 2 !
n n2
19
n! n 20
n! n 21
nn
n 1 n n
n
n 2
2 2
n 1 n 1 2 n
nn 1 3 2n 1 n 1
n
22 23 24
n 1 2n 5
2
n 1 2n n 1 4n 2n n!
2n
1
1
25 n
n n
26 n
n 1
n 1 e n 1
1.7
Alternating Series, Absolute and Conditional
Convergence
Learning objectives:
To state and prove the alternating series test for the
convergence of alternate series.
To discuss Absolute and Conditional convergence of series
of real numbers.
To discuss the rearrangement of absolute and
conditionally convergent series.
And
To practice the related problems.
Alternating Series, Absolute and Conditional
Convergence
The convergence tests so far studied apply only to series with
positive or non-negative terms. In this module we learn how to
deal with series whose terms are not necessarily positive or
non-negative.
Alternating Series
A series in which the terms are alternately positive and negative
is called an alternating series.
The following are alternating series:
The following is a test for the convergence of the alternating
series.
Theorem 1: The Alternating Series Test (Leibniz’s Theorem)
The alternating series
n 1
1 an a1 a2 a3 a4
n 1
converges if
for all
for all ,
.
Proof:
We prove that the sequence of partial sums of
n 1
1 an converges. Let be an even natural number, say
n 1
, . Then its partial sum is
Since for all is the sum of non
negative terms. Hence and the sequence is
non-decreasing. Further
shows that . Thus, is a non-decreasing sequence
and bounded above and it converges to its least upper bound,
say ,
Let be an odd natural number, say , . Then
. As , we have ,
and so .
Now,
The results , together implies that
(by Theorem 2 of Module 1.1). Thus, the given
alternating series converges.
Hence the theorem
Note 1:
Since the convergence (and divergence) of a series is not
altered by addition and deletion of finite terms, Theorem 1
remains true even if the condition is replaced by the
following condition:
for all , for some natural number .
Example 1:
The alternating harmonic series
1n1 1 1 1 1 ...
converges.
n 1 n 2 3 4
Solution:
1n1 n 1
We have 1 an where
n 1 n n 1
Notice that (i)
(ii) and
(iii)
Therefore, by Leibnitz Theorem, the given alternating harmonic
series
1n1 is convergent.
n 1 n
Absolute convergence:
A series converges absolutely (is absolutely convergent), if
the corresponding series of absolute values, converges.
Example 2:
The Geometric series is absolutely
convergent, since the corresponding series of absolute values
is convergent.
Example 3:
The alternating harmonic series is not
absolutely convergent, since the corresponding series of
absolute values
is the divergent harmonic series.
The following result proves that every absolutely convergent
series is convergent.
Theorem 2: The Absolute Convergence Test
If an converges absolutely then an converges.
n 1 n 1
(i.e., Absolute convergence Convergence)
(i.e., Every absolute convergent series converges)
Proof:
We have for each ,
Therefore,
Given an converges absolutely, i.e., an converges.
n 1 n 1
Now, 2an converges and so the non-negative series
n 1
an an converges by Comparison Test. Further, by Difference
n 1
Rule for convergent series an an an an also
n 1 n 1
converges. Hence the theorem
Note 2:
The converse of the above theorem is false.
For example, the alternating harmonic series converges but is
not absolutely convergent.
Example 4: Applying the Absolute Convergent Test
1n1 sin n
Show that the series and 2
are
n 1 n3 n 1 n
convergent.
Solution:
(i )
1n1
1
is convergent (by -series Test).
n 1 n3 n 1 n
3
Therefore, the series is absolutely convergent and so is
convergent by the Absolute Convergence Test.
sin n sin n
(ii ) 2 2
n 1 n n 1 n
Notice that , since for all
1 sin n
Since 2 is convergent (by -series Test), 2 is
n 1 n n 1 n
convergent by Comparison Test. Therefore, is absolutely
convergent and so is convergent by the Absolute
Convergence Test.
Conditional Convergence:
A series converges conditionally if it converges but does not
converge absolutely.
In other words,
A series is conditionally convergent if an is convergent
n 1
and an is divergent.
n 1
For example the alternating harmonic series converges
conditionally.
Theorem 3: Alternating -series
The Alternating -series
1 n 1 1 1
1
1
...
np
n 1 2 p
3 p
4 p
(i) converges if
(ii) converges absolutely if
(iii) converges conditionally if
Proof:
1n1 n 1
Let 1
an where
n 1 np n 1
Let . Notice that and
. Therefore, by Leibnitz Theorem the alternating
-series
1n1 converges if .
n 1 np
Notice that
1n1
1
converges if (by -series
p p
n 1 n n 1 n
Test) and diverges if . Therefore, the alternating -series
converges absolutely if .
Further, the alternating -series converges and does not
converge absolutely if . Therefore, the alternating -
series converges conditionally if .
Example 5:
n 1
1 1 1 1
(i) The series 1 3 2 3 2 3 2 ... 3 2 converges
2 3 4 n 1 n
absolutely, since it is an alternating series for . It
is a convergent series (since absolute convergence
convergence).
n 1
1 1 1 1
(ii) The series 1 ... converges
2 3 4 n 1 n
conditionally, since it is an alternating series for ,
.
Any of the tests used for series with positive terms or non
negative terms can be used to test the absolute convergence.
The Ratio and Root Tests can also be used to test the
convergence/divergence of series whose terms are not
necessarily positive or non-negative.
Theorem 4: The Ratio Test
Let be a series of real numbers with and
suppose that
Then
(i) The series converges absolutely (and therefore
converges) if
(ii) The series diverges if or is infinite
(iii) The Test is inconclusive if
Theorem 5: The Root Test
Let be a series of real numbers and suppose that
.Then
(i) The series converges absolutely (and therefore
converges) if
(ii) The series diverges if or is infinite
(iii) The Test is inconclusive if
Example 6:
n3
1
n
Test the series n
for absolutely convergence
n 1 3
Solution:
We use the Ratio Test with . Then
n3
1
n
The given series n
converges absolutely and
n 1 3
therefore, converges by Ratio Test, since .
Example 7:
n
n1 n
Test convergence and divergence of 1
10
n1
Solution:
We use the Ratio Test with . Then
By the Root Test, the given series diverges, since is infinite.
Rearranging Series:
If an is a series and is a rearrangement of
n 1
the sequence then bn is called a rearranged series of
n 1
the given series an .
n 1
The following theorem asserts that any rearranged series of a
given absolute convergent series is absolutely convergent and
has the same sum as the given series.
Theorem 6: The Rearrangement Theorem for absolutely
convergent series
If an converges absolutely and bn is any rearranged
n 1 n 1
series of an then bn converges absolutely and
n 1 n 1
an bn .
n 1 n 1
Example 8: Applying the Rearrangement Theorem
The series
1n1 1 1 1
1
...
1 ...n 1
n 1 n2 4 9 16 n2
converges absolutely (by Alternating -series Test because
).
A possible rearrangement of the terms of the series might start
with a positive term, then two negative terms, then three
positive terms, then four negative terms and so on. That is,
after terms of one sign, take terms of the opposite sign.
This arranged series is
By the Rearrangement Theorem for absolutely convergent
series, this rearranged series is also absolutely convergent and
converges to the same sum as the given series.
Note 3:
If we rearrange infinitely many terms of a conditionally
convergent series, then we can get results that are far different
from the sum of the original series.
To illustrate this fact let’s consider the alternating harmonic
series. It is conditional convergent and converges to . Now,
------ (1)
Multiplying each term by we get
Inserting zeros between the terms of the series, we get
------ (2)
Adding the corresponding terms of and we get
------ (3)
Notice that the series contains the same terms as in ,
but rearranged so that one negative term occur after each pair
of positive terms. The sums of these series and ,
however, are different.
Rearranging Alternating Harmonic Series
The conditionally convergent alternating harmonic series
1n1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
...
n 1 n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
can be rearranged to diverge or to reach any pre assigned sum.
Note 4:
Riemann proved the following:
Theorem 7:
If is conditionally convergent series and is any real
number whatsoever, then there is a rearrangement of
that has the sum equal to .
Note 5:
We must always add the terms of a conditionally convergent
series in the given order.
IP1:
Which of the alternating series converge absolutely and which
converge conditionally.
cos n cos n
𝒂 3
𝒃 3
n 1 n n 1
n 4
Solution:
n 1
cos n 1 1
n
𝑎 We have 3
3 (1) .
n 1 n n 1 n n 1 n3
1n1 is an alternating 𝑝-series for 𝑝 = 3 > 1. Therefore, it
n 1 n3
cos n
is absolutely convergent series. Thus, the series 3
is
n 1 n
absolutely convergent.
𝑏 We have
cos n
1n (1) 1n1 .
3 3 3
n 1 4 n 1 4 n 1 4
n n n
1n1 3
3
is an alternating 𝑝-series for 0 < 𝑝 = 4 < 1.
n 1
n 4
Therefore, it is conditionally convergent series. Thus, the series
cos n
3 is conditionally convergent.
n 1
n 4
IP2:
tan 1 n
Show that the series 1
n
is absolutely convergent.
n 1 1 n 2
Solution:
tan 1 n tan −1 𝑛
We have 1 1 an , where 𝑎𝑛 = 1+𝑛 2 .
n n
n 1 1 n 2 n1
It is an alternating series and 𝑎𝑛 > 0, for all 𝑛.
tan 1 n tan 1 n
Now, 1
n
.
n 1 1 n 2
n 1 1 n
2
tan −1 𝑥
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = . Notice that 𝑓 𝑥 is positive, continuous and
1+𝑥 2
decreasing for 𝑥 ≥ 1 and
tan 1 x b tan 1 x
f ( x )dx dx lim dx
1 1 1 x 2 b 1 1 x 2
2 b
tan 1 x
lim
1 lim tan 1 b
tan 1 1
2 2
b 2 2 b
1
1 3 2
2 2
2 2 4 32
tan 1 n
Thus, f ( x) dx converges. By integral test f ( n )
n 1 1 n
2
1 n 1
also converges. Thus the given series is absolutely convergent.
IP3:
Show that the series 1 csch n is absolutely convergent.
n
n 1
Solution:
We have 1 csch n 1 an , where 𝑎𝑛 = csch 𝑛.
n n
n 1 n 1
It is an alternating series and 𝑎𝑛 > 0 for all 𝑛.
Now 1 csch n an , where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 −𝑒 −𝑛 .
n 2
n 1 n 1
1
Notice that for large values of 𝑛, 𝑎𝑛 behaves like 𝑒 𝑛 . Now, take
1
𝑏𝑛 = , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵 and consider the series bn . Observe that
𝑒𝑛 n 1
𝑎 2𝑒 𝑛 1
lim 𝑏𝑛 = lim = 2 lim 1 =2>0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑒 𝑛 −𝑒 −𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1− 2𝑛
𝑒
By part 𝑖 of Limit Comparison Test an and bn both
n 1 n 1
1
converge or both diverge. Clearly bn n
is convergent (as
n 1 n 1 e
1
it is a geometric series with 𝑟 = < 1). Therefore, an is also
𝑒 n 1
convergent. Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent.
IP4:
1 n n 1 n
Show that the series is absolutely
n 1 2n n
convergent.
Solution:
We have
1 n 1
n n
an where 𝑎𝑛 =
−1 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛
.
n 1 2n n
n 1 2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛+1 1
𝑙 = lim 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = lim =2<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛
Therefore, the given series is absolutely convergent by Root
Test, since 𝑙 < 1.
P1:
Which of the alternating series converge and which diverge?
𝒂
1 n 1
𝒃 1
n 1 n 1
n 2 ln n n 1 n1
P1:
Which of the alternating series converge and which diverge?
𝒂
1 n 1
𝒃 1
n 1 n 1
n 2 ln n n 1 n1
Solution:
1n1 n 1
1
1
𝑎 We have an , where 𝑎𝑛 =
n2 ln n n2 𝑙𝑛 𝑛
1
It is an alternating series and 𝑎𝑛 > 0, for 𝑛 ≥ 2. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 .
Note that 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 is an increasing function of 𝑥.
1
⟹ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 is a decreasing function of 𝑥. Therefore, 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 for
𝑛 ≥ 2 and lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0. By Leibniz’s Theorem the given series
𝑛→∞
converges.
n 1
n 1 n 1
𝑏 We have 1 1 an , where 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛+1
n 1 n 1 n1 𝑛+1
It is an alternating series and 𝑎𝑛 > 0, for all 𝑛.
To know its increasing, decreasing nature we use calculus:
𝑥+1 ′ 1−𝑥−2 𝑥
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = . Then 𝑓 𝑥 =2 < 0 for 𝑥 ≥ 1.
𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥+1 2
⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 is decreasing for 𝑥 ≥ 1
⟹ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑛 ≥ 𝑓 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑎𝑛+1 for 𝑛 ≥ 1 and lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→∞
Thus, by Leibniz’s Theorem the given alternating series
converges.
P2:
n 1 1
Does the series 1 converge absolutely or
n 2 n ln n
conditionally?
P2:
n 1 1
Does the series 1 converge absolutely or
n 2 n ln n
conditionally?
Solution:
n 1 1 n 1
We have 1 1 an , where .
n2 nln n n2
It is an alternating series and for all .
Let , for all .
Therefore, is decreasing for .
for all and
. By Leibniz’s Theorem the given alternating series
converges.
n 1 1 1
Now, 1 .
n2 nln n n2 nln n
We try Integral Test for convergence or divergence.
1
b
dx lim dx
b 1
x
f ( x )dx lim
2 b 2 xln x b 2 ln x
lim ln lnb ln ln 2
b
1 n 1 1
By Integral Test diverges. 1
n 2 nln n n2 nln n
diverges. Thus, the given series is conditionally convergent.
P3:
Show that the series
2 n1 absolutely convergent.
n 1 n 5n
P3:
Show that the series
2 n1 absolutely convergent.
n 1 n 5n
Solution:
1n1 2n1 n 1
We have 1 an , where .
n5
n 1
n
n 1
It is an alternating series and for all .
Now,
1n1 2n1
2n1
an .
n 1 n 5n n 1 n 5
n
n 1
Notice that for all . the term of the
2n1
n
2
series is less than the term of the series 2 .
n 1 n 5 n
n 1 5
2 n 1
n
2
Since 2 is convergent, the series is also
n 1 5 n 1 n 5
n
convergent by Comparison Test. Therefore, an is convergent.
n 1
Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent.
P4:
Show that the series
1 n ! 3n
n 2
is absolutely
n 1 2n 1 !
convergent.
P4:
Show that the series
1 n ! 3n
n 2
is absolutely
n 1 2n 1 !
convergent.
Solution:
We have
1 n! 3n
n 2
an , where .
n 1 2n 1! n 1
Therefore, the given series is absolutely convergent by Ratio
Test, since .
1.7 Alternating Series, Absolute and Conditional
Convergence
Exercises:
1. Which of the following Alternating series is converges and
which is diverges:
n 1 10
n
n 1 n
n
𝑎 1 𝑏 1 10
n 1 10 n 1 n
n 1 ln n n 1 ln n
𝑐 1 (𝑑) 1
n 1 n n2 ln n 2
n 1 3 n 1
𝑒 1
n 1 n 1
2. Which of the following series converge absolutely and which
converge conditionally and which diverge:
𝑎 1
n 1 0.1n 𝑏
1n
n 1 n n 11 n
n 1 n n!n 1
𝑐 1 𝑑 1
n 1 n3 1 n 1 2n
n sin n n 1 3 n
𝑒 1 𝑓 1
n 1 n2 n 1 5 n
1 n 1 n
𝑔 1 1
n
n2 ln n3 n 1 n2
n
22
n 1 n
𝑖 1 n 𝑗 1
n
10
n 1 3 n 1
cos n n
𝑙 1
n
𝑘
n 1 n n n 1 n 1
𝑚 1
ln n
n
𝑛
100 n
n 1 n ln n n 1 n!
𝑜 5
n
𝑝
1n1
n 1 n 1 n
2
2n 1
n
ln n n 1
2
𝑞 1 1
n n
𝑟
n2
ln n
2
n 1 2 n !
𝑠 1
n 1
n 2 n !
2n n! n
𝑡 1
n 1
n
n n n
𝑢 1 sech n
n
n 1
1.8. Power Series
Learning objectives:
To define the Power series and to prove the convergence
theorem for Power series.
To find the Interval of convergence and radius of
convergence of a Power series.
To state the Term by Term differentiation and integration
theorem for Power series.
AND
To practice the related problems.
Power Series
Let 𝑎 be given real number and 𝑥 be a real variable. A power
series in 𝒙 − 𝒂 or a power series centered at 𝒂 or a power
series about 𝒂 is a series of the form
an ( x a) a0 a1 ( x a) a2 ( x a) ... an ( x a) ...(1)
n 2 n
n 0
where 𝑎𝑛 ’s are constants called coefficients of the series.
A special case
an x a0 a1x a2 x ... an x ...
n 2 n
n 0
is a power series about 𝑥 = 0 by taking 𝑎 = 0 in (1).
Example 1: A Geometric Series
The series
1 1 2 1 𝑛 𝑛
1− 𝑥−2 +4 𝑥−2 + ⋯+ −2 𝑥−2 +⋯
2
n
1
is a power series x 2 about 𝑥 = 2 and it is a
n
n 0 2
geometric series with first term 𝑎 = 1 and common ratio
𝑥−2 𝑎 1 2
𝑟=− . The series converges to the sum = 𝑥 −2 = if
2 1−𝑟 1+ 𝑥
2
𝑥−2
𝑟 < 1, i.e., < 1 or 0 < 𝑥 < 4.
2
n
1 2
Hence x 2 n , 0 x4
n 0 2 x
Example 2: Testing the Convergence Using the Ratio Test
For what values of 𝑥 do the following power series converge?
n 1 xn x 2 x3
(i) 1 x
n 1 n 2 3
n 1 x 2 n1 x3 x5
(ii) 1 x
n 1 2n 1 3 5
xn x 2 x3
(iii) 1 x
n 0 n! 2! 3!
(iv) n! x n 1 x 2! x 2 3! x3
n 0
Solution:
We apply the Ratio Test to the series 𝑎𝑛 where 𝑎𝑛 is the 𝑛th
term of the series under discussion.
𝑎 𝑛 +1 −1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖 lim = lim ∙ = lim 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +1 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 < 1 and it
diverges for 𝑥 > 1.
1 1 1 1
When 𝑥 = 1, we get 1 (1) n1 the
2 3 4 n 1 n
alternating harmonic series which is convergent.
1 1 1 1
When 𝑥 = −1, we get 1 the negative
2 3 4 n 1 n
of the harmonic series, which is divergent.
Thus, the series 𝑖 converges for −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 and diverges
elsewhere.
𝑎𝑛+1 −1 𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛+1 2𝑛 − 1
𝑖𝑖 lim = lim ∙
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 1 −1 𝑛−1 𝑥 2𝑛−1
2𝑛 − 1 2
= lim 𝑥 = 𝑥2
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 1
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 2 < 1, i.e.,
𝑥 < 1 and it diverges for 𝑥 2 > 1, i.e., 𝑥 > 1.
We need to test at 𝑥 2 = 1, i.e., 𝑥 = ±1.
When 𝑥 = 1, we get the alternating series
n 1
1 1 1 1
1
3 5 7 n 1 2n 1
and it converges by Leibniz’s Theorem.
When 𝑥 = −1, we get the alternating series
1
n
1 1 1
1
3 5 7 n 1 2n 1
and it converges by Leibniz’s Theorem.
Thus, the series (𝑖𝑖) converges for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and diverges
elsewhere.
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑛!
𝑖𝑖𝑖 lim = lim ∙ 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥
𝑥
= lim = 0 for every 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
The series converges absolutely by Ratio Test for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, i.e.,
the series converges everywhere on 𝑹.
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑖𝑣 lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛! 𝑥 𝑛
= lim 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 = ∞ , unless 𝑥 = 0
𝑛→∞
The series diverges by Ratio Test for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, except 𝑥 = 0.
Theorem 1: The Convergence Theorem for Power Series
If the power series an x n converges for 𝒙 = 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎, then the
n 0
series converges absolutely for all 𝒙 with 𝒙 < 𝒄 . If the
series diverges for 𝒙 = 𝒅, then it diverges for all 𝒙 with
𝒙 > 𝒅.
Proof:
𝑖 Suppose the series an x n converges for 𝑥 = 𝑐 ≠ 0, i.e.,
n 0
an c converges. Then lim 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 = 0. Therefore, there exists a
n
n 0 𝑛→∞
natural number 𝑁 such that 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 − 0 < 1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, i.e.,
1
𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 < 1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, i.e., 𝑎𝑛 < for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.
𝑐 𝑛
Let 𝑥 be any real number such that 𝑥 < 𝑐 . Now, consider the
𝑥 𝑛
𝑛
series an x . Notice that 𝑎𝑛 𝑥
n
< for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 and
n 0
𝑐
n
x 𝑥
is a convergent geometric series since 𝑐
< 1 . Thus,
n 0 c
by Comparison Test an x n is convergent and so an x n
n 0 n 0
converges absolutely for all 𝑥 with 𝑥 < 𝑐 .
𝑖𝑖 Given that the series an x n diverges at 𝑥 = 𝑑.
n 0
Assume that the series converges at a value 𝑥0 with 𝑥0 > 𝑑 .
Therefore, by the first part of the theorem, the series converges
for all 𝑥 with 𝑥 < 𝑥0 . Since 𝑑 < 𝑥0 , the series converges
absolutely at 𝑑. This contradicts the hypothesis that the series
diverges at 𝑑. Thus, the series diverges for all 𝑥 with 𝑥 > 𝑑
whenever it diverges at 𝑑.
Hence the theorem
For simplicity, we dealt the convergence of the series of the
𝑛
form an x n . For the series of the form 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 we can
n 0
replace 𝑥 − 𝑎 by 𝑦 and apply the results to the series an y n
The Radius of convergence of a Power Series
From the above examples and the convergence theorem for
power series; we draw the following conclusions regarding the
convergence of a power series 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 .
A power series 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 behaves in one of the three
possible ways. It might converge only at 𝑥 = 𝑎 or converge
everywhere or converge on some interval of radius 𝑅 centered
at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Corollary to Theorem 1:
𝑛
The convergence of the series 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 is described by one
of the following three possibilities:
1. There is a positive number 𝑅 such that the series diverges for
all 𝑥 with 𝑥 − 𝑎 > 𝑅 but converges for all 𝑥 with
𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅. The series may or may not converge at either of
the end points 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑅 and 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑅.
2. The series converges absolutely for every 𝑥 𝑅 = ∞
3. The series converges at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and diverges elsewhere
𝑅=0
𝑅 is called the Radius of convergence of the power series and
the interval of radius 𝑅 centered at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called the interval
of convergence.
The interval of convergence may be open, closed or half-open
depending on the given series.
At the points 𝑥 with 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅, the series converges
absolutely. If the series converges for all values of 𝑥, then we
say that its radius of convergence is infinite. If it converges only
at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then we say that its radius of convergence is zero.
How to Test a Power Series for Convergence
1. Use Ratio Test or Root Test to find the interval where the
series converges absolutely. Normally, this is an open interval
𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 − 𝑅 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅
2. If the radius of absolute convergence is finite, then test the
convergence and divergence at end points (Use a Comparison
Test, the Integral Test or the Alternating Series Test).
3. If the interval of absolute convergence is 𝑎 − 𝑅 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅,
the series diverges for 𝑥 − 𝑎 > 𝑅 (it does not even converge
conditionally) since the 𝑛th term does not approach zero for
those values of 𝑥.
Term-by-Term Differentiation:
A theorem from advanced calculus says that a power series can
be differentiated term by term at each interior point of its
interval of convergence.
Theorem2: The Term-by-Term Differentiation Theorem
If 𝒂𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒏 converges for 𝒂 − 𝑹 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅 for some
𝑹 > 0, then it defines a function 𝒇 such that
f x an x a , a R x a R
n
n 0
Such a function 𝒇 has derivatives of all orders inside the
interval of convergence. We can obtain the derivatives by
differentiating the original series term by term:
n 1 n2
f ' x nan x a , f '' x n n 1 an x a ,...
n 1 n 1
Each of these derived series converges at every interior point
of the interval of convergence of the original series.
Example 3: Applying Term-by-Term Differentiation
Consider the series
x 1 x x x x an where an x
n 2 3 n n
n 0 n 0
𝑎 𝑛 +1
Now, 𝑙 = lim = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
By Ratio Test, the series converges if 𝑥 < 1, diverges if 𝑥 > 1
and the test is inconclusive if 𝑥 = 1. Notice that the series
diverges for 𝑥 = ±1.
The interval of convergence is −1 < 𝑥 < 1 and 𝑅 = 1 is the
1
radius of convergence. Further, its sum is 1−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 1.
Therefore, the given series defines a function 𝑓, where
1
f x x n , 1 x 1
1 x n 0
By Term by Term Differentiation Theorem, 𝑓 has derivatives of
all orders inside the interval of convergence,
1
f ' x nx n1 , 1 x 1
1 x 2 n 1
2
f ''
x n n 1 an x n2 , 1 x 1
1 x 3
n2
Remark: (1) The Term by Term differentiation Theorem is valid
for power series only and it is not valid for other kinds of series.
(2) From the Term by Term Differentiation Theorem, it is clear
that within its interval of convergence the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders.
Term-by-Term Integration:
Another theorem from advanced calculus says that a power
series can be integrated term by term throughout its interval of
convergence.
Theorem 3: The Term-by-Term Integration Theorem
If 𝒂𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒏 converges for 𝒂 − 𝑹 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅 , for some
𝑹 > 0 and defines a function 𝒇:
f x an x a , a R x a R , then
n
n 0
n 1
x a converges for a R x a R , and
an
n 0 n 1
x a n1 C
f x dx an n 1
for 𝒂 − 𝑹 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅.
n 0
Example 4: A series for tan−1 𝑥 , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑥3 𝑥5
Identify the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 + − ⋯ , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
5
Solution:
We have already seen that the given series
2 n 1
x3 x5 n 1 x
x ... 1
3 5 n 1 2n 1
converges for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and diverges elsewhere. By the
Term by Term Differentiation Theorem
n 1 x 2 n1
f x 1 , 1 x 1
n 1 2n 1
can be differentiated term by term and
n 1
f x 1
'
x 2 n2 , 1 x 1
n 1
This is a geometric series with first term 1 and common ratio
−𝑥 2 and so,
1 1
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 1− −𝑥 2 = 1+𝑥 2
Now, integrate and we get
𝑑𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2
= tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
n 1 x 2 n1
i.e., 1 tan 1 x C
n 1 2n 1
Putting 𝑥 = 0, we get 𝐶 = 0. Thus,
n 1 x 2 n1
f x 1 tan 1 x , 1 x 1
n 1 2n 1
Note (1): The above is also valid for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, i.e., 𝑥 ≤ 1.
n 1 x 2 n1
Therefore, f x 1 tan 1 x , 1 x 1
n 1 2n 1
Note (2): Note that the original series in the above example
converges at both end points of the original interval of
convergence, but the term by term differentiation theorem can
guarantee the convergence of the differentiated series only
inside the interval.
Note (3): Putting 𝑥 = 1 in the above, we get the following
Leibniz’s formula.
𝜋 1 1 1 1 −1 𝑛 −1
= 1−3 +5 −7 +9 −⋯+ +⋯
4 2𝑛−1
Example 5: A series for 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑥 , −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
Consider the series (1)nt n 1 t t 2 t 3 .....
n 0
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑡 < 1 i.e.,
−1 < 𝑡 < 1. It diverges for 𝑡 > 1. Further, the series diverges
when 𝑡 = ±1.
The given series is a convergent geometric series with first term
1 1
1 and common ratio – 𝑡 and its sum is 1−(−𝑡) = 1+𝑡 . Thus,
1
(1)nt n , 1 t 1
1 t n 0
By the Term by Term integration Theorem
n 1 x
x 1 n t
(1) , 1 x 1
0 1 t n 0 n 1 0
x n1
log(1 x) ( 1)
n 0
n
n 1
x 2 x3 x 4
i.e., l og (1 x) x ......, 1 x 1
2 3 4
It can also be shown that the above series converges at 𝑥 = 1
to ln 2 . (But this is not guaranteed by the theorem). Thus,
x 2 x3 x 4
l og (1 x) x ......, 1 x 1
2 3 4
Multiplication of Power series:
Another theorem from advanced calculus states that absolutely
convergent series can be multiplied the way we multiply
polynomials.
Theorem 4: The Series Multiplication Theorem for Power Series
If A( x) an x n and B( x) bn x n converge absolutely for
n 0 n 0
𝒙 < 𝑅 and
𝒄𝒏 = 𝒂𝟎 𝒃𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝟎 = ak bn k .Then
k 0
cn x converges absolutely to 𝑨 𝒙 𝑩(𝒙) for 𝒙 < 𝑅:
n
n 0
a x n . b x n a x n
n n n
n 0 n 0 n 0
Example 6: Multiply the Geometric series
1
xn , for x 1
n 0
1 x
1
by itself to get a power series for , for 𝑥 < 1
1−𝑥 2
Solution:
Let
1
A( x) an x n 1 x x 2 x3 ... x n ... , for x 1
n 0
1 x
1
B( x) bn x n 1 x x 2 x3 ... x n ... , for x 1
n 0
1 x
and 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑏𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑏𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0
𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
= 1 +1 + 1 + ⋯+ 1+ 1 = 𝑛 + 1
𝑛 + 1 𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠
Now, by the series Multiplication Theorem
A( x). B( x) cn x (n 1)x n
n
n 0 n 0
1
⟹ = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ , for 𝑥 < 1
1−𝑥 2
IP1.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
3x 2 n
n 1 n
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
(3𝑥−2)𝑛
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 +1 (3𝑥 −2)𝑛 +1 𝑛
lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +1 (3𝑥−2)𝑛
𝑛
= 3𝑥 − 2 lim = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 3𝑥 − 2 < 1
1
i.e., −1 < 3𝑥 − 2 < 1 , i.e., 3 < 𝑥 < 1 . It diverges for
3𝑥 − 2 > 1.
1
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = , 𝑥 = 1
3
1
When 𝑥 = 3 , we have the series
1n , which is the
n n 0
alternating harmonic series and it is conditionally convergent.
1
When 𝑥 = 1 , we have the series , which is the divergent
n 0 n
harmonic series. Therefore,
1
The interval of absolute convergence is: <𝑥<1
3
1
The interval of convergence is: ≤𝑥<1
3
1
The radius of convergence is: 3
1
The series converges conditionally at 𝑥 =
3
IP2.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
1n x n
n 1 n2 3
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
(−1)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛 2 +3
𝑎 𝑛 +1 (−1)𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑛 2 +3
lim = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 2 +3 (−1)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛 2 +3
= 𝑥 lim = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2 +2𝑛+4
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 < 1
i.e., −1 < 𝑥 < 1. It diverges for 𝑥 > 1.
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑥 = −1
When 𝑥 = 1 , we have the series
1n , which is
n 1 n 32
conditionally convergent.
1
When 𝑥 = −1 , we have the series , which is
n 1 n 3
2
divergent. Therefore,
The interval of absolute convergence is: −1 < 𝑥 < 1
The interval of convergence is: −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
1
The radius of convergence is: 2
The series converges conditionally at 𝑥 = 1
IP3.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
xn
n 1 n ln n 2
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
𝑥𝑛
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑙𝑛 𝑛)2
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑛(𝑙𝑛 𝑛)2
Lim = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)(𝑙𝑛 (𝑛+1))2 𝑥𝑛
𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑛 2
= 𝑥 lim . lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛 (𝑛+1)
1 𝑛
= 𝑥 lim = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛+1
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 < 1
i.e., −1 < 𝑥 < 1. It diverges for 𝑥 > 1.
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑥 = 1
When 𝑥 = −1 , we have the series
1
n
and it converges
n 1 n ln n
2
absolutely (by logarithmic 𝑝 − series).
1
When 𝑥 = 1 , we have the series and it converges
n 1 n ln n 2
(by logarithmic 𝑝 − series). Therefore,
The interval of absolute convergence is: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
The interval of convergence is: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
The radius of convergence is: 1
There are no values for which the series converges
conditionally.
IP4.
n
x2 1
Find the interval of convergence of the series and
n 1 3
find the sum of the series as a function of 𝒙 within this
interval.
Solution:
𝑛
𝑥 2 +1
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = 3
𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑎 𝑥 2 +1 3 𝑥 2 +1
lim 𝑎𝑛 +1 = lim =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3 𝑥 2 +1 3
𝑥 2 +1
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for <1
3
𝑥 2 +1
i.e., < 1 𝑤ℎ𝑦? , i.e., 𝑥 < 2 , i.e., − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 .
3
It diverges for 𝑥 > 2.We test the convergence at 𝑥 = ± 2.
When 𝑥 = ± 2, we obtain the series 1 which is divergent
n
n 1
n
x2 1
Thus, the series is a convergent geometric series
n 1 3
1 3
when − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 and its sum is 𝑥 2 +1
= 2−𝑥 2
1−
3
n
x2 1
3
Therefore, when − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 .
n 1 3 2 x 2
P1.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
1 4 x 1
n n
n 0
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
P1.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
1 4 x 1
n n
n 0
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = −1 𝑛 (4𝑥 + 1)𝑛
𝑎 −1 𝑛 +1 4𝑥+1 𝑛 +1
lim 𝑎𝑛 +1 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ −1 𝑛 4𝑥+1 𝑛
= lim −1 (4𝑥 + 1) = (4𝑥 + 1)
𝑛→∞
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 4𝑥 + 1 < 1
1
i.e., −1 < 4𝑥 + 1 < 1 , i.e., − < 𝑥 < 0 . It diverges for
2
4𝑥 + 1 > 1.
1
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = − 2 , 𝑥 = 0
, we have the series 1 1 1 ,
1 n n n
When 𝑥 = −2
n 0 n 0
which is divergent.
When 𝑥 = 0 , we have the series 1 1 1 , which
n n n
n 0 n 0
is divergent. Therefore,
1
The interval of absolute convergence is: − < 𝑥 < 0
2
1
The interval of convergence is: − 2 < 𝑥 < 0
1
The radius of convergence is: 4
There are no values (for 𝑥) for which the series converges
conditionally.
P2.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
xn
n 1 n2 3
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
P2.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
xn
n 1 n2 3
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
𝑥𝑛
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛 2 +3
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑛 2 +3
lim = lim .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 2 +3 𝑥𝑛
𝑛 2 +3
= 𝑥 lim = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2 +2𝑛+4
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 < 1
i.e., −1 < 𝑥 < 1. It diverges for 𝑥 > 1.
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑥 = 1
When 𝑥 = −1 , we have the series
1n , which is an
n 3 n 1 2
alternating series and converges by Leibniz’s theorem. Further,
1n
1
is divergent by Limit Comparison Test,
n 1 n 3
2 n 1 n 3
2
1
by comparing with 𝑏𝑛 where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛 . Thus, it converges
conditionally for 𝑥 = −1.
1
When 𝑥 = 1 , we have the series , which is divergent.
n 1 n 32
Therefore,
The interval of absolute convergence is: −1 < 𝑥 < 1
The interval of convergence is: −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 1
The radius of convergence is: 1
The series converges conditionally at 𝑥 = −1
P3.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
ln n x
n
n 1
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
P3.
Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the series
ln n x
n
n 1
For what values of 𝒙 does the series converge absolutely;
converge conditionally.
Solution:
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑙𝑛 𝑛) 𝑥 𝑛
𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 𝑛+1 )𝑥 𝑛 +1
Lim 𝑎𝑛 +1 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ (𝑙𝑛 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛
𝑙𝑛 𝑛+1
= 𝑥 lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛+1
= 𝑥 lim = 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑥 < 1
i.e., −1 < 𝑥 < 1. It diverges for 𝑥 > 1.
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑥 = 1
When 𝑥 = −1 , we have the series 1 ln n , which is
n
n 1
divergent by nth - term Test, since lim 𝑙𝑛 𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝑛→∞
When 𝑥 = 1 , we have the series ln n , which is divergent.
n 1
Therefore,
The interval of absolute convergence is: −1 < 𝑥 < 1
The interval of convergence is: −1 < 𝑥 < 1
The radius of convergence is: 1
There are no values for which the series converges
conditionally.
P4.
n
Find the interval of convergence of the series ln x and
n 1
find the sum of the series as a function of 𝒙 within this
interval.
P4.
n
Find the interval of convergence of the series ln x and
n 1
find the sum of the series as a function of 𝒙 within this
interval.
Solution:
𝑛
We apply Ratio Test for 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑎 𝑛 +1 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +1
lim = lim = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
By Ratio Test, the series converges absolutely for 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 < 1
i.e., −1 < 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 < 1, i.e., 𝑒 −1 < 𝑥 < 𝑒 It diverges for 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 > 1.
We test the convergence at 𝑥 = 𝑒 −1 , 𝑥 = 𝑒
or 𝑥 = 𝑒, we obtain the series 1 and
n
When 𝑥 = 𝑒 −1
n 1
1 which are divergent.
n
n 1
Therefore, the interval of convergence is 𝑒 −1 < 𝑥 < 𝑒.
n
The series ln x is a convergent geometric series when
n 1
1
𝑒 −1 < 𝑥 < 𝑒 and its sum is .
1−𝑙𝑛 𝑥
n
1
Thus, ln x when 𝑒 −1 < 𝑥 < 𝑒
n 1 1 ln x
EXERCISES
I. Find the radius and the interval of convergence of the
following series. For what values of 𝒙 does the series
converge absolutely; converge conditionally.
(a) x 5
n
(b)
x 2 n (c )
x 2 n
n
n 0 n 0 10 n 0 10n
(d ) 2 x
n
( e)
nx n
(f)
x 1n
n 0 n 0 n 2 n 0 n
xn 3n x n
x 2 n1
(g) n
( h) (i)
n 0 n n.3 n 0 n! n 0 n!
( j)
2 x 32n1 (k )
1n1 x 2 n
n 0 n! n 1 n.2n
(l ) 2 (n 1)( x 1) n
n
(m)
xn
( n)
4 x 52n1
n 0 n 2 n ln n n 0 n3 2
(0)
3x 1n1
n 0 2n 2
II. Find the interval of convergence of the following series and
find the sum of the series as a function of 𝒙 within this
interval.
(a)
x 12n (b)
x 12n
n 0 4n n 0 9n
n n
x x2 1
(c ) 1 (d )
n 0 2 n 0 2
1.9
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Learning objectives:
To define the Taylor series and Maclaurin series generated
by a function at a point.
To define a Taylor polynomial of a given order generated
by a function at a point.
To state and prove the Taylor’s Theorem.
To define the Taylor’s Formula and to state the Remainder
Estimation Theorem.
AND
To practice the related problems
We know from the Term by Term Differentiation theorem
(Theorem 2 of module 1.8) that within its interval of
convergence, the sum of a power series is a continuous
function with derivatives of all orders. We ask the question
about the other way around. That is, if a function 𝑓(𝑥) has
derivatives of all orders on an interval 𝐼, can it be expressed as
a power series on 𝐼 ? If it can, what will its coefficients be?
Theorem 1:
an x a with a
n
If 𝒇(𝒙) is the sum of a power series
n 0
𝒇𝒏 𝒂
positive radius of convergence then 𝒂𝒏 = , 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, …
𝒏!
f
n
a
x a
n
and f ( x ) .
n 0 n!
Proof:
We have f ( x) an x a . By repeated Term by Term
n
n 0
Differentiation within the interval of convergence 𝐼, we obtain
n 1 n2
f ' x nan x a , f '' x n n 1 an x a ,...
n 1 n2
and 𝑓 𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛! 𝑎𝑛 + sum of the factors with (𝑥 − 𝑎) as a
factor.
𝑛 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
Now, 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑛! 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎𝑛 = for all 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝑛!
The result now follows. Hence the result
If we start with an arbitrary function 𝑓 that has derivatives of all
orders on an interval 𝐼 centered at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and use it to generate
the series
f n a f ( n ) (a)
x a f (a) f (a)( x a) f (a)( x a) ... x a
n ' '' 2 n
n 0 n! n!
Will the series converge to 𝑓(𝑥) at each 𝑥 in the interior of 𝐼 ?
The answer is may be - for some functions it will, but for other
functions it will not.
Taylor series and Maclaurin Series:
Let 𝑓 be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout
some interval containing 𝑎 as an interior point. Then the Taylor
series generated by 𝒇 at 𝒙 = 𝒂 is
f k a f ''(a) f n a
x a f (a) f '(a)( x a) x a ... x a ...
k 2 n
k 0 k! 2! n!
The Maclaurin Series generated by 𝑓 is
f 0 f 0 n
k n
f ''(0) 2
x a f (0) f '(0) x x ... x ...
k
k 0 k! 2! n!
the Taylor series generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 0
Example 1: Finding a Taylor series
1
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 at 𝑎 = 2. Where
1
(if any where) does the series converge to ?
𝑥
Solution:
1
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 . Taking the derivatives, we get
1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1 , 𝑓 2 =2
−1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = −1 𝑥 −2 , 𝑓′ 2 = 22
2 𝑓 ′′ 2 −1 2
𝑓′′ 𝑥 = −1 2! 𝑥 −3 , =
2! 23
3 𝑓 ′′′ 2 −1 3
𝑓′′′ 𝑥 = −1 3! 𝑥 −4 , =
3! 24
………… ……………
𝑓 (𝑛 ) 2 −1 𝑛
𝑓𝑛 𝑥 = −1 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑥 −(𝑛+1) , 𝑛!
= 2 𝑛 +1
1
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 at 𝑎 = 2 is
𝑓 ′′ (2) 𝑓 𝑛 𝑥
𝑓 2 + 𝑓′ 2 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥−2 2 + ⋯+ 𝑥−2 𝑛 +⋯
2! 𝑛!
1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 2 𝑛 𝑥 −2
𝑛
=2− + − ⋯ + (−1) 2𝑛 +1 +⋯
22 23
1
This is a geometric series with first term 2 and common ratio
𝑥−2
𝑟=− . It converges absolutely for 𝑥 − 2 < 2, i.e.,
2
0 < 𝑥 < 4 and its sum is
1
𝑎 2 1
= 𝑥−2 =𝑥
1−𝑟 1+
2
1
In this example the Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 at
1
𝑎 = 2 converges to 𝑥 for 0 < 𝑥 < 4.
Taylor Polynomials:
The linearization of differentiable function f at a point a is the
polynomial of degree one given by
𝑃1 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)
We used this linearization to approximate 𝑓(𝑥) at values of 𝑥
near 𝑎.
If 𝑓 has derivatives of higher order at 𝑥 = 𝑎 , then it has higher
order polynomial approximations, one for each available
derivative. These polynomials are called Taylor Polynomials of 𝒇.
Taylor Polynomial of Order 𝒏:
Let 𝑓 be a function with derivatives of order 𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1,2, … , 𝑁
in some interval containing 𝑎 as an interior point. Then, for any
integer 𝑛 from 0 through 𝑁, the Taylor Polynomial of Order 𝒏
generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is the polynomial
′ 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 2
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 2! 𝑥−𝑎 +⋯
𝑓 𝑘 𝑎 𝑘 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
… + 𝑘! 𝑥−𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑛! 𝑥−𝑎
It is called a Taylor polynomial of Order 𝑛 rather than degree n
because 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) may be zero.
Note:
Just as the linearization of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 provides the best
approximation of 𝑓 in the neighborhood of 𝑎, the higher order
Taylor polynomials provide the best polynomial approximations
of their respective degrees.
Example 2: Finding Taylor Polynomial for 𝒆𝒙
Find the Taylor series and Taylor polynomials generated by
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
Solution:
We have, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , … 𝑓 𝑛
(𝑥) =
𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑓 0 = 1, 𝑓 ′ 0 = 1, 𝑓 ′′ 0 = 1, … , 𝑓 𝑛
0 = 1, …
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 is
𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓𝑛 0
𝑓 0 + 𝑓′ 0 𝑥+ 𝑥2 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
2! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 xk
=1+𝑥+ +⋯+ +⋯=
2! 𝑛! k 0 k !
This is also Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 . (We will see later that the
series converges to 𝑒 𝑥 at every 𝑥).
The Taylor polynomial of order 𝑛 at 𝑥 = 0 is
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+
2! 𝑛!
The above figure shows how well these polynomials approximate
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 near 𝑥 = 0
Example3: A function 𝒇 whose Taylor Series converges at
every 𝒙 but converges to 𝒇 𝒙 only at 𝒙 = 𝟎.
0 , 𝑥=0
The function 𝑓 𝑥 = −
1 has derivatives of all
𝑒 𝑥2
, 𝑥≠0
orders at 𝑥 = 0 and that 𝑓 𝑛 0 = 0 for all 𝑛. This Taylors
series generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 0 is
′ 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓𝑛 0
𝑓 0 +𝑓 0 𝑥 + 2! 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑛! 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
= 0 + 0. 𝑥 + 0. 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 0. 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ = 0 + 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0 + ⋯
The series converges for every 𝑥 (its sum is zero) but converges
to 𝑓(𝑥) only at 𝑥 = 0.
We now answer the question:
When does the Taylor series generated by a function converge
to its generating function?
We answer this question with the following theorem:
Theorem 2: Taylor’s Theorem
If 𝒇 and its first 𝒏 derivatives 𝒇′ , 𝒇′′ , … , 𝒇 𝒏 are continuous on
the closed interval between 𝒂 and 𝒃, and 𝒇 is differentiable on
the open interval between 𝒂 and 𝒃, then there exists a
number 𝒄 between 𝒂 and 𝒃 such that
𝒇′′ 𝒂
𝒇 𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 + 𝒇′ 𝒂 𝒃−𝒂 + 𝒃−𝒂 𝟐
+⋯
𝟐!
𝒇𝒏 𝒂 𝒏 𝒇 𝒏+𝟏 𝒄 𝒏+𝟏
+ 𝒃−𝒂 + 𝒃−𝒂
𝒏! 𝒏+𝟏 !
Proof:
We prove the Taylor’s Theorem when 𝑎 < 𝑏. The proof of
𝑎 > 𝑏 is nearly same. The Taylor polynomial of order
𝑛 generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑥−𝑎 2 + ⋯+ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
Notice that 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 and its first 𝑛 derivatives match 𝑓 and its first
𝑛 derivatives at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑛+1 , where
Define ∅𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐾 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝐾 is a constant
This new function and its first 𝑛 derivatives agree with 𝑓 and its
first 𝑛 derivatives at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Choose 𝐾 such that the curves 𝑦 = ∅𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 agree
at 𝑥 = 𝑏. That is ∅𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑓 𝑏 ,
𝑛+1
i.e., 𝑓 𝑏 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑏 + 𝐾 𝑏 − 𝑎 --------- (1)
Now, the function
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − ∅𝑛 𝑥
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎
=𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 − 𝑥−𝑎 2
−⋯
2!
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛+1
− 𝑥−𝑎 −𝐾 𝑥−𝑎
𝑛!
measures the difference between the original function 𝑓 and
the approximinating function ∅𝑛 for each 𝑥 in 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Notice that 𝐹 and 𝐹 ′ are continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝐹 𝑎 = 0,
𝐹 𝑏 = 𝑓 𝑏 − ∅𝑛 𝑏 = 0. Thus, by Rolle’s Theorem
𝐹 ′ 𝑐1 = 0 for some 𝑐1 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Notice that 𝐹 ′ and 𝐹 ′′ are continuous on 𝑎, 𝑐1 and
𝐹 ′ 𝑎 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑐1 = 0. By Rolle’s Theorem 𝐹 ′′ 𝑐2 = 0 for some
𝑐2 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑐1 . Applying Rolle’s Theorem successively to
𝐹 ′′ , 𝐹 ′′′ , … , 𝐹 𝑛−1 implies the existence of 𝑐3 in 𝑎, 𝑐2 , such
that 𝐹 ′′′ 𝑐3 = 0; 𝑐4 in 𝑎, 𝑐3 such that 𝐹 4 𝑐4 = 0; … ; 𝑐𝑛 in
𝑎, 𝑐𝑛−1 such that 𝐹 𝑛 𝑐𝑛 = 0.
𝑛
Now notice that 𝐹 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑐𝑛 and differentiable
𝑛 𝑛
on 𝑎, 𝑐𝑛 and 𝐹 𝑎 =𝐹 𝑐𝑛 = 0. By Rolle’s Theorem
𝑛+1
there is a number 𝑐𝑛+1 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑐𝑛 such that 𝐹 𝑐𝑛 = 0
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
where 𝐹 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑛 + 1 ! 𝐾. Therefore,
𝑓 𝑛 +1 𝑐
𝐾= for some 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑛+1 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 . The equation (1) gives
𝑛+1 !
𝑛+1
𝑓 𝑐 𝑛+1
𝑓 𝑏 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑏 + 𝑏−𝑎
𝑛+1 !
This completed the proof of Taylor’s Theorem.
Note:
(1) Taylor’s Theorem is a generalization of Lagrange’s Mean
Value Theorem.
(2) When we apply Taylor’s Theorem, we usually hold 𝑎
fixed and treat 𝑏 as an independent variable. The
following is a version of Taylor’s Theorem with this
change.
Taylor’s Formula:
If 𝑓 has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I containing
𝑎, then for each natural number 𝑛 and for each 𝑥 in I.
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 + 2! 𝑥−𝑎 2
+⋯
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
+ 𝑛! 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 ------ (2)
𝑓 𝑛 +1 𝑐 𝑛+1
where 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥−𝑎 for some 𝑐 between 𝑎 and 𝑥.
𝑛+1 !
Note:
(1) If we state Taylor’s theorem in this way, then it concludes
that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑰.
(2) The function 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 is determined by the value of 𝑓 𝑛+1 at
a point 𝑐, where 𝑐 depends on 𝑎 and 𝑥, and lies between
𝑎 and 𝑥.
(3) For any value of 𝑛, the equation (2) gives both a
polynomial approximation of 𝑓 of order 𝑛 and a formula
for error involved in using the approximation over the
interval 𝑰.
Equation (2) is called Taylor’s Formula. The function 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 is
called the remainder of order 𝒏 or the error term for the
approximation of 𝑓 by 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 over 𝑰. If 𝑹𝒏 𝒙 → 𝟎 as 𝒏 → ∞ for
all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑰, then we say that the Taylor series generated by 𝒇 at
𝒙 = 𝒂 converges to 𝒇 on 𝑰 and we write
f k a
f x x a
k
k 0 n!
Remark:
The remainder mentioned in the Taylor’s Formula is called
Lagrange’s form of Remainder. There are other forms of
remainders like Cauchy’s form of Remainder, Integral form of
Remainder, etc.
Often we can estimate 𝑅𝑛 without knowing the value of 𝑐.
Example 4: The Taylor Series for 𝒆𝒙
Show that the Taylor Series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
converges to 𝑓 𝑥 for every real value of 𝑥.
Solution:
The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 has derivatives of all orders in the
interval 𝑰 = −∞, ∞ and 𝑓 𝑛 0 = 1 for all 𝑛.
By Taylor’s formula, we have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑛 𝑥
′ 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓 𝑛 0
where 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑛
2! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
= 1+𝑥+ + ⋯+
2! 𝑛!
𝑓 𝑛 +1 𝑐 𝑒𝑐
and 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 for some 𝑐 between
𝑛+1 ! 𝑛+1 !
0 and 𝑥.
Since 𝑒 𝑥 is an increasing function of 𝑥, 𝑒 𝑐 lies between 𝑒 0 = 1
and 𝑒 𝑥 . If 𝑥 is negative, then 𝑐 is negative and 𝑒 𝑐 < 1. If 𝑥 = 0,
then 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = 0. If 𝑥 is positive, then 𝑐 is positive and 𝑒 𝑐 < 𝑒 𝑥 .
𝑒 𝑐 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛 +1
Thus, 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = ≤ when 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝑛+1 ! 𝑛+1 !
𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 +1
and 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 < when 𝑥 > 0
𝑛+1 !
𝑥 𝑛 +1
Since lim𝑛→∞ = 0 for all 𝑥 ; lim𝑛→∞ 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑛+1 !
Thus, the Taylor series generated by 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 converges to
𝑒 𝑥 for every 𝑥 and
xk x 2 x3 xk
e
x
1 x
k 0 k ! 2! 3! k!
Estimating the Remainder:
It is often possible to estimate 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 . This method of
estimation is so convenient that we state it as a theorem.
Theorem 3: The Remainder Estimation Theorem
If there is a positive constant 𝑴 such that 𝒇 𝒏+𝟏 𝒕 ≤ 𝑴 for
all 𝒕 between 𝒙 and 𝒂, inclusive, then the remainder term
𝑹𝒏 𝒙 in Taylor’s Theorem satisfies the inequality
𝑴 𝒏+𝟏
𝑹𝒏 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙−𝒂
𝒏+𝟏 !
If this condition holds for every 𝒏 and other conditions of
Taylor’s Theorem are satisfied by 𝒇, then the series converges
to 𝒇 𝒙 .
Example 5: Finding a Taylor series by substitution
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝑒 −5𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
Solution:
k
x
We have 𝑒 𝑥 = , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ ⟹It holds for
k 0 k !
−∞ < −5𝑥 < ∞.
Substituting −5𝑥 for 𝑥, we get
5 x 1
k k
5 x 5k x k
e
k 0 k! k 0 k!
52 2 53 3
1 5 x x x ...
2! 3!
and it holds for −∞ < −5𝑥 < ∞ and this series converges for
all 𝑥.
Example 6: Finding a Taylor series by Multiplication
Find the Taylor series for 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
Solution:
We can find the Taylor series for 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 by multiplying the Taylor
series for 𝑒 𝑥 by 𝑥:
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 1+𝑥+ + + +⋯
2! 3! 4!
𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
=𝑥+ 𝑥2 + + 3! + 4! +⋯
2!
valid for −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, since the series for 𝑒 𝑥 is valid for
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞.
IP1.
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟏
Solution:
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 , 𝑎 = 1
f ( k ) (a)
x a
k
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
k 0 k!
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛2 , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 (𝑙𝑛2)2 ,
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 (𝑙𝑛2)3 …….𝑓 𝑘 𝑥 = 2𝑥 (𝑙𝑛2)𝑘
𝑓 𝑘 (1) 2(𝑙𝑛2)𝑘
Now, =
𝑘! 𝑘!
Therefore, the Taylor series generated by 2𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1 is
2 ln 2
k
f ( k ) (1)
k 0
x 1
k k
x 1
k 0 k! k!
2 ln 2 2 ln 2
2 3
2 2ln 2.( x 1) x 1 x 1 .....
2 3
2! 3!
IP2.
Find the Taylor polynomials of orders 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐 and 𝟑 generated
by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟒
Solution:
1 3
′ 1 − ′′ 1 1 −
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 ,𝑓 𝑥 = 2 −2 𝑥 2
5
1 1 3 −
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = − − 𝑥 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
Now, 𝑓 4 = 2, 𝑓 ′ 4 = 4 , 𝑓 ′′ 4 = − 32 , 𝑓 ′′′ 4 = 256 ,
Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) be the Taylor polynomial of order 𝑛 generated by 𝑓 at
𝑥 = 𝑎 , we have
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑥−𝑎 2 + ⋯+ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
Now, 𝑃0 𝑥 = 𝑓 4 = 2
1
𝑃1 𝑥 = 𝑓 4 + 𝑓 ′ 4 𝑥 − 4 = 2 + 4 𝑥 − 4
𝑓 ′′ 4
𝑃2 𝑥 = 𝑓 4 + 𝑓′ 4 𝑥+ 𝑥−4 2
2!
1 1
= 2 + 4 𝑥 − 4 − 64 𝑥 − 4 2 s
𝑓 ′′ 4 𝑓 ′′′ 4
𝑃3 𝑥 = 𝑓 4 + 𝑓′ 4 𝑥+ 𝑥−4 2
+ 𝑥−4 3
2! 3!
1 1 2 1 3
=2+ 𝑥−4 − 𝑥−4 + 𝑥−4
4 64 512
IP3.
(i) The Taylor series for 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
Show that the Taylor series generated by 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
converges to 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 for every value of 𝒙.
Solution:
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. We have
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
……𝑓 2𝑛 𝑥 = (−1)𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑓 2𝑛+1 𝑥 = (−1)𝑛+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
2𝑛
Now, 𝑓 0 = (−1)𝑛 , 𝑓 2𝑛+1
0 =0
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 is
′ 𝑓 ′′ 0 2 𝑓 ′′′ 0 3 𝑓 (𝑛 ) 0
𝑓 0 +𝑓 0 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑛 𝑥
2𝑛
= 1 + 0. 𝑥 − + 0. 𝑥 3 + + ⋯ + −1 +⋯
2! 4! 2𝑛 !
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑛 𝑥
2𝑛
=1− + − ⋯ + −1 + ⋯
2! 4! 2𝑛 !
The Taylor polynomial of order 2𝑘 for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 is
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑘 𝑥
2𝑘
𝑃2𝑘 𝑥 = 1 − 2! + − ⋯ + −1
4! 2𝑘 !
The Taylor’s formula for 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 with 𝑛 = 2𝑘 is
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑃2𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑅2𝑘 𝑥
𝑓 2𝑘 +1 (𝑐) 2𝑘+1 (−1)𝑘 +1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐
where 𝑅2𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 2𝑘+1 for some 𝑐
2𝑘+1 ! 2𝑘+1 !
between 0 and 𝑥.
(−1)𝑘 +1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2𝑘+1 𝑥 2𝑘 +1
Now, 𝑅2𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑥 ≤
2𝑘+1 ! 2𝑘+1 !
For every value of 𝑥, 𝑅2𝑘 𝑥 → 0 as 𝑘 → ∞ (by the Remainder
Estimation Theorem)
Therefore, the Taylor series for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 converges to
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. Thus,
1 x 2 k
k
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑘 𝑥
2𝑘
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 − 2! + … + −1 + ⋯=
4! 2𝑘 ! k 0 2 k !
(ii) Finding a Taylor series by substitution
Find the Taylor series for 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
Solution:
1 x 2 k
k
We have 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
k 0 2 k !
⟹It holds for −∞ < 2𝑥 < ∞.
Substituting 2𝑥 for 𝑥, we get
1 2 x 1 22 k x 2 k
k 2k k
cos 2 x and it holds for
k 0 2 k ! k 0 2 k !
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞.
IP4.
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 at
𝒙 = −𝟐
Solution:
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1
f ( k ) (a)
x a
k
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
k 0 k!
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 2 + 2
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 24𝑥 , 𝑓 4
𝑥 = 24
𝑘
𝑓 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑘 ≥ 5
Now, 𝑓 −2 = 21, 𝑓 ′ −2 = −36, 𝑓 ′′ −2 = 50,
𝑓 ′′′ −2 = −48, 𝑓 4
−2 = 24,…., 𝑓 𝑘
−2 = 0 for 𝑘 ≥ 5
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1 at 𝑥 = −2 is
𝑓 ′′ (−2) 𝑓 ′′′ (−2)
𝑓 −2 + 𝑓′ −2 𝑥 + 2! 𝑥+2 2
+ 3! 𝑥+2 3
+
𝑓 4 (−2) 4
𝑥+2 +⋯
4!
50 2 48 3 24 4
= 21 − 36 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥+2 − 𝑥+2 + 𝑥+2
2! 3! 4!
2 3 4
= 21 − 36 𝑥 + 2 + 25 𝑥 + 2 −8 𝑥+2 + 𝑥+2
P1.
𝟏
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 at 𝒙 = 𝟏
P1.
𝟏
Find the Taylor series generated by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 at 𝒙 = 𝟏
Solution:
1
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑎 = 1
f ( k ) (a)
x a
k
The Taylor series generated by 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
k 0 k!
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −2 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −2𝑥 3 , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 3! 𝑥 −4 ,
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = −4! 𝑥 −5 …….𝑓 𝑘
𝑥 = −1 𝑘
𝑘 + 1 ! 𝑥 −𝑘−2
𝑓 𝑘 (1) −1 𝑘 𝑘+1 ! 𝑘
Now, = = −1 𝑘+1
𝑘! 𝑘!
1
Therefore, the Taylor series generated by at 𝑥 = 1 is
𝑥2
f ( k ) (1)
x 1 k0 1 (k 1) x 1
k k k
k 0 k!
1 2( x 1) 3 x 1 4 x 1 .....
2 3
P2.
Find the Taylor polynomials of orders 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐 and 𝟑 generated
by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝟎
P2.
Find the Taylor polynomials of orders 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐 and 𝟑 generated
by 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝟎
Solution:
1 1
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = (−1)
1+𝑥 (1+𝑥)2
(−1)2 1.2 (−1)3 1.2.3 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑛−1 !
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = , 𝑓′ 𝑣 𝑥 = ,…𝑓 𝑛
𝑥 =
(1+𝑥)3 (1+𝑥)4 (1+𝑥 )𝑛
Now, 𝑓 0 = 0, 𝑓 ′ 0 = 1 , 𝑓 ′′ 0 = −1 𝑓 ′′′ 0 = 2! ,
𝑓 ′ 𝑣 0 = −3! , … 𝑓 𝑛 0 = −1 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 !
Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) be the Taylor polynomial of order 𝑛 generated by 𝑓 at
𝑥 = 𝑎. We have
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑥−𝑎 2 + ⋯+ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
2! 𝑛!
Now, 𝑃0 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 = 0
𝑃1 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑥2
𝑃2 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓′ 0 𝑥+ 𝑥 =𝑥 − 2!
2!
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′ (0) 3 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑃3 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓′ 0 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 =𝑥− +
2! 3! 2! 3!
In general, for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛
𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 + −⋯+ (−1)
3 𝑛
P3.
(i) The Taylor Series for 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎.
Show that the Taylor Series generated by 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
converges to 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 for all 𝒙.
(ii) Finding a Taylor series by Multiplication
Find the Taylor series for 𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
P3.
(i) The Taylor Series for 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎.
Show that the Taylor Series generated by 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
converges to 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 for all 𝒙.
Solution:
We have,𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ,
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 , …..
2𝑘 𝑘 2𝑘+1 𝑘
……. 𝑓 𝑥 = −1 sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = −1 cos 𝑥 ,
2𝑘 2𝑘+1
Now, 𝑓 0 = 0 and 𝑓 0 = −1 𝑘 .
Notice that the series has only odd powered terms and for
𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1, Taylor’s Theorem gives
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑃2𝑘+1 𝑥 + 𝑅2𝑘+1 𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥5 −1 𝑘 𝑥 2𝑘 +1
=𝑥 − 3! + 5!
− ⋯+ 2𝑘+1 !
+ 𝑅2𝑘+1 𝑥
𝑓 2𝑘 +1 𝑐 −1 𝑘 +1 sin 𝑥
where 𝑅2𝑘+1 𝑥 = 𝑥 2𝑘+2 = 𝑥 2𝑘+2 for
2𝑘+2 ! 2𝑘+2 !
every 𝑐 between 0 and 𝑥.
𝑥 2𝑘 +2
Now, 𝑅2𝑘+1 𝑥 ≤ , since sin 𝑥 ≤ 1 (by Remainder
2𝑘+2 !
Estimation Theorem) and
𝑥 2𝑘 +2
→ 0 as 𝑘 → ∞ for all 𝑥. Thus, 𝑅2𝑘+1 𝑥 → 0 for all 𝑘.
2𝑘+2 !
Therefore, the Maclaurin series for sin 𝑥 converges to sin 𝑥 for
all 𝑥 and
1 x 2 k 1
k
x3 x5 x 7
sin x x
k 0 2k 1! 3! 5! 7!
(ii) Finding a Taylor series by Multiplication
Find the Taylor series for 𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
Solution:
We can find the Taylor series for 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 by multiplying the Taylor
series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 by 𝑥:
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥8
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 − + − +⋯ = 𝑥2 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
valid for −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, since the series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is valid for
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞.
P4.
Find the Maclaurin series for the function
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒
P4.
Find the Maclaurin series for the function
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒
Solution:
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4
f ( k ) (0) k
The Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥) is
k 0 k!
x
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 5, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −12𝑥
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 24𝑥 , 𝑓 4 𝑥 = 24
𝑘
𝑓 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑘 ≥ 5
Now, 𝑓 0 = 4, 𝑓 ′ 0 = −5, 𝑓 ′′ 0 = 0, 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = −12
4 𝑘
𝑓 𝑥 = 24, ….., 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑘 ≥ 5
The Maclaurin series for 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4 is
′ 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓 (4) (0)
𝑓 0 +𝑓 0 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
2! 3! 4!
0 12 24
= 4 − 5𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4
2! 3! 4!
The Maclaurin series for 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4 is itself.
EXERCISES:
I. Find the Taylor Polynomials of order 0, 1, 2 and 3 generated
by 𝒇(𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝒂:
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 ; 𝑎 = 1
1
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ; 𝑎=2
1
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+2 ; 𝑎=0
𝜋
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ; 𝑎 =
4
e. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 4 ; 𝑎 = 0
II. Find the Maclaurin series for the functions:
a. 𝑒 −𝑥
b. 𝑒 𝑥 2
1
c. 1+𝑥
1
d. 1−𝑥
e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
f. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
g. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
III. Find the Taylor series generated by 𝒇(𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝒂:
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 8 ; 𝑎 = 1
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 ; 𝑎 = −1
𝑥
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 1−𝑥 ; 𝑎 = 0
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑎=2
IV. Use substitution to find the Taylor series at 𝒙 = 𝟎:
a. 𝑒 −𝑥 2
b. 5 sin −𝑥
𝜋𝑥
c. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
d. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 1
𝑥3 2
e. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
V. Find the Taylor series at 𝒙 = 𝟎:
a. 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑥2
b. − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
2
c. 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑥
d. 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 2
e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑥2
f. 1−2𝑥
1
g. (1−𝑥)2
2
h.
(1−𝑥)3
Frequently used Taylor series:
1
1. 1−𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ = xn , 𝑥 < 1
n 0
1
2. 1+𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − ⋯ + −𝑥 𝑛
+⋯= (1) n x n , 𝑥 < 1
n 0
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 xn
3. 𝑒𝑥 =1+𝑥 + 2! + ⋯ + 𝑛! +⋯= , 𝑥 <∞
n 0 n !
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 −
𝑥3 𝑥5
+ 5! 𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛 +1
− ⋯ + (−1) 2𝑛+1 ! +⋯ =
1 x 2 n1
n
3! n 0 2n 1!
𝑥 <∞,
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 −
𝑥2
+
𝑥4
−⋯+
𝑥 2𝑛
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛 ! + ⋯=
1 x 2 n
n
2! 4! n 0 2 n !
𝑥 <∞
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑛
6. ln 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − 2 + 3 −⋯+ −1 +⋯
𝑛
n 1 n
1 x
= , −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
n 1 n
1+𝑥
7. 𝑙𝑛 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥
1−𝑥
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛 +1 x 2 n1
=2 𝑥+ + +⋯+ +⋯ 2 , 𝑥 <1
3 5 2𝑛+1 n 0 2n 1
−1 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑛𝑥
2𝑛 +1
8. tan 𝑥=𝑥− + − ⋯ + −1 +⋯
3 5 2𝑛+1
=
1 x 2 n1
n
, 𝑥 ≤1
n 0 2n 1
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