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Series on Diversity of Microbes and Cryptogams

ALGAE
About the Author
O P Sharma, with his 36 research articles published in national and international journals,
30 books written for uni versity students and 40 y ears of teaching experience, is an able
researcher, established Indian author, and an e xperienced teacher. His areas of research
include pollen morphology, angiosperm’s anatomy and mycology, with special focus on
Indian Cyperaceae (with par ticular interest on Cyperus). Over a dozen of Dr Shar ma’s
books have been published through internationally known publishers. He has also revised
Economic Botany, an inter nationally renowned text by the late Professor Albert F Hill
(Harvard Uni versity, USA), a pub lication of McGra w-Hill, Ne w York. Encouraging
reviews of his books ha ve been published in reputed scientif c journals such as cur rent
science and his books onPractical Botany have received appreciations from some eminent
botanists including J D Dodge (England),T Christensen (Denmark), J M Herr (USA) and
C R Metcalfe (England).
Immediately after he completed his postg raduation (MSc) in Botan y with f rst
division from CCS University, Meerut, and thereafter obtaining a PhD from the same uni versity, Dr Sharma started his
teaching career in 1967 as a faculty member of the Botany Department, Meerut College, Meerut, and retired from active
service as a Reader from the same depar tment in 2007. Besides attending several national and international workshops,
symposia and conferences during the four decades of his teaching career, Dr Sharma is still enjoying his post-retirement
innings as an active author.
Recently, Dr O P Shar ma re vised some of his widel y circulated books pub lished through Tata McGra w-Hill
Education, which include Plant Taxonomy (released f rst in 1993 and reprinted 19 times),Textbook of Algae (released f rst
in 1986 and reprinted 20 times), and Textbook of Fungi (released f rst in 1989 and reprinted 17 times).
Series on Diversity of Microbes and Cryptogams

ALGAE

O P Sharma
Retired Reader
Department of Botany
Meerut College, Meerut

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

NEW DELHI
McGraw-Hill Off ces
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 Tata McGraw-Hill

Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,

7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008.

Series on Diversity of Microbes and Cryptogams: Algae

Copyright © 2011, by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in an y form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, pho-
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Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.

ISBN-13: 978-0-07-068194-1
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Typeset at ACE PRO India Private Limited, Ghaziabad 201 014, and printed at Rashtriya Printers, M–135, Panchsheel
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Cover: Rashtriya Printers
 Dedicated to
DR R SHIAM

For his inspiration as a teacher.

“I must thank the Almighty for giving me the opportunity to study some
Botany under Dr Shiam’s supervision. He is a class apart and
inimitable. I just love and respect him for all he is”.

O P Sharma
 Contents
Preface xiii 3.11 Classif cation Proposed by F.E. Fritsch
(1935, 1945) 14
3.12 Classif cation Proposed by G.F. Papenfuss
1. Intr oduction 1 (1946) 15
1.1 What are Algae and Phycology? 1 3.13 Classif cation Proposed by V.J. Chapman
1.2 A Brief History 1 (1962) 20
1.3 Def nitions 2 3.14 Classif cation Proposed by G.W. Prescott
1.4 General Characters of Algae 2 (1969) 20
1.5 Similarities and Diversities 5 3.15 Classif cation Proposed by F.E. Round
Test Your Understanding 7 (1973) 20
Suggested Readings 7 3.16 Classif cation Proposed by H.C. Bold and
M.J. Wynne (1978) 21
2. History and Development of Algae 8 3.17 Classif cation Proposed by S.P. Parker
2.1 Phases of Phycology 8 (1982) 21
2.2 The First Phase (before 1800 A.D.) 8 3.18 Principal Characteristics of Major Algal
2.3 The Second Phase (from 1800 to 1880) 8 Classes 21
2.4 The Third Phase (from 1881 to 1950) 9 3.19 Characteristics of Some Other Recently
2.5 The Fourth (Modern) Phase (from 1951 Recognised Algal Classes 24
till date) 9 Test Your Understanding 24
2.6 Some Phycologists of Modern Phase 9 Suggested Readings 25
2.7 Some International Phycological Societies
and Journals 10 4. Alg al Occurrence 26
2.8 Scope of Modern Phycology 10 4.1 Aquatic Algae 26
2.9 A Note on the Development of Algal Study 4.2 Terrestrial Algae 27
in India 10 4.3 Lithophytic Algae 27
Test Your Understanding 11 4.4 Halophytic Algae or Euryhaline 27
Suggested Readings 11 4.5 Episammic Algae or Psammon 27
4.6 Epipelic Algae 28
3. Classif cation of the Algae 12 4.7 Thermal Algae 28
3.1 What is Classif cation? 12 4.8 Cryophytic Algae 28
3.2 Algal Nomenclature 12 4.9 Epiphytic Algae 28
3.3 Basis of Algal Classif cation 12 4.10 Endophytic Algae 29
3.4 Schools of Thought for Algal 4.11 Epizoic and Endozoic Algae 29
Classif cation 12 4.12 Parasitic Algae 29
3.5 Systems of Algal Classif cation: Always in 4.13 Planktons 30
Changing State 13 4.14 Calcif lic Algae 30
3.6 Classif cation before 1800 13 4.15 Algae In Lichens 30
3.7 Classif cation Proposed by W.H. Harvey Test Your Understanding 30
(1836) 13 Suggested Readings 31
3.8 Classif cation Proposed by A.W. Eichler
(1886) 13 5. Cytolo gy of Algae 32
3.9 Classif cation Proposed by A. Pascher (1914, 5.1 Prokaryotic Cell 32
1931) 13 5.2 Eukaryotic Cell 32
3.10 Classif cation Proposed by G.M. Smith Test Your Understanding 44
(1955) 14 Suggested Readings 44
viii Contents

6. Range of Thallus Structure 45 10. Physiology: Inorganic Nutrients, Vitamins and

6.1 The Range of Morphology 45 Pheromones in Algae 72
6.2 Unicellular Motile Forms 45 10.1 Inorganic Nutrients Required by Algae 72
6.3 Unicellular Non-motile Forms 45 10.2 Carbon 72
6.4 Multicellular Flagellated Forms or “Colonial 10.3 Nitrogen 72
Forms” 47 10.4 Phosphorus 73
6.5 Multicellular Non-f agellated Forms or 10.5 Calcium 74
Non-f agellated Colonies 48 10.6 Magnesium 74
6.6 Palmelloid Forms 48 10.7 Silicon 74
6.7 Dendroid Forms 49 10.8 Potassium 74
6.8 Filamentous Forms 49 10.9 Sodium 74
6.9 Heterotrichous Forms 49 10.10 Sulphur 74
6.10 Siphonous Forms 50 10.11 Iron 74
6.11 Uniaxial Forms 50 10.12 Manganese 75
6.12 Multiaxial Forms 51 10.13 Trace Elements 75
6.13 Parenchymatous Forms 51 10.14 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) 75
Test Your Understanding 52 10.15 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) 75
Suggested Readings 52 10.16 Biotin 76
10.17 Pheromones in Algae 76
7. Repr oduction in Algae 53 Test Your Understanding 76
7.1 Vegetative Reproduction 53 Suggested Readings 76
7.2 Asexual Reproduction 54
7.3 Sexual Reproduction 57 11. Physiology: Nitrogen Fixation in Algae 78
7.4 Distribution of Compatible Sexual 11.1 What is Nitrogen Fixation? 78
Potentialities in Algae 60 11.2 Which Organisms can Carry out Nitrogen
7.5 A Note on Gene Transfer in Fixation? 78
Cyanophyceae 60 11.3 What Does Nitrogen Fixation Require? 78
Test Your Understanding 60 11.4 Nitrogen-f xing Cyanophytes 78
Suggested Readings 60 11.5 Properties and Activity of Nitrogenase 79
11.6 Some Major Steps in Pathway of Nitrogen
8. Origin and Evolution of Sex in Algae 62 Fixation 79
8.1 Sex, Sexual and Asexual Units, 11.7 Nitrogen Storage in Blue-greens 80
and Reproductions 62 11.8 Factors Affecting Nitrogenase Activity 80
8.2 Origin of Sex 62 11.9 Role of Nitrogen-f xing Blue-greens in Rice
8.3 Evolution of Sex 64 Fields 80
8.4 Development of Sexuality in Test Your Understanding 81
Algae 65 Suggested Readings 81
Test Your Understanding 65
Suggested Readings 65 12. Physiology: Movements and Rhythm in Algae 82
12.1 Movements and Rhythm: What are They? 82
9. Life-cycles in Algae 66 12.2 Types of Movements in Algae 82
9.1 Life-cycle and Its Types in Algae 66 12.3 What Causes Movements in Algae? 82
9.2 Haplontic Life-cycle 66 12.4 Phototaxis 83
9.3 Diplontic Life-cycle 66 12.5 Movements in Diatoms 83
9.4 Diplohaplontic Life-cycle 67 12.6 Movements in Blue-green Algae 84
9.5 Haplobiontic or Diphasic Life-cycle 68 12.7 Photokinesis in Algae 84
9.6 Haplodiplobiontic or Triphasic 12.8 Phototropism in Algae 84
Life-cycle 69 12.9 Rhythms in Algae 84
Test Your Understanding 71 Test Your Understanding 85
Suggested Readings 71 Suggested Readings 85
 Contents ix

13. Cy anophages 86 16. Algae in Water Supplies and as Indicators of

13.1 What are Cyanophages? 86 Water Pollution 102
13.2 Saffermann and Morris’s Terminology of 16.1 Importance and Sources of Water 102
Cyanophages 86 16.2 Causes of Varied Algal Growth in Different
13.3 Commonly Attacked Genera of Water Bodies 102
Cyanophyceae 86 16.3 Common Algae Found in Water Supplies 102
13.4 Structure of Cyanophage 86 16.4 Major Problems Due to Algal Growth in
13.5 Infection and Replication of Water 102
Cyanophages 86 16.5 Algae as Indicators of Water Pollution 103
13.6 Results of the Attack of Test Your Understanding 105
Cyanophage 86 Suggested Readings 105
13.7 Physico-chemical Properties of
Cyanophage 87 17. Control of Algal Nuisance 106
13.8 How to Isolate Cyanophages? 87 17.1 Why do we need to Control Algae? 106
13.9 Uses of Cyanophages 87 17.2 Chemical Methods of Controlling Algae 106
Test Your Understanding 87 17.3 Physical Methods of Controlling Algae 107
Suggested Readings 87 17.4 Biological Methods of Controlling
Algae 107
14. Ecolo gy of Algae 88 Test Your Understanding 108
14.1 Habitats 88 Suggested Readings 108
14.2 Communities 88
14.3 Succession 88 18. T oxic Algae 109
14.4 Primary Production 88 18.1 What are Toxic Algae? 109
14.5 Phytoplankton 89 18.2 Major Toxic Algal Groups 109
14.6 Marine Epilithic Algae 92 18.3 Algae Toxic to Humans 110
14.7 Marine and Freshwater Algae of 18.4 Algae Toxic to Animals 110
Sediments and Sands 94 18.5 Groups of Toxins 110
14.8 Soil Algae 95 18.6 General Symptoms shown by Toxic
14.9 Algal Ecology at Extreme Algae 110
Temperatures 95 18.7 General Chemistry of Some Toxins 111
14.10 Ecology of Algae in Symbiotic Test Your Understanding 111
Associations 96 Suggested Readings 111
Test Your Understanding 97
Suggested Readings 98 19. F ossil Algae 112
19.1 What are Fossils and Fossil Algae? 112
15. Water Blooms and Red Tides 99 19.2 How Old are the Algal Fossils? 112
15.1 What is a Water Bloom? 99 19.3 Some Fossil Records of Cyanophyceae 112
15.2 Which Algae Form Water Blooms? 99 19.4 Some Fossil Records of Rhodophyceae 113
15.3 Algae Forming Water Blooms in 19.5 Some Fossil Records of Phaeophyceae 113
India 99 19.6 Some Fossil Records of
15.4 Algae Forming Water Blooms Around Bacillariophyceae 113
the World 100 19.7 Some Fossil Records of Chrysophyceae 115
15.5 Red Tides 100 19.8 Some Fossil Records of Prymnesiophyceae
15.6 Why are Blooms Formed? 100 (= Haptophyceae) 115
15.7 Utility of Blooms 101 19.9 Some Fossil Records of Dinophyceae 115
15.8 Disadvantages of Blooms 101 19.10 Some Fossil Records of
15.9 How can Blooms be Chlorophyceae 116
Controlled? 101 19.11 Utility of Algal Fossils 117
Test your Understanding 101 Test Your Understanding 117
Suggested Readings 101 Suggested Readings 117
x Contents

20. Methods of Algal Study 118 23. Cyanobacteria or Cyanophyceae or Blue-green

20.1 Observing Algae in the Field 118 Algae 132
20.2 Collection of Algae 118 23.1 Nomenclature 132
20.3 Preservation of Algae 119 23.2 Genera and Species 132
20.4 Preparation of Herbarium Specimens of 23.3 Are Cyanophyceae Algae? 132
Algae 119 23.4 Similarities of Myxophyceae and
20.5 Preparation of Temporary Mounts of Bacteria 133
Algae 119 23.5 Distinguishing Features 133
20.6 Some Methods of Preparation of Permanent 23.6 Occurrence of Blue-greens 136
Algal Slides 119 23.7 Thallus Organization in Blue-green
20.7 Preparation of Some Stains and Jellies Used Algae 136
in Studying Algae 120 23.8 Cell Structure Under Light Microscope 138
Test Your Understanding 121 23.9 Cell Structure Under Electron
Suggested Readings 121 Microscope 139
23.10 Cytokinesis in Blue-green Algae 141
21. Laboratory Culture and Commercial Cultivation 23.11 Nitrogen Fixation 141
of Algae 122 23.12 Heterocyst 141
21.1 Importance of Culture 122 23.13 Classif cation of Blue-green Algae 144
21.2 Isolation of Cultures 122 23.14 Order: Chroococcales 144
21.3 Kinds of Cultures 123 23.15 Family: Chroococcaceae 144
21.4 Culture Media 123 23.16 Gloeocapsa 144
21.5 Commercial Cultivation of Algae 124 23.17 Order: Nostocales 146
Test Your Understanding 125 23.18 Family: Oscillatoriaceae 146
Suggested Readings 125 23.19 Oscillatoria 146
23.20 Family: Nostocaceae 149
22. Economic Importance of Algae 126 23.21 Nostoc 149
22.1 Algae: Benef cial and Detrimental 126 23.22 Microcystis 151
22.2 Algae as Primary Source of Food and 23.23 Lyngbya 151
Energy 126 23.24 Phormidium 153
22.3 Algae as Food 126 23.25 Cylindrospermum 153
22.4 Agar 127 23.26 Anabaena 153
22.5 Carrageenin 127 23.27 Scytonema 153
22.6 Alginates 127 23.28 Tolypothrix 155
22.7 Funori 128 23.29 Rivularia 155
22.8 As a Source of Minerals 128 23.30 Gloeotrichia 155
22.9 As Fodder or Animal Food 128 23.31 Stigonema 155
22.10 Diatomite 128 Test Your Understanding 155
22.11 As Fertilizer 128 Suggested Readings 156
22.12 Antibiotics and Other Medicines 129
22.13 In Biological Research 129 24. Chlor ophyceae (Green Algae) 158
22.14 In Sewage Disposal 129 24.1 Nomenclature 158
22.15 Algae and Land Reclamation 129 24.2 Genera and Species 158
22.16 Role in Water Supply 129 24.3 Distinguishing Characters 158
22.17 Death of Fishes and Other Animals 130 24.4 Occurrence 158
22.18 Diseases and Death of Human Beings 130 24.5 Cell-structure 159
22.19 Algae and Water-blooms 130 24.6 Range in Thallus Organization 162
22.20 Parasitic Algae 130 24.7 Reproduction 162
22.21 Pollution and Algae 130 24.8 A note on Economic Importance 163
Test Your Understanding 131 24.9 Phylogeny and Evolutionary Trends 164
Suggested Readings 131 24.10 Classif cation 165
 Contents xi

24.11 Order 1. Volvocales 166 Test Your Understanding 275

24.12 Chlamydomonas 166 Suggested Readings 276
24.13 Eudorina 176
24.14 Pandorina 177 27. Bacillarioph yceae (Diatoms) 277
24.15 Volvox 180 27.1 Phycological Position 277
24.16 Order 2. Chlorococcales 187 27.2 Distinguishing Characters 277
24.17 Chlorella 187 27.3 Classif cation 277
24.18 Hydrodictyon 189 27.4 Occurrence 278
24.19 Pediastrum 192 27.5 Thallus Structure 278
24.20 Order 3. Ulotrichales 193 27.6 Reproduction 282
24.21 Ulothrix 193 27.7 Economic Importance 287
24.22 Ulva 197 27.8 Evolution and Phylogeny 288
24.23 Order 4. Cladophorales 201 Test Your Understanding 290
24.24 Cladophora 203 Suggested Readings 290
24.25 Order 5. Chaetophorales 209
24.26 Fritschiella 209 28. Cryptoph yceae (Cryptomonads) 291
24.27 Draparnaldiopsis 212 28.1 Phycological Position 291
24.28 Coleochaete 216 28.2 Some General Characteristics 291
24.29 Order 6. Oedogoniales 219 Test Your Understanding 293
24.30 Oedogonium 220 Suggested Readings 293
24.31 Order 7. Conjugales 229
24.32 Spirogyra 230 29. Dinoph yceae (Dinof agellates) 294
24.33 Zygnema 236 29.1 Phycological Position and
24.34 Desmids 239 Classif cation 294
24.35 Cosmarium 241 29.2 General Characteristics 294
24.36 Closterium 241 29.3 Evolution and Phylogeny of
24.37 Order 8. Siphonales 243 Dinophyceae 296
24.38 Caulerpa 244 29.4 Dinophysis 296
24.39 Vaucheria 246 29.5 Noctiluca 296
24.40 Order 9. Charales 254 29.6 Peridinium 296
24.41 Chara 255 29.7 Ceratium 296
Test Your Understanding 265 Test Your Understanding 297
Suggested Readings 265 Suggested Readings 297

25. Xanthoph yceae (Yellow-green Algae) 268 30. Euglenoph yceae (Euglenoids) 299
25.1 Phycological Position 268 30.1 What are Euglenophyceae? 299
25.2 General Characters 268 30.2 Phycological Position and
25.3 Classif cation 268 Classif cation 299
25.4 Botrydium 269 30.3 General Characteristics 299
Test Your Understanding 272 30.4 A Note on the Evolution and Phylogeny of
Suggested Readings 272 Euglenoids 301
Test Your Understanding 301
26. Chrysoph yceae (Golden-brown Algae) 273 Suggested Readings 301
26.1 Phycological Position 273
26.2 General Characteristics 273 31. Phaeoph yceae (Brown Algae) 302
26.3 Classif cation 273 31.1 Distinguishing Characters 302
26.4 Ochromonas 274 31.2 Geographical Distribution of Brown Algae
26.5 Mallomonas 274 in India 302
26.6 Synura 274 31.3 Thallus Organization 303
26.7 Phaeothamnion 275 31.4 Cell Structure 303
xii Contents

31.5 Reproduction 305 32.13 Bangioideae and Bangiales 342

31.6 Alternation of Generations 307 32.14 Porphyra 342
31.7 Classif cation 308 32.15 Compsopogon 343
31.8 Ectocarpales 308 32.16 Subclass Florideae 343
31.9 Ectocarpus 308 32.17 Nemalionales 343
31.10 Laminariales 314 32.18 Batrachospermum 343
31.11 Laminaria 314 32.19 Nemalion 348
31.12 Sphacelariales 317 32.20 Gelidiales 348
31.13 Sphacelaria 317 32.21 Gelidium 348
31.14 Dictyotales 317 32.22 Gigartinales 351
31.15 Dictyota 318 32.23 Gracilaria 351
31.16 Padina 321 32.24 Chondrus 352
31.17 Fucales 321 32.25 Rhodymeniales 352
31.18 Sargassum 322 32.26 Champia 352
31.19 Fucus 330 32.27 Cryptonemiales 352
Test Your Understanding 335 32.28 Corallina 353
Suggested Readings 335 32.29 Ceramiales 354
32.30 Polysiphonia 354
32. Rhodoph yceae (Red Algae) 336 32.31 Ceramium 361
32.1 General Characters 336 Test Your Understanding 362
32.2 Occurrence 336 Suggested Readings 362
32.3 Pigments 337
32.4 Food-storage Products 337 33. Glossary 364
32.5 Range of Thallus Structure 337 Bibliography 368
32.6 Cell-structure 337
32.7 Pit Connections 339 Appendix 1 369
32.8 Reproduction 339 Answers to Questions 369
32.9 Evolution and Phylogeny of
Rhodophyceae 341 Appendix 2 371
32.10 Resemblances and Differences 341 Principal Characteristics of Algal Classes
32.11 Classif cation 341 Proposed by Parker (1982) 371
32.12 Differences Between Bangioideae and
Florideae 342 Index 374
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