UNIT 3

Compounds
and Mixtures
Lesson 1: Investigating
Chemical Compounds. . . . . . . . . 145

Lesson 2: Analyzing the Properties

of Compounds and Solutions. . . 169

Lesson 3: Engineering
Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Unit Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Thing Explainer: The Water

in Our Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Unit Performance Task. . . . . . . . . 224

Unit Practice and Review. . . . . . . 225

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Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images

YOU SOLVE IT

Which Planetary-Rover
Materials Are Suitable?

How Can You Change the

Properties of a Substance?
To begin exploring this unit’s concepts, Various colors swirl together when you start
go online to investigate ways to solve a mixing paint. Once it is all mixed up, the paint
real-world problem. has a color unlike any of the original colors.

Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures 141

 Diamond is a form of pure, elemental carbon and is
FIGURE 1: The cutting edge of this drill bit is coated
with diamonds to protect it from wearing out too quickly one of the hardest substances found in nature. Because
when it is used to cut into hard metals. it is so hard, it can scratch or cut most other substances
and is used in a variety of industries. For example,
tools that are used to cut, shape, or smooth metal,
rock, or other hard substances are sometimes coated
with diamonds. Natural diamonds are not easy to
mine from Earth. Diamond mining techniques include
digging large pits and drilling into the ocean floor.
Because of diamond’s industrial importance, engineers
developed methods of producing synthetic diamonds.
One method of making diamonds involves subjecting
graphite, which is another form of elemental carbon, to
extremely high pressures and temperatures. A second
method of producing synthetic diamonds involves
growing diamond crystals in a chamber filled with
carbon-rich gases. Both processes are reliable, cost less
than mining, and have been used to make industrial-
quality diamonds. However, the second method has
advantages: very high pressures are not needed and
diamonds can be grown on larger surfaces.

PREDICT Diamond is not the only naturally-occurring substance that scientists and
engineers have made in laboratories. For example, scientists have made a synthetic form
of indigo, which is the dye used to color jeans. What information do you think scientists
need in order to make a substance in a laboratory?

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DRIVING QUESTIONS

As you move through the unit, gather evidence to help you answer the following
questions. In your Evidence Notebook, record what you already know about these topics
and any questions you have about them.
1. How can different kinds of bonding affect the properties of substances?
2. How can you use the periodic table to predict the types of bonds atoms will form?
3. How can interactions between particles be modeled?
4. How do forces between particles affect the properties of materials?

UNIT PROJECT

Designing Detergents
Go online to download
the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
A detergent is a cleansing agent that cleans materials by bonding with dirt and oil so that
plan your project. they can be dissolved and washed away. Investigate properties of soaps and detergents.
What is the difference between the two and does it affect how they work? Develop a plan
to optimize the effectiveness of a homemade detergent mixture.

142 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Language Development
Use the lessons in this unit to complete the chart and expand your
understanding of the science concepts.

TERM: ionic bond

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

TERM: covalent bond

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

TERM: metallic bond

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

TERM: polarity

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures 143

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

TERM: hydrogen bond

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

TERM: solution

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

TERM: solubility

Definition Example

Similar Term Phrase

TERM: composite

Definition Example © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Similar Term Phrase

144 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 3.1

Investigating
Chemical
Compounds

A fiery reaction occurs when sodium metal is exposed to chlorine gas.

CAN YOU EXPLAIN THE PHENOMENON?

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (t) ©Richard Megna/Fundamental

Sodium is an essential element required by the human body

FIGURE 1: Sodium chloride (left) is the
to function. In the United States, about 11% of a person’s daily product of the reaction of sodium metal
sodium intake comes from adding table salt to food. Table salt (center) and chlorine gas (right).
is a perfectly safe material made from two elements that can be
highly hazardous by themselves: sodium and chlorine. Sodium
metal is toxic, corrosive, and reacts vigorously with water to
produce hydrogen, a flammable gas. Exposure to elemental
chlorine gas can result in poisoning and health complications.
Photographs; (r) ©Chip Clark/Fundamental Photographs

Chlorine was weaponized during World War I. Today, chlorine is

a commonly manufactured chemical in the United States and is a
key component of bleach.

PREDICT How do you think the properties of sodium and chlorine

change when they are combined to make sodium chloride?

Evidence Notebook As you explore the lesson, gather evidence to explain why the
properties of sodium chloride are so different from the properties of sodium and chlorine.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 145

EXPLORATION 1

Hands-On Lab

Analyzing the Properties

of Compounds
Differences in the structures of compounds at the atomic level cause the differences that
are observed at the macroscopic scale. One physical property that varies widely among
different materials is melting point. As such, melting point is an example of a physical
property that scientists can use to identify an unknown compound. Other physical
properties, such as density, boiling point, and electrical conductivity, can also be analyzed
to help verify the identity of the compound.
Knowing physical properties of compounds also allows scientists to identify possible uses
of the compound. Additionally, knowing these properties allows scientists to properly
store and handle compounds and can help determine how to clean up or dispose of the
material in the event of a spill.
RESEARCH QUESTION How does a compound’s atomic-level structure influence its use
in natural or human-designed systems?

MAKE A CLAIM
In this lab you will compare the melting points of three common substances: citric acid,
C6H8O7; paraffin wax, C31H64; and table salt, NaCl. Which one do you think will have the
highest melting point? Which one will have the lowest? Explain.

MATERIALS
• indirectly vented chemical • citric acid, small amount • spatula or scoop
splash goggles, nonlatex apron,
• paraffin wax, small amount • striker
nitrile gloves
• permanent marker • wire gauze
• aluminum foil © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
• ring stand, ring, and clamp
• Bunsen burner
• salt, small amount

SAFETY INFORMATION
• Wear indirectly vented chemical splash goggles, a nonlatex apron, and nitrile gloves
during the setup, hands-on, and takedown segments of the activity.
• Secure loose clothing, wear closed-toe shoes, and tie back long hair.
• Never eat any food items used in a lab activity.
• If you get a chemical in your eye, use an eyewash station immediately.
• Never pour chemicals, either used or unused, back into their original containers. Dispose
indirectly vented of chemicals according to your teacher’s instructions.
chemical splash
goggles

146 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 COLLECT DATA
Construct a data table in your Evidence Notebook to record the findings from your
investigation. Your data table will record the melting order of the three substances. It
should do so with both qualitative and quantitative data. Consider how you will determine
when a substance begins to melt and whether or not it matters how long it takes to melt
completely. Have your teacher approve your data table and data-collection plans.

FIGURE 2: Experimental setup

salt aluminum foil

wax
citric acid

wire gauze

Bunsen burner

CARRY OUT THE INVESTIGATION

1. Use a marker to divide a square piece of aluminum foil into three sections. Label the
sections salt, wax, and citric acid. Fold the edges up to keep melted wax from spilling.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

2. Use a spatula to transfer a very small (less than pea-sized) amount of each substance
onto the foil. Be sure to clean and dry the spatula between each substance.
3. Set up a ring stand as shown in Figure 2. Adjust the ring’s height so that the Bunsen
burner can fit under it.
4. Place a piece of wire gauze on top of the ring, and carefully place the aluminum foil on
top of the gauze.
5. Secure loose clothing and tie back hair. Light the Bunsen burner, and carefully place
it under the wire gauze. Observe the order in which the substances melt. Record the
melting order in the data table.
6. Turn off the Bunsen burner immediately after the first two substances have melted.
Dispose of your materials as instructed by your teacher.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 147

 ANALYZE
Choose one of the substances tested in the lab, and sketch the particles in the substance
before, during, and after being heated.

DRAW CONCLUSIONS
The melting point of a substance is related to the strength of attractive forces between
the particles that make up that substance. Write a conclusion that addresses each of the
points below.
Claim Which substance tested in this investigation has the strongest attractive forces
between its particles? Which substance has the weakest?
Evidence Give specific examples from your data to support your claim.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim. Describe, in detail,
the connections between the evidence you cited and the argument you are making.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Evidence Notebook As you have seen, sodium metal, chlorine gas, and sodium chloride have
different properties. What conclusion can you make about the forces holding the atoms of these
substances together? What tests could you run to learn more about each substance?

148 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 EXPLORATION 2

Describing Chemical Bonds

The electron arrangement of most atoms causes them to have a high potential energy.
Recall that a chemical bond forms when atoms gain, lose, or share valence electrons and
end up with a full outer shell, or octet. A full outer shell has lower potential energy than a
partially filled shell, so the full shell is a more stable arrangement. Therefore, when atoms
form chemical bonds, the compound formed typically has a lower potential energy than
the total potential energy of the individual atoms.

Collaborate Like a ball rolling down a hill, systems tend to naturally change toward lower,
more stable energy states. The ball at the top of the hill represents a large amount of stored,
or potential, energy. That potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the ball rolls
down the hill to a more energetically stable position. With a partner, make your own analogy
to explain how chemical bond formation leads to more stable energy states.

Making Predictions about Bonding

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. Differences
in electronegativity can be used to predict the types of chemical bonds atoms will form.

FIGURE 3: Patterns in electronegativity can be observed on the periodic table.

Group 1 18
1
1 6 Atomic number 2
H He
2.1
2 C Symbol 13 14 15 16 17 —
2
3 4 2.5 Electronegativity 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 —
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 —
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Period

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.6
6
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4
7
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
0.7 0.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

EXPLAIN Using Figure 3, select the correct terms to complete the statement.
As you move from left to right across a row in the periodic table, the electronegativity
of the elements increases | decreases | does not show a pattern. As you move down a
column, the electronegativity of the elements increases | decreases |
does not show a pattern. The more electronegative elements can be found in the
upper right | upper left | lower right | lower left of the periodic table.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 149

 When there is a large electronegativity difference between two atoms—between about
1.7 and about 3.3—their bonding pattern is best explained as a transfer of electrons
from the less electronegative atom to the more electronegative atom. An ionic bond is
formed by the transfer of one or more electrons. A greater difference in electronegativity
corresponds to a more complete transfer of electrons from one atom to the other.

FIGURE 4: Bond types

Difference in electronegativities
fit into a continuous
range that is related 0 0.3 1.7 3.3
to the difference in
electronegativities of
the two atoms that
form the bond. nonpolar- polar- ionic
covalent covalent

0% 5% 50% 100%
Percentage ionic character

As the electronegativity difference decreases, so does the tendency of either atom to

attract or “let go” of valence electrons. The two atoms share their valence electrons,
forming what is called a covalent bond. If there is a small difference in electronegativity,
atoms share electrons unevenly, forming a polar covalent bond. If two atoms are from the
same element, their electronegativity difference is 0, and they form a nonpolar covalent
bond. The diatomic elements of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens are
examples of this type of bond, and the electrons are shared equally between the atoms.
There is a spectrum of bond types between completely ionic and nonpolar covalent
bonds, as shown in Figure 4. All bonds result from the mutual attraction between
positively charged and negatively charged particles across two atoms.

ANALYZE Using Figures 3 and 4, fill out the table to describe how the listed elements will
react with each other when forming a chemical bond.

Elements Electronegativity More

Bonded Difference Bond Type Electronegative Atom Example Compound

C and O 1 polar covalent O carbon dioxide, CO2

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
C and S

O and H

Na and Cl

Mg and O

A difference in electronegativity between two bonding atoms indicates how much, if

any, sharing of electrons will occur. As this difference increases, the sharing of electrons
becomes more uneven. If the electronegativity difference becomes great enough, the
unequal pull on valence electrons will result in the transfer of electrons to the more
electronegative element, forming an ionic bond. For this reason, we can discuss bonds as
having a percentage ionic character.

150 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Patterns

Patterns in Bonding
You can find patterns in the ways some categories of elements form compounds. In
general, metallic elements do not attract electrons, and they have low electronegativities.
Nonmetals have higher electronegativities that increase toward the top right of the
periodic table. The noble gases are an exception, as they do not attract electrons.

INFER Complete the statement about how different elements bond.

Metals tend to have relatively high | low electronegativities, and nonmetals have
relatively high | low electronegativities. When a metal bonds with a nonmetal,
electrons will most likely be transferred, and a covalent | an ionic bond will form.
When a nonmetal bonds with a nonmetal, the difference in electronegativity values is
relatively low. Therefore, electrons will be shared between the two nonmetals, and
a covalent | an ionic bond will form.
Explore Online

FIGURE 5: Melting point can be

used to determine the relative
strength of interactions between
particles in various compounds in
the solid state.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

APPLY The chemical formulas for salt, citric acid, and paraffin wax are NaCl, C6H8O7, and
C31H64, respectively. Use this information and data you collected earlier in this lesson to
determine which statements below are true. Select all that apply.
a. Salt has a high melting point and there is a high electronegativity difference
between sodium and chlorine, so, salt contains ionic bonds.
b. Salt and citric acid both have high melting points, and there are high
electronegativity differences between the atoms, so, both contain ionic bonds.
c. Citric acid and wax both have relatively low melting points, and there are low
electronegativity differences between the atoms, so, both contain covalent bonds.

Notice that none of the examples above involve bonds between metal atoms. Metal
atoms do not interact with one another to form ionic or covalent bonds. The interactions
between metals will be discussed in another section.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 151

 Describing Ionic Bonding
Elements with very different electronegativity values generally form ionic bonds. Sodium
chloride is an example of an ionically bonded compound. Recall that a mixture of sodium
metal and chlorine gas reacts to form sodium chloride. Each sodium atom loses an
electron, and each chlorine atom gains an electron. The attraction between positive and
negative ions holds the ions together in an ionic bond. The ionization of the atoms and
the formation of the ionic bond increase the stability of the system. The reaction releases
energy as light and heat, resulting in a much lower energy state for the compound as
compared to the sum of the energy states of the individual atoms.

Evidence Notebook When soaps are used in hard water, ions such as calcium or
magnesium in the water form soap scum, which is made up of insoluble compounds such as
magnesium stearate, Mg(C18H35O2)2. What bond types are present in this compound? How
might bond type explain the properties of the soap you are investigating in your unit project?

When an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positive ion, or cation. Cations
have more protons than electrons and so have an overall positive charge. When an atom
gains electrons, it becomes a negative ion, or anion. Anions have more electrons than
protons and so have an overall negative charge. A sodium atom has one valence electron,
and chlorine has seven valence electrons.

ANALYZE Sodium transfers an electron to chlorine when forming sodium chloride. Write
either a positive sign or a negative sign as a superscript by each ion formed in
this bond. Then, label each as either a cation or an anion below the chemical symbol.

Na Na
Cl Cl

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©NASA Image Collection/Alamy
sodium ion chloride
sodium ion chloride ion

When sodium donates one electron to chlorine, both the negative

FIGURE 6: The regular arrangement of ions
in salt creates a pattern seen in the crystals. chloride ion and the positive sodium ion end up with stable octet
configurations. Thus, this ionic compound is more stable than
either of its highly reactive elements.
An ionic compound consists of many bonds between positive and
negative ions, which form repeating patterns in the solid state
of the compound. This gives the compound a regular, geometric
shape, as shown in Figure 6. As solids, ionic compounds do not
conduct electric current, but they do conduct electric current
when dissolved in water. They are also very hard and brittle, and
they have high melting and boiling points.

152 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 The structure formed by atoms in a solid ionic compound like
FIGURE 7: Sodium ions and chloride ions
the one in Figure 6 is called a crystal. The repeating, symmetrical arrange to form a network.
arrangement of atoms in a crystal is called a crystal lattice. In the
Na+
model of a sodium chloride crystal lattice shown in Figure 7,
Cl–
attractions between ions are represented with solid lines.
Notice that each ion is attracted to more than one ion of
opposite charge. The chemical formula of an ionic compound
represents the simplest ratio of its ions in an electrically neutral
crystal. A neutral compound has equal amounts of positive and
negative charge.

GATHER EVIDENCE Observe sodium chloride with a hand

lens. How is the relatively high melting point of sodium
chloride related to its structure at the atomic scale? Use your
observations and the model in Figure 7 to support your claim.

Engineering

Producing Salts
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Salts are ionic compounds made of metal and nonmetal ions.

FIGURE 8: Lithium salts are isolated by
They are important for human life and activities. Salts can be solar evaporation of water from brine.
mined from deposits left by natural evaporation of ancient
oceans. As the water evaporated, the ions in solution formed
new ionic bonds, producing a crystalline ionic compound. Salts
can also be produced by evaporating water from seawater. For
example, some of the lithium metal used in batteries comes
from lithium salts harvested by evaporation of brine deposits, as
shown in Figure 8.
Long-lasting, recyclable lithium batteries are essential to many
consumer products. They are also used to store renewable
energy from sources such as solar and wind power. Chemical engineers must weigh
tradeoffs to minimize the economic and environmental costs of producing lithium salts
and maximize the benefits. As current lithium deposits become exhausted and demand
for lithium continues to increase, costs and environmental concerns will continue to be
considerations for engineers searching for and mining new deposits of lithium.

Language Arts Connection Research the development of lithium batteries, the

increased demand for lithium, and how and where this demand is currently being met.
Make a news article or presentation explaining how the need for lithium is related to
modern technologies.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 153

 Describing Covalent Bonding
In a covalent bond, neither atom exerts sufficient attractive force to cause an electron to
transfer between atoms, so electrons are shared. A molecule is a neutral group of atoms
that are held together by covalent bonds. A fluorine molecule is shown in Figure 9.

FIGURE 9: Two fluorine atoms share a pair of electrons equally.

region of
overlap
electron clouds

nuclei

A single molecule of a chemical compound is an individual unit that functions, in many

ways, as a single particle. A molecule consists of two or more atoms bonded together
by covalent bonds. Some molecules, such as diatomic oxygen, shown in Figure 10a, are
made up of atoms of only one element. Other molecules, such as water and sugar, shown
in Figure 10b and Figure 10c, are made of atoms of two or more elements. A chemical
compound in which the simplest units are molecules is called a molecular compound.
Molecular compounds have different properties from ionic compounds.

FIGURE 10: Molecules consist of two or more covalently bonded atoms.

a oxygen, O2 b water, H2O c sucrose, C12H22O11

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

EXPLAIN In general, the melting and boiling points of molecular compounds are much
lower than those of ionic compounds. What can explain this difference?
Molecular compounds such as those in Figure 10 are formed when one or more atoms
transfer | share | release electrons to form molecules. The covalent bonds within a
molecule are very strong | weak. However, it requires more | less energy to melt
a molecular compound than an ionic compound such as the one in Figure 7. This is
because the attractive forces between individual molecules are weaker | stronger than
the forces between ions in an ionic compound.

154 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 In general, properties of molecular compounds result from their structure as Explore Online
molecules. In addition to having lower melting and boiling points than ionic
Hands-On Lab
compounds, some of them are gases at room temperature. Because molecules
are neutral, covalently bonded compounds do not conduct electric current in Types of Bonding in Solids
either their solid or liquid state. Analyze conductivity, solubility,
and melting point to determine the
bonding type present in solids.
Describing Metallic Bonding
Metal atoms have low electronegativity values. They do not attract additional electrons,
and their own outer electrons are loosely held. Inside a sample of metal, the positive metal
ions are surrounded by delocalized valence shell electrons. Delocalized electrons are not
tightly held by any one atom, so they can move about within the sample. The chemical
bonding that results from the attraction between metal atoms and the surrounding sea of
electrons is called metallic bonding.

ANALYZE Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, gallium will melt if held in your hand,
and aluminum is a solid that has a high melting point. All three are metals. How can you
explain these observations using information about the strength of metallic bonds?

FIGURE 11: Electrons are able to move freely within a metal substance. Explore Online

metal ion delocalized electrons

- - - -
- -
-
- - - -
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

- - -
- -
- - - -
-
- -
- - -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- - -
-
- -

a The delocalized electrons interact with the b A metal spoon can complete a circuit
metal ions resulting in metallic bonding. because the delocalized electrons move
when a current is applied.

As with all substances, the properties of metals are related to the bonds they form.
Metals are malleable, or easily hammered into sheets. The delocalized electrons around
the positive ions form relatively weak links within the substance, making it easy to bend
and shape metal. The mobile electrons moving easily throughout the substance allow
metals to conduct electric current and contribute to their ability to conduct energy as
heat. Gold is used in solid‑state electronic devices due to the low voltage and currents
that these devices operate under, which might cause other metals to oxidize or corrode.
However, copper is still the choice for wiring in a home, as it is more cost effective. In both
cases, delocalized electrons allow an electric current to flow through the circuits.

Evidence Notebook What types of bonds form within a sample of sodium metal, chlorine
gas, and sodium chloride crystals? How does the electron structure of each substance affect the
properties of compounds that it forms?

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 155

EXPLORATION 3

Predicting the Structure of Compounds

Every molecule of a covalently bonded substance has the same number and type of
atoms in the same arrangement as other molecules of the substance. Ionic compounds
have a fixed ratio of ions, and this ratio determines their three-dimensional arrangement
within the substance. For example, calcium and fluorine always combine in a ratio of
one calcium ion to two fluoride ions. Calcium fluoride occurs naturally as the mineral
fluorite. Calcium fluoride is used to make hydrofluoric acid, which is used to produce
pharmaceuticals and other materials.

Collaborate With a partner, research other compounds formed when Group 2 and Group
17 atoms combine. What do you notice about the ratio of atoms in the compound? How many
bonds form, and what types of bonds? Do other groups, such as Group 1 and Group 16, show a
pattern when their atoms combine?

Analyzing Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds

When an ionic bond forms, metal atoms transfer electrons to nonmetal atoms. A nonmetal
atom accepts enough electrons to fill its outer shell, and a metal atom loses enough
electrons to empty its outer shell. This transfer determines the ratio of the elements in
the ionic compound. Figure 12 shows the transfer of electrons from calcium to fluorine to
form calcium fluoride.

APPLY Complete the statement about the chemical formula of calcium fluoride.
Calcium is located in the second column of the periodic table, so a calcium atom has
one | two | three valence electron(s), which it loses to form a calcium ion. Each fluorine
atom has seven valence electrons, so each fluorine atom accepts one | two | three
electron(s) to form a fluoride ion. Therefore, the formula for calcium fluoride is
CaF | CaF2 | Ca2F.

FIGURE 12: Two valence electrons transfer from calcium The chemical formula of an ionic compound © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
to fluorine. indicates the relative numbers of atoms of each
– element in the compound, using atomic symbols
F F and subscript numerals. The formula for calcium
2+
Ca Ca –
fluoride indicates that the simplest unit of the
F F compound contains a ratio of two fluoride ions
to one calcium ion.

EXPLAIN Calcium chloride, CaCl2, and potassium chloride, KCl, are also ionic compounds.
Which of the following statements is likely to be true based on this information?
a. Calcium and potassium ions require the same relative number of chloride ions to
empty their outer electron shells.
b. Ionic compounds never contain more than two ions of an atom.
c. CaCl2 has three atoms in its simplest unit, and KCl has two atoms in its simplest unit.

156 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Patterns

Ionic Formulas

The table below shows some chemical formulas for binary ionic compounds, which
are compounds containing one metal and one nonmetal element. The elements
are all found in Period 3 of the periodic table.

Compounds containing sodium Na3P Na2S NaCl

Compounds containing magnesium Mg3P2 MgS MgCl2

Compounds containing aluminum AlP Al2S3 AlCl3

Collaborate With a partner, discuss the patterns you see in the chemical formulas.
How does the placement of the elements on the periodic table appear to relate to the
numbers in the chemical formula?

Describing Patterns in Ionic Bonding

In order to determine the formula for an ionic compound, the number of valence
electrons for each atom in the compound must be known. Previously, you learned to
determine the number of valence electrons using an element’s electron configuration.
You can also use the periodic table to determine the number of valence electrons of any
main group element.

MODEL Draw the dot diagrams for the elements in each group. When you see a pattern,
draw an electron-dot diagram around the X that represents the entire group.
2
X He
1

1
X X X X X X X
1
H
2 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 113 114 115 116 117 118
7
Fr Ra Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 157

 All of the elements found in Group 1 have one valence electron, those in Group 2 have
two valence electrons, those in Group 13 have 3 valence electrons, and so on through
Group 18. Based on this pattern, scientists know that the ratio of atoms will be the same
when an element from Group 1 bonds with an element from Group 17, regardless of
which elements bond.

EXPLAIN Use the valence electron pattern you found in the periodic table to determine
the pattern between group numbers in the chemical formula for each example.

Group 1 Group 13 Group 16 MX MX2 CaCl2 Li2O B2O3

Group Number Group Number Chemical Formula Example

Group 16 M2X
Group 2 MgO
M2X3

Group 17 KCl
Group 2 Group 17
Group 17 MX3 AlCl3

The locations of elements on the periodic table allows their compound formulas to be
determined. For example, aluminum is in Group 13 and oxygen is in Group 16. Based on
the patterns you observed, the resulting compound has the formula Al2O3.

Language Arts Connection Elements in Group 17, known as the halogens, are highly
reactive, whereas elements in Group 18, the noble gases, have very low chemical reactivity.
Use multiple authoritative sources to research these two groups of elements. What explains
the difference in reactivity? How do the valence electron patterns in these groups affect how
elements in each group are used? Write up your findings as a summary report. Be sure to include
a full list of sources you referenced.

Writing Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
The patterns in ionic formulas result from the charges of the ions of an element. Because
the most stable ions have either a completely empty or a completely filled outer shell, the
charges on ions are related to their group on the periodic table. Metal elements in Group
1 lose an electron to form a 1+ charge. Metal elements in Group 2 lose two electrons to
form a 2+ charge. The chemical symbol of an ion consists of its element symbol followed
2+
by its charge as a superscript. For example, a magnesium ion has the symbol Mg . If the
−
charge is 1+ or 1–, the numeral 1 is not written, as in Cl .

PREDICT Aluminum is a metal with three valence electrons. What is the correct symbol
for an aluminum ion?
5+    3+    3−    5−
a. Al b. Al c. Al d. Al

158 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Nonmetals typically have 5, 6, 7, or 8 valence electrons, and nonmetals have higher
electronegativities than metals. The most stable arrangement occurs when these
elements gain electrons when forming ionic bonds. Noble gases in Group 18 beyond
helium, such as neon and argon, do not typically bond with other elements because they
already possess a full outer shell.

ANALYZE Write in the charges you would expect elements in each group to form. Then,
choose an example element from that group, and write its ion symbol in the next row.

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Charge 2+ 4+/4− 2− 0
3+ 4+ 3−
Example ion Al Si N N/A

The transition metals, Groups 3–12 of the periodic table, do not follow the same
predictable pattern of ion formation as do the main group elements. The valence electron
structure of transition metals is more complex than those of the metals in the main
groups. Many of the transition metal elements can form several different stable cations,
depending on the number of electrons lost.
2+
For example, an iron atom can lose two electrons to form Fe , or it can lose three
3+
electrons to form Fe . The ratio of iron ions to nonmetal ions in an ionic iron compound
depends on which iron ion is present. For example, iron and oxygen form iron oxide
in two different forms, FeO and Fe2O3, shown in Figure 13. When you write the name
of a compound of a metal that can form more than one ion, the charge on the metal is
indicated by a roman numeral in parentheses. The reddish-brown compound, which you
may recognize as rust, is designated as Fe2O3, or iron(III) oxide, because the iron ion has a
3+ charge.

FIGURE 13: Iron and oxygen can combine to form two different compounds with different
chemical and physical properties.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

a Iron(II) oxide, FeO, is used as b Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, is the rust that
a pigment. forms when iron is exposed to air.

APPLY What differences do you notice between iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide in
Figure 13? How does the charge of the iron ions result in different chemical formulas?

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 159

 Math Connection

Writing Ionic Formulas

FIGURE 14: Crisscross method The crisscross method, shown in Figure 14, is a shortcut for determining
the formula of an ionic compound. Using this method, the charge for each
+
Ca2 F– ion becomes the subscript for the other ion in the formula. For example,
to write the formula for calcium fluoride, first determine the charges
on each ion. Calcium has a 2+ charge, and fluorine has a 1− charge.
Using this method, calcium has a subscript of 1, which is not written,
and fluorine has a subscript of 2. This shortcut is useful, but the chemical
formula might need to be reduced to its simplest ratio. For example, the
CaF2 formula for iron(II) oxide obtained by the shortcut is Fe2O2, which can be
reduced to FeO.

ANALYZE Write the ion of each element in the combination. Then use the crisscross
method to determine the chemical formula.

Elements Positive ion Negative ion Chemical formula Chemical name

2+ −
Magnesium and chlorine Mg Cl MgCl2 magnesium chloride
Lithium and phosphorus lithium phosphide
Calcium and sulfur calcium sulfide
Aluminum and oxygen aluminum oxide
Aluminum and nitrogen aluminum nitride

A polyatomic ion is a group of covalently bonded atoms that has a charge and behaves
as an ion. To determine the chemical formula for compounds containing a polyatomic
ion, follow the same rules about making the compound neutral as with a single-atom
ion. For example, when ammonium, ​​NH​ +4​  ​​, bonds with sulfate, ​​SO​  2−
4​  ​​, the resulting
compound is ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4, a common ingredient in fertilizers.

Analyzing Covalent Compounds

Working with formulas for covalent compounds is more complex than it is for ionic © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

compounds. Many covalent compounds have large and complex molecules, and the
arrangement of atoms affects the properties of the molecules. We start our formula work
by considering how many electrons atoms must share in order to obtain full energy levels.

FIGURE 15: These models show that four pairs of electrons are shared in a methane molecule.

H H
H
H C H H C H H C H
H
H H
160 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures
 As in ionic bonding, each atom in a covalent molecule obtains a stable outer shell, usually
in the form of an octet. For example, the carbon atom in Figure 15 shares its four valence
electrons with four hydrogen atoms, which each contribute one electron. Each pair of
electrons forms a single covalent bond, represented by two dots or a line. This way, the
carbon atom obtains an octet. Hydrogen is an exception to the octet rule because a
hydrogen atom only needs two electrons to fill its outer shell.

FIGURE 16: Each oxygen atom obtains an octet by forming a double covalent bond.

O O O O O O
In some cases, covalent bonds occur as double or triple bonds. A double bond represents
four shared electrons, and a triple bond represents six shared electrons. Figure 16 shows
an electron-dot diagram of the covalent bond formed between two oxygen atoms. Each
oxygen atom has six valence electrons. In order to obtain an octet, the atoms must share
four electrons. This results in a double covalent bond, represented by two lines between
the atoms. A triple bond is represented by three lines. Triple bonds are the strongest and
shortest type of covalent bond, while single bonds are the weakest and longest.

MODEL Model the structure of carbon tetrafluoride, a low-temperature refrigerant and

greenhouse gas. It contains one carbon atom and four fluorine atoms.

EXPLAIN How many valence electrons are present in carbon and fluorine, and how
are they shared in carbon tetrafluoride? How many bonds are present? Why are the bonds
considered covalent?
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

All models have advantages and limitations. This type of model does not show the actual
three-dimensional shape of the carbon tetrafluoride molecule, and real bonds are not
made of dots or lines. A more accurate model would consider the size of the atoms and
the dynamic structure of the molecule.

Evidence Notebook Determine the chemical formulas for sodium metal, chlorine gas, and
sodium chloride. How can you use the electron-dot structures of chlorine gas and sodium metal to
predict their reactivity levels and the compound they form when they react?

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 161

EXPLORATION 4

Hands-On Lab

Modeling the Shapes

of Molecules
Electron-dot diagrams help to explain bonding patterns in molecules and compounds, but
they do not represent the actual three-dimensional shapes of these compounds. However,
you can use such diagrams to predict the three-dimensional structures. Pairs of valence
electrons of an atom in a molecule repel other pairs of valence electrons, because like
charges repel. Therefore, the three-dimensional structure of a molecule results from the
electron pairs arranging themselves as far apart as possible.
This idea is known as valence-shell electron-pair repulsion, or
FIGURE 17: Ammonia can be modeled using
VSEPR. In this lab, you will use electron-dot structures and the
an electron-dot diagram or VSEPR theory.
VSEPR theory to predict the three-dimensional structures of several
covalently bonded molecules.

H N H Consider the example of ammonia shown in Figure 17. The

electron-dot diagram shows that ammonia consists of a nitrogen

H atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, with one pair of lone

electrons. VSEPR theory predicts that the four pairs of electrons
surrounding the nitrogen atom will arrange themselves as far apart
a electron-dot diagram
as possible. Because of the lone pair, there is no atom at one apex
of the resulting arrangement of electron pairs. The shape of the
molecule is a pyramid with three hydrogen atoms spread apart on
one side of the nitrogen atom.
There are a number of shapes that molecules can have, such as
107° linear, pyramidal, or tetrahedral. You will explore some of these
N shapes in this lab.
H H The first step in determining molecular shape using VSEPR is to draw
an electron-dot diagram of the molecule. Use the periodic table to
H
find the number of valence electrons for each atom. Then, draw a
structure that shows the pairs of shared electrons, how many bonds
b VSEPR model form, and any unshared electrons. The unshared electrons should be
indicated in pairs. © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

RESEARCH QUESTION What shapes can molecules take on, and why is this important in
understanding the behavior of substances?

MAKE A CLAIM
How can you determine the shape of a molecule?

162 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 POSSIBLE MATERIALS
• indirectly vented chemical • modeling clay, various • pompoms, various colors
splash goggles, nonlatex apron colors
• sticks, craft
• foam spheres • molecular modeling kit
• toothpicks

SAFETY INFORMATION
• Wear indirectly vented chemical splash goggles and a nonlatex apron during the setup,
hands-on, and takedown segments of the activity.
• Use caution when using sharp materials, which can cut or puncture skin.
• Wash your hands with soap and water immediately after completing this activity.

PLAN THE INVESTIGATION

In this activity, you will model the molecular shapes of six substances: carbon
tetrachloride, oxygen difluoride, carbon disulfide, phosphorus tribromide, methanal, indirectly vented
and silicon dioxide. You will need to plan how you will build your models, including the chemical splash
goggles
materials that you will use to model the atoms, the bonds, and the lone electron pairs.
Write your procedure and a safety plan in your Evidence Notebook. Be sure to include
enough detail that someone reading your procedure would be able to replicate your
models. Have your teacher approve your procedure and your safety plan.

COLLECT DATA
Once your teacher has approved your plans, construct a data table to record the following
information for each molecule you model: chemical formula, electron-dot diagram, and
a drawing of the model showing its molecular shape. Any other types of information that
will aid in your understanding of the models you build should also be included in the data
table. Now, build your models.

CONDUCT RESEARCH
Research each molecule in this investigation to find out its applications and whether the
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

shape of the molecule is an important factor in these applications. Be sure to research

the safety data sheet (SDS) for each molecule and record any safety implications or other
important concerns for storage, handling, and disposal for each substance.

ANALYZE
1. Research the shape of each of the six molecules. How close were your models to the
actual shapes?

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 163

 2. How could you revise your models to be more accurate based on your research?

3. How might the shape of the compound influence how it behaves?

DRAW CONCLUSIONS
Write a conclusion that addresses each of the points below.
Claim How can you determine the shape of a molecule?
Evidence What evidence from your investigation supports your claim?
Reasoning How does your evidence support or refute your claim?

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

EXTEND
Based on your results, what should the shape of a molecule be that consists of one atom
of a Group 15 element and three atoms of a Group 17 element? Explain your answer.

Evidence Notebook How do valence electrons in sodium chloride determine its structure as an
ionic compound? How does that compare to the valence electrons in the molecular structures you
investigated in this lab?

164 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 TAKE IT FURTHER

Guided Research

Asking Questions about Minerals

If you pick up a rock and look at it closely using a Quartz, for example, is an ionic compound of silicon
hand lens, you can often detect crystal shapes in its and oxygen that is colorless and transparent. However,
structure. Occasionally, you might even find a rock that the addition of a small amount of iron to the quartz
is itself a single crystal. Rocks are made up of one or forms amethyst, a mineral with a violet color.
more minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring solid
Transition metals generally produce minerals with
materials with a definite chemical composition and a
strong colors. Minerals containing copper ions are
crystalline structure.
blue or green. Chromium causes red and green colors,
What kind of chemical compounds would you expect depending on other components. For example,
minerals to be composed of? In general, minerals are red rubies consist mostly of aluminum oxide, but
composed of ionic compounds. Most minerals consist their color comes from the presence of chromium
of compounds of one or more metallic elements compounds in the crystal. Small amounts of iron and
bonded to nonmetallic elements or polyatomic ions titanium in sapphires give them a rich blue color. In
composed of nonmetallic elements. other minerals, iron imparts a reddish color.
A familiar use of minerals is for decoration. Gems are
Language Arts Connection Research minerals
minerals that are especially popular in jewelry. A key
part of the attractiveness of many gems is their color. that are found in your area. Consider the following
The color is caused by the ways different minerals when conducting your research:
reflect or absorb light. In many cases, the color of a • What features about different minerals stand out to you?
mineral is determined by the metal atoms it contains.
The addition of a small amount of different metal
• How are the features related to the chemical composition
atoms in the crystal lattice can change the appearance of the mineral?
of the mineral. This occurs because the electrons of • How have people manipulated mineral structure for their
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (bl) ©LVV/Shutterstock ;

each element interact with other atoms in specific own needs?

ways. Differences in electron interactions affect how
(bc) ©KrivoTIF/istock Getty Images Plus/Getty Images; (br) ©blickwinkel/Alamy

Present your information as a slide show, photo gallery, or live

the mineral interacts with light, as shown in Figure 18.
presentation. Prepare a list of sources used in your research.

FIGURE 18: The color of a mineral is often determined by metal ions in the crystal.

a Amethyst gets its purple color b Copper causes the green bands in c The transition metal vanadium
from iron. malachite. makes vanadinite red.

MORE PRACTICE TYPES OF BONDING TEACHING TYPES Go online to choose one

WITH FORMULAS IN SOLIDS OF BONDING of these other paths.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 165

EVALUATE

Lesson Self-Check

CAN YOU EXPLAIN THE PHENOMENON?

FIGURE 19: The reaction between sodium metal and chlorine gas produces sodium chloride.

a Sodium reacting in a beaker of chlorine gas b Samples of sodium chloride, sodium metal, and chlorine gas

Chlorine is a versatile element. It is used as a disinfectant and to make many household

products, and it has even been developed as a chemical weapon. Sodium metal is used

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (l) ©Richard Megna/Fundamental
as a coolant in nuclear reactors, but sodium salts are used more commonly than the
metal itself. Sodium salts are used in a variety of applications, including deicing roads and
softening water. One of the most common sodium salts is sodium chloride, also known as
table salt. Unlike its individual components, sodium chloride is extremely stable and does
not readily react with other substances.

Evidence Notebook Refer to your notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain why sodium
metal and chlorine gas are dangerous and reactive on their own but combine to form the stable

Photographs; (r) ©Chip Clark/Fundamental Photographs

compound sodium chloride. Your explanation should include a discussion of the electrical forces
within and between atoms in each substance. Using this information, address the following:
Claim Make a claim about why the compound sodium chloride has properties that are so
different from the properties of sodium and chlorine.
Evidence What evidence supports your claim? For example, what differences in chemical
structure could explain the differences in reactivity among the three substances?
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim about why sodium
chloride is different from sodium metal and chlorine gas.

166 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Name Date

CHECKPOINTS

Check Your Understanding 5. Select the correct terms to complete the statement
about bonding.
1. Which of the following best explains why ionic A nitrogen molecule, N2, has less | more potential
crystals are brittle?
energy than two separate nitrogen atoms, so the
a. They have low melting points.
molecule is less | more stable. Each nitrogen
b. They have high melting points.
atom has five valence electrons, so a nitrogen
c. The strong ionic bonds do not allow flexibility
within the structures. atom needs one | two | three electron(s) to
d. The forces of attraction between positive and reach maximum stability. Therefore, the diatomic
negative ions are weak, so they break easily. nitrogen molecule has three | six electrons that
are shared between the atoms, forming a triple
2. Categorize each compound as exhibiting ionic
bonding or covalent bonding. covalent bond.

a. LiF 6. Use the crisscross method and the periodic table

to determine the values of x and y in the formula
b. Cl2 for aluminum sulfide, AlxSy.
c. NH3 x=
y=
d. CaCl2

e. NaOH 7. Which statements correctly describe the

compound potassium bromide? Select all
f. FeO correct answers.
a. The compound is considered a salt.
g. NO2
b. It contains potassium and bromide ions in a
h. H2O one-to-one ratio.
c. Potassium bromide likely has a higher
3. A student tests a solid sample of a compound and melting point than does candle wax.
determines that it does not conduct an electric d. The electronegativities of the two component
current. When the compound is dissolved in water, atoms are very similar.
the solution does conduct an electric current.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

What type of bonding does the compound have? 8. The electronegativities of carbon and sulfur are
a. covalent almost the same. Both elements form covalently
b. ionic bonded compounds with oxygen. Why are the
c. metallic molecular shapes of carbon dioxide, CO2, and
sulfur dioxide, SO2, different?
4. A long, thin sample of a substance bends easily. a. Carbon has a smaller atomic radius than
When the substance is placed in an electric circuit sulfur.
and the switch is closed, an LED light turns on. b. A molecule of SO2 has a lone pair of electrons,
What type of bonding holds the particles of the but CO2 does not.
substance together?
c. A molecule of CO2 has one single and one
a. covalent double bond, but SO2 does not.
b. ionic d. A molecule that contains carbon cannot have
c. metallic a linear shape.

Lesson 1 Investigating Chemical Compounds 167

EVALUATE

CHECKPOINTS (continued)

9. Which compound likely has a higher melting point—aluminum trichloride, AlCl3,

or phosphorus trichloride, PCl3? Use the periodic table to support your claim, and
explain your reasoning.

10. Water, H2O, consists of a central oxygen atom bound to two hydrogen atoms. Draw
an electron-dot structure of water. Below, explain how you determined the number
of bonds and unpaired electrons, the types of bonds, and, if applicable, where the
unpaired electrons are located.

11. Potassium metal is mixed with argon gas in one flask and with chlorine gas in
another flask. Use the periodic table to explain what happens in each flask. If you
predict that a reaction will occur, describe the type of compound that forms.

MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that supports the main ideas from this lesson:
Patterns in the periodic table can be used to predict the types of bonds that will form
between atoms.
The properties of substances are related to the atomic structures of the substances.
Patterns in valence electrons can be used to predict the structure of substances.
Remember to include the following information in your study guide:
• Use examples that model main ideas.
• Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
• Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can include drawings, data, graphs,
laboratory conclusions, and other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how patterns of atomic structure, as shown in the periodic table, can provide evidence for
explanations of properties of chemical compounds at the bulk scale.

168 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 3.2

Analyzing the Properties of

Compounds and Solutions

Undersea organisms depend on substances that are dissolved in ocean water.

CAN YOU EXPLAIN THE PHENOMENON?

There is more than just salt (sodium chloride) in the ocean. There are many different salts,
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Mark Conlin/Alamy

minerals, and gas molecules dissolved in ocean water that undersea organisms of all kinds
require for life. You know that oxygen is a gas, but fish do not get oxygen from bubbles
of oxygen in the water. Rather, individual oxygen molecules are mixed together with, and
dissolved in, the water molecules. Water molecules have unique properties that allow
it to dissolve many different substances. In particular, attractive forces between water
molecules, and also between water molecules and dissolved substances, allow them all to
mix freely with one another.

EXPLAIN How is water important in the Earth system?

Evidence Notebook As you explore the lesson, gather evidence to explain why water
has unique properties and provide examples of how these properties are important in the
Earth system.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 169

EXPLORATION 1

Hands-On Lab

Exploring Intermolecular
Forces in Liquids
Patterns in how liquids behave can be explained in terms of patterns in the intermolecular
forces between their molecules. Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction between
molecules. When a substance has strong intermolecular forces, that substance requires
more energy than a substance with weaker intermolecular forces requires to go from
the solid state to the liquid state, or from the liquid state to the gas state. Intermolecular
forces also affect surface tension, which is a force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a
liquid’s surface together.
In this lab, you will design a procedure to analyze intermolecular forces in four common
household chemicals—water, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and glycerol. Figure 1 shows the
structures of these substances. You will collect data on the evaporation rates and surface
tensions of these compounds.
RESEARCH QUESTION How do intermolecular forces determine the uses of commonly-
used molecular compounds?

FIGURE 1: The molecular structures of water, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and glycerol

Water Acetone Isopropyl Alcohol Glycerol

H O H H OH H OH OH OH
O
H H H C C C H H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H H

MAKE A CLAIM © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Which substance do you think will have the strongest intermolecular forces, and which
the weakest? Explain your reasoning.

MATERIALS
• indirectly vented chemical splash goggles, • glycerol in dropper bottle
nonlatex apron, and nitrile gloves • isopropyl alcohol in dropper bottle
• acetone in dropper bottle • marker
• flasks with stoppers (4), each containing • stopwatch or clock with second hand
water, acetone, isopropyl alcohol,
• water in dropper bottle
or glycerol
• wax paper (1 sheet)

170 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 SAFETY INFORMATION
• Wear indirectly vented chemical splash goggles, a nonlatex apron, and nitrile gloves
during the setup, hands-on, and takedown segments of the activity.
• All operations in which noxious or poisonous gases or flammable vapors are used or
produced must be carried out in the fume hood.
• Never pour chemicals, either used or unused, back into their original container. Dispose
of chemicals according to your teacher’s instructions.
• Use caution when working with glassware, which can shatter and cut skin.
• Wash your hands with soap and water immediately after completing this activity.

PLAN THE INVESTIGATION

1. In your Evidence Notebook, develop a procedure and safety plan to test the surface
tension and the rate of evaporation of water, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and glycerol.
2. Draw a data table in your Evidence Notebook for recording your observations and data.
When designing your data table, consider what types of data would be appropriate for
analyzing surface tension and rate of evaporation.
3. Have your teacher approve your plans before you begin your work. If you need
additional materials to complete your procedure, discuss these with your teacher.
4. Clean up your lab area and dispose of your lab materials as instructed by your teacher. indirectly vented
chemical splash
goggles

DRAW CONCLUSIONS
Write a conclusion that addresses each of the points below.
Claim Based on the patterns you observed in the surface tension and evaporation rate
of the compounds, how would you rank the strength of the intermolecular forces in the
compounds from strongest to weakest?
Evidence Give specific examples from your data to support your claim.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim. Describe, in detail,
the connections between the evidence you cited and the argument you are making.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Evidence Notebook What did you discover from this investigation about the properties of
water that make it different from the other substances?

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 171

EXPLORATION 2

Explaining Intermolecular Forces

Rubbing a balloon with a cloth generates “static” that attracts certain

FIGURE 2: Static charges on a
substances, such as the stream of water shown in Figure 2. Similarly, you may
balloon affect water molecules.
have noticed that when clothes are first taken out of a dryer, they stick to each
other, a phenomenon known as “static cling.”

INFER What do you think is happening at the atomic scale that causes the
water in Figure 2 to bend toward the balloon?

Forces between Particles

Most materials have no overall charge because they have equal numbers of
protons and electrons. When you rub a balloon with a cloth, however, electrons
are transferred from the cloth to the balloon. This transfer makes some atoms
FIGURE 3: Charged particles
in the cloth positively charged and some atoms in the balloon negatively
may attract or repel each other. charged. Because opposite charges attract, positively charged particles will
stick to the negatively charged balloon. Phenomena related to static electricity
opposite charges attract are caused by forces between electric charges that attract or repel each other,
as seen in Figure 3. Repulsions and attractions due to electric charge are
known as electric forces. Another name for electric force is the Coulomb force.
like charges repel
The attractive forces that exist between the particles of a substance affect the
physical and chemical properties of that substance. Ionic compounds have
strong attractive forces that hold ions tightly together. Thus, these compounds

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (t) ©HMH

typically have relatively high melting points.

Math Connection

Calculating Force

Coulomb’s law describes how to calculate electric force. This law states
that the magnitude of the electric force (Felectric) between two point
charges (q1 and q2) is directly related to the product of the charges and
inversely related to the square of the distance (d) between them. The
Coulomb constant (kC) is a constant used in the calculation of electric
force. The equation for Coulomb’s law is:
​q ​  ​​q ​  ​
​​F​  electric​​ = k​​ ​  C​​ _
​​  1 2 ​​2
​d ​  ​
Collaborate As charge increases, electric force increases. However, if the
distance between two charges doubles, electric force decreases by a factor of
four. With a partner, discuss how the equation for this law demonstrates these
relationships between charge, distance, and force.

172 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Uneven Molecular Charges
Why do different molecular compounds exhibit different intermolecular FIGURE 4: In a nonpolar
forces? The answer has to do with the type of atoms in a molecule and how covalent bond, the electron
they are arranged in the 3-dimensional space of the molecule relative to each cloud is evenly dispersed. In a
other. Recall that electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to pull electrons polar covalent bond, it is not.
toward itself. As Figure 4 shows, a nonpolar covalent bond forms when the
bonding electrons are evenly shared between two atoms. On the other hand, nonpolar covalent bond
if one of the atoms has a higher electronegativity than the other atom, the
more electronegative atom attracts the bonding electrons more strongly than
does the other atom. This results in the formation of a polar covalent bond. This polar covalent bond
uneven distribution of charges in a molecule is known as polarity.
The ball-and-stick model shown in Figure 5 represents the polar molecule
iodine monochloride, ICl. The chlorine end of the molecule has a partial
negative charge, and the iodine end has a partial positive charge. These two
FIGURE 5: Iodine monochloride
ends are called poles, and a molecule with two poles is said to have a dipole. has a dipole.
Its dipole is represented by an arrow with a head that points toward the
negative pole and a crossed tail near the positive pole. Partial charges are δ+ δ-
represented by the lowercase Greek letter delta, δ. A partial positive charge is
shown as δ+, and a partial negative charge is shown as δ−.

EXPLAIN Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

Water is a polar molecule. The oxygen atom is more | less electronegative than the
hydrogen atom, so the oxygen atom has a partial negative | positive charge, and each
hydrogen atom has a partial negative | positive charge. The oxygen atom of a water
molecule is attracted to a hydrogen | an oxygen atom of another water molecule.

The polarity of diatomic molecules such as ICl is determined by just one bond. For
molecules that contain more than two atoms, polarity is determined by both the polarity
of the individual bonds and the three-dimensional arrangement of the molecule. The ball-
and-stick models in Figure 6 show how the three-dimensional arrangement of bonds in a
molecule affects the overall polarity of the molecule.

FIGURE 6: The three-dimensional arrangement of a molecule affects the overall polarity of the molecule.

δ- δ-
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

δ+
δ+

a Water, H2O b Ammonia, NH3 c Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 d Carbon dioxide, CO2

Since H2O and NH3 have a bent shape, the bond polarities in each molecule combine to
give one end of the molecule a partial positive charge and the other end a partial negative
charge. Thus, these molecules are polar. Carbon dioxide, by contrast, is nonpolar, even
though it has two polar bonds. The carbon dioxide molecule is linear, so polarities of the
two bonds cancel each other out, and there is no net dipole in the molecule.

Evidence Notebook How can understanding the polarity of water help you design
detergents in your unit project?

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 173

 Dipole-Dipole Forces
In the molecule iodine monochloride, the highly electronegative chlorine atom
has a partial negative charge, and the iodine atom has a partial positive charge. As
Figure 7 shows, the partially negative and partially positive ends of neighboring iodine
monochloride molecules attract each other.

FIGURE 7: The
δ+ δ- δ+ δ- Key
arrows show the
dipole-dipole forces
between the positive
and negative ends I
of neighboring ICl
molecules.
Cl
Dipole-dipole
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ forces

When a liquid is heated, energy is added to the system. The kinetic energy of the liquid’s
molecules increase, and they move faster. As the temperature approaches the boiling
point, the molecules move fast enough to overcome the attractive forces between
molecules. They pull away from each other and enter the gaseous state. The stronger the
forces are between molecules, the higher the boiling point will be. Boiling point is a good
measure of the attractive forces between molecules of a liquid.

APPLY Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

ICl is a polar | nonpolar molecule, whereas Br2 is polar | nonpolar. The boiling
point of ICl is likely to be higher | lower than the boiling point of Br2. This is due to
dipole-dipole intermolecular interactions between two positive | two negative |
positive and negative portions of polar molecules.

A polar molecule also can induce the formation of a dipole in a

FIGURE 8: Dipole-induced dipole interaction
nonpolar molecule by temporarily attracting the electrons in the
nonpolar molecule. This results in a short-term intermolecular
force. For example, the positive pole of a polar water molecule
δ+ causes a temporary change in the electron distribution of an
adjacent nonpolar oxygen molecule. The temporary negative pole
induced in the side of the oxygen molecule closest to the water © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
δ-
molecule is attracted to the positive pole of the water molecule.
This shift of electrons in the oxygen molecule then causes
δ+
an induced positive pole on the opposite side of the oxygen
water, H2O oxygen, O2 molecule, as shown in Figure 8. This induced dipole attraction
allows oxygen to be dissolved in water, which is important for
sustaining life in aquatic environments.
δ+
δ- δ+ EXPLAIN Do you think a dipole-induced dipole interaction is
stronger or weaker than a dipole-dipole interaction? Explain
δ- your answer.

δ+

174 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Hydrogen Bonding
Some dipole-dipole interactions can be especially strong. For example, in some hydrogen-
containing compounds such as hydrogen fluoride, HF; water, H2O; and ammonia, NH3; a
special kind of dipole-dipole interaction exists.
Molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to the highly electronegative atoms
fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen are strongly polar. Particularly strong dipole-dipole
intermolecular forces, called hydrogen bonds, exist between molecules of these
compounds. The highly electronegative atom attracts the electrons in the bond away
from the hydrogen atom and toward itself. Consequently, the highly electronegative
atom has a partial negative charge and the hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge.
The partial positive charge on one molecule is attracted to a partial negative charge on a
nearby molecule.

MODEL Label the partial negative and partial positive charges on the water molecules.
Red spheres indicate oxygen atoms, blue spheres hydrogen atoms. Then, draw dotted
lines to represent hydrogen bonds.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Chip Clark/Fundamental

Surface Tension FIGURE 9: Droplets of mercury, water, dimethyl sulfoxide, and acetone
The attraction between molecules of the have different amounts of surface tension.
same substance is known as cohesion.
Cohesion between neighboring water
molecules is especially noticeable at the
surface of water. These water molecules
form many hydrogen bonds with the water molecules beneath them and beside them,
but not with the molecules in the air above them. This causes the surface water molecules
to be drawn together, forming a spherical shape. This cohesion at the surface of a liquid
is known as surface tension. Figure 9 shows liquids that have different amounts of surface
tension. The stronger the intermolecular forces in a liquid are, the greater its surface
tension will be.
Surface tension explains how some small insects such as water striders can stand on
Photographs

water’s surface even though they have greater density than water. The surface tension of
water also lowers its rate of evaporation. In general, a substance with strong intermolecular
forces will have high surface tension and require more energy to disrupt those interactions.
Therefore, substances with high surface tension also have a high boiling point.

Collaborate With a partner, explain how hydrogen bonding at the molecular scale
explains surface tension in water.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 175

 The Low Density of Ice
If you have ever frozen a full container of water you have discovered that, unlike most
other substances, water expands when it freezes. Like many of water’s unusual properties,
this is related to the formation of hydrogen bonds. When water freezes, the molecules
lose kinetic energy and slow down, so more hydrogen bonds form between them. The
water molecules form a network structure in which each water molecule is held away from
nearby molecules at a fixed distance.

FIGURE 10: Water molecules are arranged differently in solid water than in liquid water.

solid water
solid water liquid water
liquid water
a Icebergs float in liquid water. b solid water c liquid water

INFER Complete the statement to explain why icebergs float in liquid water.
The amount of space between molecules in solid water is less | greater than that in liquid
water. As a result, the density of solid water is less | greater than that of liquid water.
Because substances with lower density float | sink in substances with higher density, ice
floats in liquid water. This explains why icebergs float, instead of sink, in liquid water.

Patterns

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Paul Souders/The Image Bank/
FIGURE 11: Hydrogen Living Systems
bonds in DNA
Hydrogen bonds play an important role in living organisms. For example,
DNA molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. Patterns of DNA at
the molecular scale determine the traits of an organism. A DNA molecule
looks like a long twisted ladder, with two chains of sugar molecules and
phosphate groups making up the sides of the ladder and nitrogen bases
sticking into the center like steps of the ladder. DNA is stabilized by millions
of pairs of nitrogen bases that are held together by hydrogen bonds.
Because individual hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, they can break to
allow the chains to separate during DNA replication and protein synthesis.

Language Arts Connection Research the structure of DNA. Why is it

important that hydrogen bonds, not ionic or covalent bonds, hold the two strands
Getty Images

of DNA together? Develop a presentation answering this question, citing specific

textual evidence.

Evidence Notebook How do the intermolecular forces between water molecules explain the
unique properties of water, and how do they make water important in the Earth system?

176 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 EXPLORATION 3

Describing Solutions

If you’ve ever looked at a bottle of oil and vinegar, you probably noticed
FIGURE 12: Cooking oil being
that the oil settles in a layer above the vinegar, which is a mixture of acetic
poured into water
acid and water. You can mix the oil and vinegar by shaking the bottle, but
they quickly separate into layers again. This is what people mean when
they say that “oil and water don’t mix.” Figure 12 shows what happens
when you try to mix oil and water.
There are many substances that do mix easily. For example, both salt and
sugar readily dissolve in water. Heating or cooling the water can also have
a strong effect on whether a substance will dissolve in water and the speed
at which it dissolves.

Collaborate Discuss with a partner why some compounds dissolve in

water while others do not. What properties of water do you think contribute
to its ability to dissolve some compounds?

Vinegar, salt water, and sugar water are examples of solutions. A solution is a
homogeneous mixture, which means that two or more substances are uniformly
dispersed at the molecular level. Solutions contain both a solvent and a solute. The
solvent is the substance in which the solute dissolves. The solvent usually makes up the
greatest amount of the solution. Solute particles may be atoms, molecules, or ions. They
are so small that they maintain their even distribution without settling. One substance is
soluble in another if it can dissolve in that substance.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Jose A. Bernat Bacete/Moment

A solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute is saturated. If you
increase the amount of solvent in a saturated solution, the solution becomes unsaturated
and you can dissolve more solute. For any given solution, there is a maximum ratio of
solute to solvent that the solution can contain at a given temperature.

The Dissolving Process

Table salt, NaCl, is made of tiny, cubic-shaped crystals. When stirred into water, however,
salt does not keep this crystal shape. The crystals quickly begin to break apart into
separate sodium and chloride ions. When a substance dissolves and becomes a solute, it
breaks into smaller and smaller pieces until it is thoroughly mixed with the solvent at the
particle level.
Open/Getty Images

PREDICT Why do you think stirring, shaking, or heating a mixture help a solute dissolve
more quickly?

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 177

 FIGURE 13: Dissolution occurs in a system when the particles of a solute move away from each
other and become mixed in with the solvent particles.

Na+

dis
so
lut
Cl- ion

a At the molecular scale, solute particles b At the observable scale, the solute
become mixed evenly with the solvent will seem to disappear after it is thoroughly
particles. mixed with the solvent.

Figure 13a shows what happens at a particle scale when sodium chloride dissolves in
water. For any soluble compound, there is a limit to how much of it can dissolve in the
solvent. The amount of solute that can dissolve depends on the volume of the solvent and
on the temperature of the solution. For gases, it also depends on pressure. Solubility is
the extent to which a solute can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
Increasing the temperature of a solution generally increases the solubility of a solute in the
solvent. Decreasing the temperature generally decreases the solubility, which might cause
some of the dissolved solute to come out of solution and form a crystalline solid again.
Because dissolution happens at the interface between the dissolving substance and the
solvent, the surface area of the solute affects how fast dissolution happens. Think about

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Turtle Rock Scientific/Science
what happens to a single crystal of salt when it is placed into water. As the salt dissolves,
only the particles on the surface of the crystal touch the water. The rate of dissolving
depends on the surface area of the crystal. If you were to break the single salt crystal into
smaller crystals before mixing, the salt would dissolve faster. The separate crystals have a
greater surface area that can interact with the water.

MODEL Draw a model on the particle scale showing how patterns in the interaction of
solvent particles with a large block of solute are different from patterns in the interaction
of solvent particles with finely powdered solute.
Source

178 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 The solvent of a solution can be either a solid, a liquid,
Examples of Solutions
or a gas. The same is true for the solute. The table
gives examples of solute and solvent combinations in Example Solute State Solvent State
various solutions.
oxygen in nitrogen gas gas
Collaborate Examine the table showing carbon dioxide in water gas liquid
different kinds of solutions. With a partner, alcohol in water liquid liquid
discuss other common examples of solutions
you can think of. mercury in silver and tin liquid solid
sugar in water solid liquid
copper in nickel solid solid
Factors Affecting Solubility
Many solutions used in chemistry have liquid solvents. A solution in which the solvent is
water is called an aqueous solution. Chemical formulas of solutes in water are sometimes
labeled (aq) to identify them as solutes in an aqueous solution.

Solubility and Polarity

Recall that water molecules are polar. Oxygen atoms have a slightly stronger attraction
for electrons than hydrogen atoms do. When crystals of an ionic solid, such as sodium
chloride, NaCl, dissolve in water, the electrical forces in the positive and negative ends of
water molecules separate the sodium and chloride ions. The negatively-charged parts of
water molecules attract and surround the positive ions of the ionic solid. The positively-
charged parts of water molecules attract and surround the negative ions of the ionic solid.
This process, called hydration, is how ionic compounds dissolve in water.

FIGURE 14: Water’s polarity

δ+ δ+ H H
O allows it to hydrate the positive
H H
O δ- and negative ions of an ionic
δ-Na+δ-
δ- solid. This conceptual model
water molecule δ- δ- shows that the partial negative
charge of water is attracted
hydrated sodium ion to the positive ion. The partial
positive charge of water is
H O
Cl- attracted to the negative ion.
H
+ δ
+
Na+ δ δ+
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

+ Cl-
δ δ+
δ δ
+ +

sodium chloride crystal

hydrated chloride ion

Although not all substances dissolve in water, water is sometimes referred to as “the
universal solvent.” The ability to dissolve many different covalent and ionic compounds is
unique to polar solvents such as water.

INFER Complete the statement about the behavior of nonpolar solvents.

Ionic compounds would generally be soluble | not soluble in nonpolar solvents.
Nonpolar solvents have | do not have the charges necessary to draw the ions out
of the crystal and into solution.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 179

Explore Online Nonpolar substances, such as fats, oils, and greases, do not easily dissolve in
polar liquids because the forces between the polar molecules are stronger
Hands-On Lab
than the forces between polar and nonpolar molecules. This is why oil and
Temperature and Solubility water form layers instead of mixing. Liquids that are not soluble in each other
Investigate how temperature affects are called immiscible. Nonpolar substances generally do dissolve in nonpolar
the solubility of a substance. liquids, such as gasoline and carbon tetrachloride. The intermolecular forces
are weak in nonpolar solvents, so solvent and solute particles can mix freely.
Liquids that dissolve freely in one another in any proportion are called miscible.

Collaborate A common way to remember the relationship between polarity and solubility
is the phrase “like dissolves like.” With a partner, explain how this description is useful for
determining the solubility of substances.

Solubility and Pressure

Because the particles in liquids and solids are already very close together, pressure has
little effect on the solubility of substances in these states. Changes in pressure, however,
do affect the solubility of gases. Imagine you have a closed container containing a liquid
and a gas, as shown in Figure 15. The liquid is the solvent and the gas above it is the solute.
When the pressure on the system is increased, the gas and liquid particles collide more
often than they did at the original pressure. As a result, more gas dissolves in the liquid.

FIGURE 15: A change in pressure affects the rate at which gas particles encounter the
liquid’s surface.

dissolved
gas
a initial
Initial pressure bpressure
Pressureisis cmore gas
More gasisis
pressure increased
increased dissolved
dissolved

APPLY It may appear that an unopened bottle of carbonated water does not contain
any gases, but when you open it the water fizzes. How can the large-scale behavior of this © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
system be explained in terms of pressure and the solubility of particles at a small scale?

Carbonated beverages, those with dissolved carbon dioxide gas, CO2, demonstrate how
pressure affects the solubility of a gas. During production of the beverage, CO2 gas is
forced into the liquid under high pressures. When the bottle is opened, the pressure of the
gas suddenly decreases. The CO2 can now escape from the liquid, causing the drink to fizz.

180 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Solubility and Temperature Solubility of Solids in Water
Temperature has a different effect on the
FIGURE 16: Effect of temperature
Solubility of on the solubility
Solids in Water of a solid in water
solubility of gases in water from its effect
on the solubility of solids in water. Figures 100 CaCl2

Solubility (g solute/100 g H2O)

16 and 17 show how the solubility of Pb(NO3)2
different solids and gases change when the 80 NaCl
temperature is increased. KCl
60 Ce2(SO4)3
ANALYZE Based on the patterns in KNO3
Figure 16, what effect does temperature 40 KClO3
have on the solubility of a solid in water?
a. Solubility always increases with 20
an increase in temperature.
b. Solubility always decreases with 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
an increase in temperature.
Temperature (˚C)
c. Solubility generally increases
with an increase in temperature, Solubility of Gases in Water
but sometimes decreases.
Solubility
FIGURE 17: Effect of temperature of Gases
on the solubility of a gas in water
d. Solubility generally decreases
with an increase in temperature, 10
NO
but sometimes increases. O2
Solubility (mg solute/100 g H2O)

8 CO
For a solid dissolved in a liquid, increasing
CH4
the temperature generally increases its
N2
solubility. The effects shown in Figure 16 6
on an observable scale can be explained
on the scale of particles. When the
temperature is increased, the particles of 4
the solution have more kinetic energy. The
increased movement allows the solvent 2
particles to surround and dissolve the
solute particles more effectively.
0
The effect of temperature on solubility 0 10 20 30 40
is different for a gas dissolved in a liquid. Temperature (˚C)
As shown in Figure 17, as temperature
increases, the gas particles have more kinetic energy and are better able to escape from the
liquid solvent. For all gases, increasing temperature decreases the solubility of the gas. As
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

with liquids and solids, polarity also affects the solubility of the gas particles.

INFER Would you expect an opened can of carbonated water to go “flat” more quickly if
it was cold or warm? Use evidence from the graph to support your claim.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 181

 Problem Solving

Measuring Solution
Concentration
Just as objects are sometimes counted in dozens, chemical amounts are expressed in units
of moles (mol). Given the incredibly small size of atoms, the number of atoms in a sample
large enough to be visible is very large. A mole is 6.02 × 10 , and represents the number
23

of particles, whether they are atoms, ions, or molecules. It is used to convert mass to
number of particles. For example, because an atom of potassium has greater mass than an
atom of sodium, one gram of potassium has fewer atoms than one gram of sodium.
The periodic table shows the atomic mass of each element, which is the mass of one mole
of atoms of that element. For example, using the periodic table, you will find that one
mole of oxygen atoms has a mass of 15.999 grams, whereas one mole of iron atoms has a
mass of 55.85 grams.
The molar mass of a compound is the mass of one mole of molecules or formula units of
that compound. To find the molar mass of a compound, you add up the molar masses of
the atoms of each element in the compound.
If you know the mass of a sample and its molar mass, you can use the following equation
to find the amount in moles.
mass (g)
amount (mol) = ​​ __
  
   ​​
molar mass (g/mol)

SAMPLE Suppose you have a 5.00-g sample of calcium chloride, CaCl2. How many moles of
PROBLEM calcium chloride is this?

ANALYZE Known: mass = 5.00 g CaCl2

Unknown: moles of CaCl2

SOLVE Obtain the atomic masses of calcium and chlorine from the periodic table. Calcium
chloride has one atom of calcium and two atoms of chlorine per formula unit, so the
molar mass of calcium chloride is 40.08 g/mol + (2 × 35.45 g/mol) = 110.98 g/mol.
To find the amount of calcium chloride in your sample in moles, divide the mass by © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
calcium chloride’s molar mass.
__ 5.00 g
​​     ​​ = 0.0451 mol CaCl2
110.98 g/mol

P R AC T I C E SOLVE One gallon is about 3.785 liters, and this volume of water has a mass of about
PROBLEM 3785 grams. Use the space below to calculate how many moles of water are in one
gallon. Report your final answer using the correct number of significant figures.

mol H2O

182 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given amount of solution.
The concentration of a solution is usually expressed by the molarity of the solution.
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution, as shown in the
following equation.
amount of solute (mol)
Molarity (M) = __​   
   ​
volume of solution (L)
For example, a one-molar solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, contains one mole of
NaOH in every liter of solution. The concentration of a one-molar solution of sodium
hydroxide is written as 1 M NaOH.

SAMPLE An IV saline solution commonly found in hospitals contains 9.00 grams of NaCl dissolved
PROBLEM in enough solvent to form a solution with a volume of 1.00 L. What is the molarity of the
saline solution?

ANALYZE Known: solute mass = 9.00 g NaCl

solution volume = 1.00 L
Unknown: molarity of NaCl solution

S O LV E Use the periodic table to compute the molar mass of NaCl as 58.44 g/mol. Calculate the
molarity using the molar mass of NaCl as a conversion factor.

__ 9.00 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl  ​​ = 0.154 M NaCl

​​    ​​ × __ ​ ​
1.00 L solution 58.44 g NaCl
P R AC T I C E SOLVE A scientist wants to test the effects of different potassium chloride, KCl, solution
PROBLEM concentrations. Potassium chloride is sometimes used to treat conditions that result
from potassium depletion, such as cardiac or kidney disease. The scientist dissolves
255 g KCl to make a 3.20 L solution. Use the space provided to calculate the molarity of
the potassium chloride solution. Report your final answer using the correct number of
significant figures.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

M KCl

Evidence Notebook How does water’s ability to dissolve substances make it important in the
Earth system?

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 183

EXPLORATION 4

Hands-On Lab

Measuring the Electrical

Conductivity of Solutions
Conductivity is a measure of how well a solution can carry an electric current. The
presence of anions, cations, and pollutants can alter the conductivity of water. Thus, water
quality can be determined by measuring its conductivity. You will explore the electrical
conductivity of solutions containing various covalent and ionic compounds as solutes.
RESEARCH QUESTION Why might some solutions be better conductors of electrical
charge than others?

MAKE A CLAIM
Which of the test solutions will conduct electricity well and which will not? How might the
physical and chemical properties of each solution affect their conductivity?

MATERIALS
• indirectly vented chemical Test Solutions
splash goggles, nonlatex • aluminum chloride, AlCl3 , • ethanol, C2H5OH, (50 mL)
apron, nitrile gloves solution, 0.05 M (50 mL) • sodium chloride, NaCl,
• beaker, 100 mL (8) • calcium chloride, CaCl , solution, 0.05 M (50 mL)
2
• conductivity tester solution, 0.05 M (50 mL) • sugar water (50 mL)
• paper towels • distilled water (300 mL) • tap water (50 mL)
• wash bottle

SAFETY INFORMATION
• Wear indirectly vented chemical splash goggles, a nonlatex apron, and nitrile gloves © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
during the setup, hands-on, and takedown segments of the activity.
• Never pour chemicals, either used or unused, back into their original container. Dispose
of chemicals according to your teacher’s instructions.

PLAN THE INVESTIGATION

In your Evidence Notebook, write a procedure to test the electrical conductivity of the
indirectly vented
seven test solutions. Consider the accuracy you could achieve based on the limitations
chemical splash of your materials. Your procedure should also include safety considerations and any
goggles
additional materials you may need. Have your procedure and safety plan checked by your
teacher before you begin.

COLLECT DATA
Decide what data to record, the conditions for the measurements, and how many trials
you will need to complete. Develop a data table in your Evidence Notebook.

184 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 ANALYZE
1. Did the result you found for distilled water match your result for tap water? Explain
why the results do or do not make sense.

2. Compare the results you found for NaCl solution and sugar water. Considering the
intermolecular forces that exist between the atoms of these molecules, why do you
think the results were the same or different?

3. Compare your results for AlCl3, CaCl2, and NaCl. How do you think the intermolecular
forces associated with these compounds affect their conductivity?

DRAW CONCLUSIONS
Write a conclusion that addresses each of the points below.
Claim Compare how well each of the solutions you tested conducted electricity. What
about their physical or chemical properties could influence this ability?
Evidence Give specific examples from your data to support your claim.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim. Describe, in detail,
the connections between the evidence you cited and the argument you are making.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Evidence Notebook What did you learn from this experiment about the unique properties
of water?

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 185

EXPLORATION 5

Analyzing the Behavior of Solutions

You have learned how the formation of solutions is affected by the electric forces between
solute and solvent particles. Properties of solutions at the observable scale, such as
electrical conductivity, product formation, and changes in freezing point and boiling
point, can often be explained by describing the effects of electric forces between particles.

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

You previously tested the conductivity of different solutions. An electrolyte is a substance
that conducts an electric current when dissolved in solution because it yields ions. A
nonelectrolyte is a substance that does not conduct an electric current when dissolved in
solution because it does not yield ions. As shown in Figure 18, the strength with which
substances conduct an electric current is related to their ability to form ions in solution.

FIGURE 18: Sugar is a nonelectrolyte, while sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid are electrolytes.

water molecule, water molecule, sodium ion, water molecule,

sugar molecule, H2O chloride ion,
C12H22O11 H2O H2O Na+ hydronium ion, Cl-
chloride ion, H O+
3

Cl-

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Charles D. Winters/Science

a Sucrose (sugar) solution b Sodium chloride (salt) solution c Hydrochloric acid solution

All soluble ionic compounds are considered strong electrolytes, whose dilute aqueous
solutions conduct electricity well. A few molecular compounds, such as HCl, also yield only
ions when they dissolve and are therefore strong electrolytes. A weak electrolyte forms
only a few ions in water, so it is not a good conductor of electric current. Ammonia, NH3,
is an example of a weak electrolyte. When ammonia is dissolved in water, only about one
out of every hundred ammonia molecules interacts with water molecules to produce ions.

APPLY Classify each substance you tested in the conductivity lab according to its ability
to conduct electric current.
aluminum chloride, AlCl3 calcium chloride, CaCl2 distilled water
ethanol, CH3CH2OH sodium chloride, NaCl sugar tap water
Source

Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte Nonelectrolyte

186 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Modeling the Dissociation of Ionic Compounds
Explore Online
Ionic and covalent substances often behave differently when dissolved in an
Hands-On Lab
aqueous solution. Suppose you dissolve an ionic substance, such as sodium
chloride, in a polar solvent, such as water. Sodium chloride contains ionic Testing Water for Ions
bonds, which means sodium ions and chlorine ions already exist before the Investigate the ion content of
substance is added to the water. various substances.
2+ −
Similarly, a solution of manganese bromide, MnBr2, contains the ions Mn and Br .
A chemical equation can be used to model the fact that a total of three moles of ions
are produced for each mole of MnBr2 .
−
MnBr2(s) → Mn (aq) + 2Br (aq)
2+

1 mole 1 mole 2 moles

The “(s)” indicates that manganese bromide is solid, and “(aq)” is placed next to the ions
−
to indicate that they are dissolved in aqueous solution. The “2” before “Br ” means that
for every 1 mole of manganese bromide dissolved, there are 2 moles of bromide ions
in solution.
When dissolved in a solvent, ionic compounds dissociate completely into their separate
ions. For example, if you dissolve silver nitrate, AgNO3, in water, the solution does not
+ −
actually contain AgNO3. It contains only Ag and N​​O​  3​  ​​ions. For each mole of AgNO3 that
+
you dissolve, the solution will contain a total of two moles of ions, one mole of Ag ions
−
and one mole of N​​O​ 3​  ​​ ions.
+ −
AgNO3(s) → Ag (aq) + N​​O​ 3​  ​​(aq)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
PREDICT Sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride are soluble in water. Sodium chloride
and ammonium nitrate are also soluble in water. What ions will be present in a solution
that results when solutions of sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride are mixed?
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©HMH

Ionic compounds dissociate completely up to their solubility limit. But if the amount of
compound exceeds its solubility in the solution, some of the compound will not dissociate
and so will remain undissolved. Some ionic compounds’ solubilities are so low that they
are considered insoluble.
If the mixing of two solutions results in a combination of ions that forms an insoluble
compound, a precipitation reaction will occur. Precipitation occurs when the attraction
between the ions is greater than the attraction between the ions and
surrounding water molecules. Precipitation reactions can be used for making FIGURE 19: A precipitation
pigments, for removing salts from water in water treatment, and in chemical reaction of aqueous lead nitrate
analysis to measure the amounts of substances in solution. and aqueous potassium iodide

For example, potassium iodide and lead nitrate are each soluble in water,
and form colorless solutions. But when you mix them, a bright yellow solid
forms, as shown in Figure 19. The yellow precipitate is lead iodide, PbI2, which
is not soluble.

Collaborate With a partner, discuss which ions are present in solution after
potassium iodide and lead nitrate are mixed.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 187

 Scientific Knowledge Assumes an Order and Consistency in Natural Systems

Recycling Palladium

Dental fixtures often include precious metals because of their low

FIGURE 20: Palladium can be
reactivity. If the fixtures are removed, the metal can be recovered by
recovered from dental scraps.
dissolving the scrap in a carefully chosen solvent in which the metal
precipitates. Palladium in dental scrap can be retrieved by dissolving the
scrap in hydrochloric acid and adding a compound to precipitate out the
palladium from the solution. This kind of recycling saves energy compared
to mining and processing new raw palladium ore. It also conserves a
limited valuable resource from going to a landfill.

Language Arts Connection Using multiple sources, research other

precipitation reactions used to recycle rare materials. How do these reactions
offset the impacts of mining? Write a newspaper article describing your findings.

Modeling the Ionization of Molecular Compounds

FIGURE 21: HCl completely ionizes in water.

Some molecular compounds, such as sugar, dissolve in water but do
HC2H3O2 partially ionizes in water. not form ions. But when the polar covalent compound hydrogen
chloride is dissolved in water, it forms an ionic solution called
chloride hydronium acetic acid
hydrochloric acid. The process by which polar covalent solute
ion (1–) ion (1+) molecule
molecules form ions in solution is called ionization. Hydrogen
chloride completely ionizes in water, so it is a strong electrolyte.
The attraction of the hydrogen atom to the water molecules
+
breaks the H—Cl bond, forming a hydrogen ion, H , and a chloride
−

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Photo Fun/Shutterstock;

ion, Cl . This ionization can be modeled by a chemical equation:
acetate ​H​2​O +
ion (1–)
​⎯→
HCl(aq)    ​H (aq) + Cl–(aq)
hydronium
Molecular compounds such as HCl that have a hydrogen atom
HCl ion
HC2Hcovalently
O
3 2 (1+)
bonded to a highly electronegative atom can release
+ +
e hydronium acetic acid H ions in an aqueous solution. An H ion, however, is so strongly
) ion (1+) molecule attracted to other charged particles that it bonds covalently with
+
a water molecule to form a hydronium ion, H3O . The presence of
hydronium ions is what makes a solution acidic at the bulk scale.
+ – + –
H2O(l) + H (aq) + Cl (aq) → H3O (aq) + Cl (aq)

acetate Some molecular compounds have stronger bonds to their hydrogen

ion (1–) atoms. Acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is a weak electrolyte. It ionizes less
hydronium readily than hydrochloric acid because hydrogen is bonded more
HCl HC2H3O2 ion (1+) strongly to the HC2H3O2 molecule. A small proportion of acetic acid
molecules ionize in water, but most remain un-ionized.

EXPLAIN What determines whether a molecular compound will ionize in water?

188 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Colligative Properties
A solution made by dissolving a solute in a liquid will have different physical and chemical
properties than those of the solvent alone. Pure water cannot conduct electricity, freezes
at 0 °C, and boils at 100 °C. Salt water does conduct electricity, freezes at a slightly lower
temperature than pure water, and boils at a slightly higher temperature than pure water.
Some of the properties of solutions are affected by the presence of solutes (either
molecules or ions) regardless of whether they are electrolytes or not. Such properties are
referred to as colligative properties, which are dependent only on the concentration of
solute particles, not on the identity of the solute particles. The greater the concentration
of solute particles in a certain mass of solvent, the greater the change in the colligative
property of the substance.
APPLY Select the correct terms to complete the statement about the colligative
properties of sodium chloride, NaCl, and calcium chloride, CaCl2 , solutions.
One mole of NaCl dissolves to give one | two | three dissolved particles per
formula unit. One mole of CaCl2 dissolves to give one | two | three dissolved
particles per formula unit. Therefore, NaCl will have a lesser | greater effect
than CaCl2 when added to water.

Changing Freezing Point and Boiling Point FIGURE 22: Ocean water remains liquid at lower
Two important colligative properties are the changes temperatures than pure water does.
in freezing point and boiling point of a liquid when
substances are dissolved in the liquid. The boiling
point and freezing point of a solution differ from those
of the pure solvent. For example, ethylene glycol,
also known as antifreeze, is miscible in water. Adding
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Christoph Vitale/Eye Em/Getty

antifreeze to a car’s radiator forms a solution that has

a freezing point that is lower than the freezing point
of water, preventing freezing in cold weather. This
change is called freezing-point depression. Antifreeze
also increases the boiling point of water in the radiator,
which prevents overheating. This change is called
boiling-point elevation.
Another example of freezing point depression is seen when salt is added to icy sidewalks
or roads to melt the ice. The salt lowers the freezing point of the water so that ice melts
at a lower temperature than it normally would. Freezing point depression also plays an
important role in ocean water, as shown in Figure 22.
ANALYZE Imagine what would happen if ocean water froze each time the temperature
reached the freezing point of pure water, 0 °C. The constant movement of the water partly
explains why the ocean water remains liquid. How does freezing-point depression also
explain the behavior of ocean water?
Images

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 189

 Freezing point depression and boiling point elevation are explained by changes in vapor
pressure, the pressure caused by solvent molecules in the gas phase directly above the
solution. Increasing the concentration of solute particles means fewer solvent particles
are able to escape from the liquid to enter the gas phase. This lowers the vapor pressure,
which keeps the solution in a liquid state over a larger temperature range.

Explore Online Osmotic Pressure

Hands-On Lab Figure 23 shows a U-tube containing sucrose solutions of different
concentrations. The solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane
Diffusion and Cell Membranes that blocks the passage of certain particles but allows others to pass through.
Investigate osmosis across a In this case, the larger sucrose molecules are blocked, but the smaller water
semipermeable membrane. molecules can pass through freely.

Collaborate With a partner, discuss what is happening in the U-tube that would cause the
levels of the solutions to change. Why did the level of the more highly concentrated solution
rise? Use evidence from Figure 23 to support your ideas.

FIGURE 23: Osmosis is lower solute higher solute same solute

the movement of solvent concentration concentration concentration
molecules from the
solution with lower solute
concentration to the
solution with higher solute
concentration.
H 2O osmosis

selectively permeable membrane

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

A higher concentration of solute particles in the solution allows fewer water molecules
to strike the membrane than on the side with the lower solute concentration. So, the
rate of water molecules moving into the higher concentration solution is greater than
the rate moving in the opposite direction. Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent through a
semipermeable membrane to the side of higher solute concentration. As the difference
in the heights of the solutions increases, an increasing pressure difference will develop.
Eventually, the rate of solvent molecules moving each way across the membrane will
become equal. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure that must be applied to stop
osmosis. Osmotic pressure is dependent on the concentration of solute particles, not on
the type of solute particles, so it is also a colligative property.

Evidence Notebook How are the properties of pure water different from the properties of
water when dissolved solutes are present in it? How do you think this affects the importance of
water in the Earth system?

190 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 TAKE IT FURTHER

Careers in Engineering

Water Supply Engineer

When you turn on a faucet, you expect a flow of clean,

FIGURE 24: A water supply engineer collecting a sample
drinkable water. If you are confident in the purity
of your water supply, you can thank a water supply
engineer. Water supply engineers identify and develop
water sources, produce and maintain water purification
systems, and develop water distribution systems.
The water you drink may originate in a lake or a river,
or it may come from groundwater. Groundwater is
usually pumped to the surface from drilled wells that
are sometimes hundreds or thousands of feet deep.
Regardless of its source, the water must be cleaned
and purified before it can be sent to homes, schools,
and businesses.
A water supply engineer develops the water
purification processes, designs the equipment, and
plans the methods for testing the water to make sure it
is fit for consumption. Screening is the first step in the
purification process. During screening, water passes
through a screen to remove larger objects such as
trash, leaves, and twigs.
The water then flows into large sedimentation pools
where residual solid material settles. To remove any
remaining small particles, chemicals such as aluminum Chemistry in Your Community Imagine you
sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, or soluble iron salts are added. This are a water supply engineer. Develop a plan for a water
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©HMH

causes small particles, unwanted ions, and residual

treatment plant for a community that is located away from
chemicals to clump together. These precipitates are
developed areas. After researching this issue, write a report
removed through different filtration processes.
describing criteria and constraints for the task of identifying
Typically, the last step in water purification is to and developing a suitable source of water for this community.
disinfect the water. Chlorine gas is the cheapest and Define the components and the boundaries of the system.
most common substance used to disinfect water on When writing your report, consider how the diverse needs of
a large scale. However, an unanticipated result of this
the community might be met by the water treatment system
method is that chlorine can react to form chlorine-
you develop, and what costs and benefits you would anticipate.
containing organic byproducts that may cause cancer.
As a result, engineers modified the process to minimize
How will you address their demand for water while keeping the
chlorine treatment and supplement it with chloramine, stress on the water resource low? In addition, analyze the need
NH2Cl. Chloramine is also an effective disinfectant, and for drinking water as a major global challenge.
it does not form harmful byproducts.

SEPARATING SALT PAPER Go online to choose one

REVERSE OSMOSIS
MIXTURES CHROMATOGRAPHY of these other paths.

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 191

EVALUATE

Lesson Self-Check

CAN YOU EXPLAIN THE PHENOMENON?

FIGURE 25: Ocean water contains a number of dissolved solutes that are important for
living organisms.

Not every interaction of substances is a chemical reaction. In some interactions, changes

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Mark Conlin/Alamy

take place, but the identity of the substances involved remains the same. One example
of this type of interaction is the dissolution of a solute into a solvent as a solution forms.
An understanding of intermolecular forces makes it possible to predict which interactions
will take place and to explain what happens during these interactions. The interactions
that take place in ocean water affect many parts of the Earth system, including the
organisms that live in and near the ocean. Understanding these interactions starts with
a consideration of how intermolecular forces affect interactions between water and the
ionic and molecular compounds that are dissolved in the ocean.

Evidence Notebook Refer to your notes in your Evidence Notebook to make a claim
about water. Your explanation should include a discussion of the following points:
Claim Why does water have unique properties and what are some examples of how these
properties are important in the Earth system?
Evidence Give specific evidence to support your claim.
Reasoning Describe, in detail, the connections between the evidence you cited and the claim
you are making.

192 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Name Date

CHECKPOINTS

Check Your Understanding 5. Which statement best explains why oil and water
do not mix?
1. Water, H2O, and hydrogen sulfide, H2S, are both a. Water molecules are polar and oil molecules
molecules with a bent structure, but the melting are nonpolar.
point of H2O is much higher than the melting point b. Oil molecules are polar and water molecules
of H2S. Why is this? are nonpolar.
a. The intermolecular forces in H2S are much c. Water molecules are carbon-based and oil
greater than those in H2O. molecules are not.
b. H2O molecules have hydrogen bonds d. Oil and water both have covalent bonds and
between them. repel one another.
c. The three-dimensional arrangement of H2O
makes it a nonpolar molecule. 6. Which of the following types of compounds is
d. H2S has a lower molar mass than H2O. most likely to be a strong electrolyte?
a. a polar compound
2. Select the correct terms to complete the statement b. a nonpolar compound
about charged particles.
c. a covalent compound
The pattern that electrical forces show is that d. an ionic compound
like charges attract | repel and opposite charges
attract | repel. According to Coulomb’s law, as 7. Select the correct terms to complete the
statement.
the distance between two charged particles
The freezing point of water when a solute is
decreases, the force between the particles
dissolved in the water is higher | lower than the
decreases | increases. As the magnitude of the
freezing point of pure water. The change in the
charges decreases, the force decreases | increases.
freezing point occurs because the vapor pressure
3. If solutions are produced from each of these of the solution is higher | lower than that of
compounds, which solutions would most likely the pure water. This change in vapor pressure
conduct an electrical current? Select all correct
also causes the boiling point of the solution to
answers.
a. aluminum chloride, AlCl3 be higher | lower than the boiling point of pure
b. chromium trioxide, CrO3 water. The change in boiling point is directly
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

c. ethanol, C2H5OH proportional to the number of | identity of the

d. glucose, C6H12O6 solute particles.
e. sodium azide, NaN3
8. A 3.25 L solution is prepared by dissolving 285 g
4. Which statement correctly describes the effect of BaBr2 in water. Use the space provided to
of an increase in temperature on the solubility of determine the molarity. Report your final answer
gases dissolved in a liquid? using the correct number of significant figures.
a. Solubility increases for all gases.
b. Solubility decreases for all gases.
c. Solubility increases for most gases but
decreases for some.
d. Solubility decreases for most gases
but increases for some. M BaBr2

Lesson 2 Analyzing the Properties of Compounds and Solutions 193

EVALUATE

CHECKPOINTS (continued)

9. Explain whether HCl or HF shows the stronger intermolecular forces and how this
is related to trends in the periodic table. Then, explain which of these compounds
would have a higher boiling point based on differences in intermolecular forces.

10. A student makes a solution by dissolving CaBr2 in water. Describe what happens
at the bulk scale and at the particle level as the CaBr2 dissolves.

MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE

In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that supports the main ideas from this lesson:
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
Intermolecular forces between molecules explain how a liquid behaves.
Polarity results when there is an uneven distribution of charges in a molecule.
The solubility of a substance depends on the forces that exist between the solute particles
and the solvent particles.
Solutions of charged particles can conduct electric current.
Remember to include the following information in your study guide:
• Use examples that model main ideas.
• Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
• Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can include drawings, data, graphs,
laboratory conclusions, and other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how patterns may be observed in the intermolecular forces that exist between compounds.

194 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 3.3

Engineering Materials

Cars are made from many types of materials, including metal, glass, plastic, and rubber.

CAN YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM?

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©supergenijalac/Shutterstock

A car is a complex system with many parts, which have macro- and microscopic structures
designed to serve specific functions. Engineers decide what materials to use for each
part of a car using defined criteria and constraints. For example, the car frame provides
basic structure and strength and absorbs energy during a collision. Frame materials must
be strong but not too brittle. Windows let people see out. The windows must be able to
withstand weather and flying pebbles and absorb the energy of a minor collision. The
dashboard separates the passengers from the wiring and engine of the car. It must be
easy to clean and tough enough to withstand daily life but as lightweight as possible to
help increase fuel efficiency. Modern vehicles have on-board computers that control many
functions. The materials for these systems are chosen for their electrical properties.

EXPLAIN How would understanding the properties of different materials be useful for
selecting the best material for each part of a car?

Evidence Notebook As you explore the lesson, gather evidence to determine what the
best material (ceramic, metal, polymer, or semiconductor) would be for each car component:
dashboard, frame, on-board computer, and windshield.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 195

EXPLORATION 1

Exploring Materials Science and Design

FIGURE 1: This apparatus is testing the

Have you ever wondered how smartphone glass was developed?
flexibility of screen glass. To start, engineers had to understand the function that the part
required, such as being resistant to cracks, as well as the properties
that could help fulfill that function, such as being able to flex
without breaking. To identify glass with this property, engineers
can test the flexibility of glass samples, as shown in Figure 1.
Engineers also had to find an efficient way to deliver the glass to
manufacturers. To solve this problem, flexible glass is delivered
in rolls and then cut into pieces. Materials science is the scientific
study of the properties and applications of materials.

PLAN Consider a material that you use in your daily life. If you could improve it to make it
function better, what would you change about it?

The Engineering Design Process

The engineering design process is used to develop
FIGURE 2: The engineering design process includes
and optimize solutions to problems. The process
many iterations or cycles.
is iterative and can cycle through different parts of
the process in various ways. Figure 2 shows a brief

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Fredrik von Erichsen/dpa/picture
Define and Design
overview of the engineering design process.
delimit the and test The process begins by defining a problem that the
problem. solutions.
solution will address. This includes listing criteria and
constraints. At any stage in the process, engineers may
discover new aspects of the problem and return to the
initial definition to modify it. For example, an engineer
working on a better cell phone cover might define the
problem as the need to strengthen the glass face of the
phone. If testing indicates that the glass is likely to crack
Implement and Optimize
communicate design when the phone lands on its edge, the problem might
results. solutions. be redefined to include the need to protect the sides
of the phone. Then, the criteria and constraints of the
problem may need to be reevaluated as well.
When a potential solution to the defined problem is identified, the process
alliance/NewsCom

Explore Online
is not over. Testing and evaluation of prototypes often lead to ideas for
YOU SOLVE IT
optimizing the design.
How Can You Change the
Properties of a Substance? Collaborate With a partner, discuss what types of testing phone glass
Investigate the properties of five would undergo. Consider everything a phone might go through on a daily basis
chemical additives that will be used to help brainstorm ideas.
to optimize an adhesive.

196 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Engineering

Collecting Water from Fog

In some areas, it is common to see fog even though rain is rare and water is scarce.
Engineers are developing ways to efficiently “harvest” water from the fog using
engineered materials that collect water from the air.

Defining and Delimiting the Problem

Water needs vary greatly between communities and applications. Understanding how
much water must be produced will determine whether fog harvesting can meet the water
needs of an area. For example, a person in the United States might use 300 liters of water
per day, while a person in Asia or Africa may use one-third or even one-sixth this much fresh
water. In addition, fog is seasonal in many places and may not be a year-round solution for
water needs. The social, cultural, and environmental impacts of a potential solution should
be evaluated throughout this process. For example, many plants and animals depend
on fog for water. Reducing the amount of water in the air may harm these organisms.
Also, removing moisture from the air decreases the humidity. This may have unintended
consequences that should be considered even if they cannot be fully predicted.

DEFINE Imagine you are designing a system to supply fog-harvested water to seedlings.
Define the problem and break it down into smaller, more manageable sub-problems.

ANALYZE Consider the sub-problem of designing a material that can harvest water from
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Nature Picture library/Alamy

fog. Identify criteria and constraints for this problem.

Designing and Testing Solutions FIGURE 3: The Namib desert beetle can
Potential solutions can be brainstormed, modeled, and evaluated harvest water from the air.
after the problem is defined. Engineers often research natural or
human-designed solutions to similar problems as part of this step.
One group of engineers took inspiration from living things as
Stock Photo/Alamy

they designed water-collecting materials. The Namib desert is

one of the driest environments on Earth. The Namib desert beetle,
shown in Figure 3, survives in its desert home in southern Africa
by drinking water that condenses on its hard, bumpy wing covers
in early morning fog. A microscopic examination of the beetle’s
wings shows that they are covered with tiny bumps and grooves that are composed of
different materials. The bumps are made of a material that attracts water from the air, and
the material that makes up the grooves repels the water. Thus, the water flows along the
grooves and is channeled into the beetle’s mouth.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 197

 Engineers used observations from the Namib desert beetle to develop new materials that
mimic the way the beetle’s water-gathering system works. One material attracts and
collects water from the air. Another material repels the collected water.

FIGURE 4: These nets are part of a fog-harvesting project in California.

Mesh nets that collect fog are usually nylon, polyethylene, or polypropylene. The density
of the mesh can be varied to capture more or less water. Droplets that collect on the mesh
may drip to the ground, providing water for plants, or they may flow into a gutter that
channels the water into a storage tank. Dust, debris, and algae must be regularly removed
from nets, and tanks must be maintained to prevent algal and bacterial growth.

EVALUATE Does the design in Figure 4 meet your criteria and constraints? How would

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Lee Rentz/Photoshot

you analyze the performance of this material? What tests would you run, and how would
you evaluate the design?

Optimizing Design Solutions

After developing a new material, such as a water-collecting fabric, engineers test and
analyze the material to make sure it has the properties to perform the desired function.
A decision matrix can help determine how well a design meets important criteria. In a
decision matrix, each criterion is given a number, or weight, based on its importance.
Proposed designs are rated on how well they meet the identified criteria. The designs
in the decision matrix on the next page are rated on a scale of 0–5. The score for each
criterion in a decision matrix is multiplied by its respective weight, and the score for that
design is the sum of those products. Engineers may choose to make additional prototypes
of the design with the highest score, or they may choose to brainstorm new ideas if no
designs meet the requirements satisfactorily.

198 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Decision Matrix for Fog-Collecting Material
Design criteria Weight Design 1 Design 2 Design 3
Durability 4 5 1 4
Water collected 3 2 3 4
Cost 2 1 2 1
Resists algae growth 1 1 4 0
Total Points 29 21 30

ANALYZE Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

According to the decision matrix, the most important criterion is durability |
water collected | cost | algae growth, which has a large effect on the total score. If
engineers decided to test only two of the designs further, they would likely eliminate
Design 1 | Design 2 | Design 3 from further consideration. Although it is not the most
durable, Design 3 scores better than the others in water collected | cost | algae growth.

A decision matrix also helps engineers consider tradeoffs, or the relative cost-benefit ratio
of different design solutions. If having a more durable product is more important than
minimizing costs, then durability can be given a higher weight in a decision matrix than
cost. This indicates which tradeoffs are acceptable for a particular problem. If a material,
product, or manufacturing process is inefficient or too costly, a new process may be
developed. The optimization process considers these tradeoffs.

Implementing the Solution and Communicating Results

Engineers are getting better at designing computer simulations and prototypes that are
more accurate models of how particular solutions will work at full-scale implementation.
As particular solutions are implemented, unanticipated outcomes, new technologies, or
new constraints may require further optimization or a new solution.
Fog collectors could provide an alternative source of fresh water in dry areas. This
technology works best in areas with frequent foggy periods, including areas in California,
Chile, Peru, and Guatemala. Prototypes have been tested in some areas as part of solution
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

optimization. Data from the evaluation of prototypes or fully implemented solutions can
be communicated to clients or the public through reports or scientific articles. These data
are valuable for further design optimization and for solving related problems in the future.
Often the final decision about whether a new device or process will be produced or
implemented is not made by the engineering team. There may be economic, political, or
cultural considerations unrelated to the technical performance of the design that must
be considered. For example, the environmental impacts of harvesting water from fog in
particular areas must be considered.

Evidence Notebook What are the environmental impacts of detergents? How might
these impacts compare to those of the homemade detergent from your unit project?

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 199

 Life Cycle of Engineered Materials
Everything that we make or use requires materials. Because Earth is essentially a closed
system with a finite supply of materials available, decisions about resource use should be
carefully evaluated. For example, some resources, such as aluminum, are easily recycled
and become materials for other products. Other resources, such as gasoline, exist in
limited supply that cannot be reused. It takes many steps to manufacture and dispose of a
consumer product, and each step has different impacts on society and the environment.

Collaborate With a partner, discuss why the entire life cycle of a material should be
considered when analyzing costs and benefits.

Figure 5 shows an example life cycle of a consumer

FIGURE 5: The life cycle of a cell phone
product. Manufacturing begins with obtaining
resources. These can be natural resources obtained
by mining ores for metal, harvesting trees for lumber,
or extracting fossil fuels from underground reservoirs.
Resources may also come from recycled materials.
Raw resources are shaped into parts, assembled into
a product, or manufactured into synthetic materials
using chemical processes. Distribution of a consumer
product may involve several transportation steps, such
as moving the product to a warehouse then delivering
to a retail outlet. Each input, such as worker time, fuel,
or water usage, adds to the price of the product.
Some products may only be used once, such as food or
a newspaper. Other products, such as a microwave or
clothes, may be used many times. Eventually, consumers dispose of most products, which
begins the final stage of the life cycle. This could consist of discarding the product as trash,
reusing the product in a different way, or recycling it to use the materials in a new product.

EVALUATE Engineers reduce the impact of a product by optimizing various processes at

different stages of its life cycle. Match the criteria engineers might optimize with the stage.

obtaining resources production distribution consumer use disposal

Engineering criteria Life cycle stage © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

reduce the energy consumption of an appliance

develop more efficient natural gas drilling techniques

design a material that can be easily separated into recyclable components

automate the assembly process for putting car parts together

develop software systems to improve warehouse operations

Evidence Notebook The dashboard, frame, on-board computer, and windshield in a car all
serve different functions. How could you determine the best material from which to build each car
component? Define this complex problem and divide it into multiple sub-problems using a diagram
or flowchart.

200 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 EXPLORATION 2

Engineering Lab

Experimenting with Polymers

You are a materials scientist who has been hired by a toy company to develop a toy made
of a bouncy material. You will make an initial version of the material with a reaction of
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium tetraborate, also known as sodium borate or borax. In
this reaction, borate ions link chains of PVA together, as shown in Figure 6. Then, you will
test the properties of the material and optimize your design.

FIGURE 6: PVA and borate ions react to form a cross-linked polymer and water.

H2C CH2 H2C CH2

H H H H H H
C C O O C C
OH HO O O
H2C CH2 + B– → H2C B– CH2 + 4 H2O
H H O O
C C O O C C
OH HO H H H H
H2C CH2 H2C CH2

PVA polymer borate ion cross-linked polymer water

DESIGN CHALLENGE
The company wants a colorful toy that is fun to look at and will bounce at least 15 cm
high when dropped from a height of 30 cm onto a tile floor at room temperature. The toy
should retain a spherical shape for several bounces and be stretchy and moldable by hand.

CONDUCT RESEARCH
Research the material you will be making from PVA and sodium tetraborate. This material
is composed of very large molecules, called polymers, that are made up of repeating
units, known as monomers. How do the monomers combine to form the polymer? How
do the properties of the polymer influence the properties of the final material? As part of
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

your research, look for information that could help you meet the criteria for a successful
solution and maximize the bounciness of a toy made with this polymer.

DEFINE THE PROBLEM

Define the engineering problem you must solve and identify the criteria and constraints
for the problem. Break the problem and criteria into smaller pieces as necessary.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 201

 FIGURE 7: Polyvinyl alcohol, sodium tetraborate, and food coloring can be mixed together to
make a colorful new material.

POSSIBLE MATERIALS

• indirectly vented chemical • plastic cup, 4 oz • sodium tetraborate,

splash goggles, nonlatex • polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 4% solution
apron, nitrile gloves 5% solution • wooden dowel, ¼-in.
• food coloring, assorted colors • ruler, 30 cm diameter, 8 in. long
• graduated cylinder, 50 mL

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
SAFETY INFORMATION
• Wear indirectly vented chemical splash goggles, a nonlatex apron, and nitrile gloves
during the setup, hands-on, and takedown segments of the activity.
• If you get a chemical in your eye, use an eyewash station immediately.
• Never pour chemicals, either used or unused, back into their original container. Dispose
of chemicals according to your teacher’s instructions.
• Wash your hands with soap and water immediately after completing this activity.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS
Your first step is to make a polymer and determine whether it is a suitable solution. In your
Evidence Notebook, develop a procedure and safety plan and get your teacher’s approval
indirectly vented
chemical splash before proceeding. Include a plan for recording your initial observations. You will decide
goggles how much of each chemical to use. The total volume of reactants should be 35 mL.

TEST
In your Evidence Notebook, develop a procedure and safety plan for testing how well the
polymer meets the criteria and constraints of the problem. Get your teacher’s approval
before proceeding. Include a table to record your data and quantitative measurements,
and decide on an appropriate level of accuracy. Then, test your polymer in a safe area.

202 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 1. How accurate and precise are the data you collected? What could increase your
accuracy and precision?

2. Which criteria were met by the current toy design? Which criteria were not met?

3. What are the limitations of your investigation? Are the data you gathered enough to
accurately assess your design?

4. Describe changes that will improve your testing procedure and investigation. Get
approval from your teacher, and test your polymer again using the new procedure.

OPTIMIZE
1. How do you think the recipe should change to optimize the polymer? Support your
answer using information about how patterns in the polymer at the atomic scale cause
changes to the properties of the polymer at the bulk scale.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

2. You now need to optimize the design solution. You will need to consider certain
tradeoffs. For example, if you try to optimize how high the toy can bounce, it might not
be as stretchy and moldable. Rank the criteria in order of importance and explain the
tradeoffs that you expect to make.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 203

 3. Make a decision matrix and indicate the relative weight of each criterion. Evaluate
your first design using the matrix. Then, make your optimized polymer and test it.
As you test new designs, use your decision matrix to compare each iteration.

ANALYZE
Based on your research and observations, what is happening at the atomic scale to explain
the function of your materials at the bulk scale?

COMMUNICATE
Develop a presentation that evaluates how well your final material worked, how you
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
tested the design, and how you determined if the solution was suitable for the intended
function. Include information about the structure and properties of the material based on
your observations and research, and a mathematical display of your quantitative data.

EXTEND
List potential environmental impacts of your bouncy toy. Make sure to consider the entire
life cycle of the product. Do you think minimizing environmental impacts should be
prioritized over other criteria, such as cost or aesthetics? In your Evidence Notebook, write
an argument supporting your position.

Evidence Notebook For the problem of material selection for automobile parts, identify
criteria and constraints for each component (dashboard, frame, on-board computer, and
windshield) based on its function.

204 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 EXPLORATION 3

Analyzing Types of Materials

Most complex objects consist of many parts made of different Explore Online
materials. Each part has a specific function and must be composed
FIGURE 8: The layers of the space shuttle
of materials that have the best properties for its function. An give it strength and the ability to withstand
example of a very complex object is the space shuttle, shown in high temperatures.
Figure 8. The space shuttle was used to ferry people and supplies
to the International Space Station, carry repair crews to the Hubble
telescope, and conduct many other missions. Shuttle engineers
designed a vehicle that could travel into orbit using as little fuel
as possible because fuel is heavy and expensive. To solve this
problem, the shuttle body was built with aluminum, which is
relatively light. To withstand the high temperatures caused by
friction with the atmosphere upon the shuttle’s return to Earth, the
skin of the shuttle was covered with ceramic tiles. As the shuttle
entered the atmosphere, these tiles became red hot, but the
interior remained cool.

Collaborate Space vehicles operate in extreme conditions

with limited ability for repairs. With a partner, discuss how safety
and reliability considerations might affect cost-benefit analyses
during the engineering design process for shuttle materials.

Metals: Applications and Properties

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (t) ©Dimitri Gerondidakis/NASA

People first used the metal copper in a relatively pure form more than 10 000 years ago for
ornaments and jewelry. Later, the development of bronze, which is a mixture of copper
and tin, led to the invention of harder, more durable metal tools and weapons. Metal has
been a part of human activities for thousands of years, and we continue to explore new
ways to make and use metal products.
Explore Online
The properties of metals allow them to be used in numerous
Kennedy Space Center; (b) ©B Christopher /Alamy

applications. Bridges and large buildings incorporate steel beams FIGURE 9: Titanium metal is used for
as structural support. In the form of nails, bolts, or screws, metal artificial hips.
is an ideal fastener to hold other materials together. Metals are
good conductors of electric current, so metal wires are common
in electrical systems. Smooth metal surfaces are easy to clean,
tolerate high temperatures, and are antimicrobial, making them
ideal for medical uses, such as the titanium hip shown in Figure 9.

EXPLAIN What characteristics at the atomic scale determine the

properties of metals at the bulk scale? Select all correct answers.
a. ionic bonds
b. sea of electrons
c. low electronegativity
d. interaction of cations and anions

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 205

 Although a few metals, such as copper and gold, are found in small amounts in their pure
form, almost all metal production begins with mining rock, known as an ore, that contains
metal compounds. The extraction of metal from ore is an energy-intensive and expensive
process. In general, it is much less expensive to recycle metal than to mine new metal.
Thus, recycling is typically a positive for costs and the environment.

INFER Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

Due to the low | high electronegativity of metal atoms, the valence electrons form
a “sea” of electrons that results in weak | strong metallic bonds. Copper is used for
electrical wiring because the nuclei | protons | electrons are free to move, giving
copper a low boiling point | high conductivity | high brittleness. Aluminum is
brittle and soft | ductile and malleable and can be shaped into thin, flexible sheets
through pressure. A lot of energy is needed to break metallic bonds, which makes
many metals hard | soft.

Metals can be mixed with one another, and in some cases with nonmetals such as carbon,
to form alloys. These alloys, such as bronze and steel, have different properties from the
metals of which they are composed. Many alloys are, in fact, stronger and harder than the
individual metals. That is why the development of bronze had a much greater effect on
civilization than did the use of copper.

MODEL Draw the structure of a pure metal and an alloy at the atomic scale. Use your
model to support an explanation of why alloys are typically stronger than pure metals.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Explore Online Consider how you use metals every day and how their useful properties relate
to the atomic level arrangement of particles. For example, most tools are made
YOU SOLVE IT
of metal. The strong, delocalized bonds in metals make these tools hard and
Which Planetary-Rover strong.
Materials Are Suitable? Many bicycle frames are made of steel or aluminum. These metals are strong
Investigate the effects of the and durable. The frame lasts for many years because the materials are hard
extreme Venus environment on the but not brittle. Within a piece of metal, atoms can move a bit without breaking
metals and metal alloys used to bonds because the electrons flow among the nuclei. This property keeps the
build planetary rovers. frame from shattering when the bike runs over a bump or large pothole.

206 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Ceramics: Applications and Properties
If you need a strong, durable material for a retaining wall, driveway, or building, concrete
is a great choice. Concrete is made of cement, stone or sand, and water. When these
components are mixed together, they form a solid material that is as hard and strong
as rock. Concrete is a ceramic material. Ceramics are very stable and have been used for
thousands of years. Roman concrete structures, such as the Colosseum, still stand today.
Ceramics are usually made up of bonded metal and nonmetal atoms and are typically
inorganic, or not made mostly of carbon. They are produced by mixing earth materials,
usually in the form of powder. For concrete, water is added to the earth materials to begin
a reaction that forms the chemical bonds. In other
ceramics, the chemical reaction occurs when the mixture FIGURE 10: The ceramic magnesia is a network of
is heated in an oven or kiln. magnesium and oxygen.
+
Ceramic materials have ionic or covalent bonds. Ionic Mg2
bonds form between metal and nonmetal atoms. O2-
Covalent bonds form between nonmetal atoms. The
atoms are linked by these bonds in a regular structure
that is more complex than that of metals. Atoms in a
ceramic may form a three-dimensional network with
a rigid structure similar to the magnesia network in
Figure 10. The bonds in ceramics are formed by the
transfer or sharing of electrons between atoms, which
is different from metallic bonding. As a result, the
properties and applications of ceramics are different
from those of metals.

ANALYZE Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

In general, ceramics are hard and strong, but they are also brittle. If you drop a pottery
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (t) © aquatarku/iStock/Getty

vase and a metal vase on a hard surface, the metal | pottery is likely to bend while
the metal | pottery shatters. Most ceramics are good | poor conductors of electric
current because the electrons are locked into the chemical bonds and are free | unable
to flow. Ceramics are good conductors | insulators of energy as heat because the
atoms are held in place, so energy does not flow readily from one atom to another. For
example, heat-resistant ceramic tiles protected the space shuttle during flight.

Ceramic often refers to pottery, but there are many other ceramic materials, including bricks,
tiles, and glass. Glass consists mostly of silicon and oxygen atoms. When sand is melted
and cooled, it forms glass. Like other ceramics, glass is hard, although brittle. Glass is often
transparent to visible light, so glass has been used to make windows for many centuries.

EXPLAIN Why are insulators made of ceramics and

FIGURE 11: Porcelain or glass insulators may protect
not metals?
utility poles from high voltages.
Images

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 207

 Semiconductors: Applications and Properties
Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity values between that of
a conductor, such as copper, and that of an insulator, such as glass. Their conductivity
increases as their temperature increases. Thus, they are not effective conductors at
low temperatures, but they do conduct electrical current at temperatures above room
temperature. The metalloid elements in pure form are semiconductors. They form crystals
with covalent bonds. Electrons in metalloids do not flow as freely as they do in metals, but
they are more mobile than the electrons are in ceramics.
The electrical properties of semiconducting elements, such as silicon, change when
impurities are added to the crystal in a process called doping. These impurities are atoms
of other elements, such as boron or phosphorus, that can take the place of silicon atoms
in the crystal structure. Impurities affect the crystal by either donating or accepting
electrons, which increases the conductivity of the semiconductor.

MODEL A silicon atom has four valence electrons and bonds with four other silicon
atoms. With a partner, explain using claims, evidence, and reasoning why adding
small amounts of phosphorus to silicon makes it a conductor. Draw the structure of
phosphorus-doped silicon to support your explanation.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©MARTIN SCHUTT/dpa picture
Silicon is the most widely-used semiconductor. Pure silicon makes
FIGURE 12: Clean room precautions at a
computer-chip production facility up chips in virtually all electrical devices. Because impurities
affect semiconductors at extremely low concentrations, chip
production must be done in clean rooms with low concentrations
of impurities. Figure 12 shows clean room conditions.
Semiconductor devices have had revolutionary effects on people’s
lives. Computers, which many people use on a daily basis, contain
chips made of semiconductors. Semiconductors have many other
applications, including solar cells, lasers, and LEDs. Modern LED
light bulbs use a fraction of the power of incandescent light bulbs,
which produce much more waste heat and emit much less light.
alliance/Alamy

Language Arts Connection Semiconductors are a good example of the influence

of society on science and engineering. Research the development and application of
semiconductors. Analyze the costs and benefits of semiconductors and explain how this
technology has affected society and the environment. Write a summary of your findings,
drawing evidence from your research to support your analysis.

208 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Polymers: Applications and Properties
Synthetic polymers are everywhere—from storage containers to contact lenses. DNA,
spider silk, and proteins are natural polymers built by living organisms.
Plastic materials are manufactured polymers, mostly consisting of chains or networks of
hydrocarbons that come from fossil fuels. Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain
only carbon and hydrogen. Polymers have different structures, as shown in Figure 13.
Structural patterns at the molecular scale cause polymers to have different properties.

FIGURE 13: Polymer structures linearlinear branched

branched

linear linear branched

branched cross-linked
cross-linked networked
networked
a linear b branched c cross-linked d networked

ANALYZE Match each polymer description with the most likely structure from Figure 13.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a flexible polymer with many subunits as side
cross-linked
cross-linked
chains. networked
networked

Epoxy adhesives are strong and heat resistant. These polymers have so
many connections between chains, an entire sample may be one molecule.

Synthetic rubber is strong and stable. This polymer forms long chains with strong
covalent bonds between the polymer chains.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Martyn F Chillmaid/Science

Nylon is strong with high density and a high melting point. It is made of long polymer
chains stacked closely together.

Thermoplastics are polymer materials that melt when heated. The covalent bonds
within the polymer chains are very strong. There are no covalent bonds between chains.
Instead, they are held together by weak attractive forces. The length of the chains can
be controlled to influence properties, such as toughness. Density and the
FIGURE 14: Thermoplastic
temperature at which it melts determine how easily a thermoplastic material
can be recycled.

EXPLAIN Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

The greater the attractive forces are between molecules in a thermoplastic,
the more flexible | tougher the material will be. Greater intermolecular
forces between chains also means the plastic will melt at a lower | higher
temperature. In Figure 14, the bottle with stronger intermolecular forces
Source;

between its molecules is most likely the intact | melted bottle. The bottle
that would be easier to recycle is most likely the intact | melted bottle.
Recycling increases | reduces pollution and the need for raw materials and
is typically less | more energy efficient than manufacturing new materials
from scratch.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 209

 Petrochemical-based, human-designed plastics did not exist on Earth until the 1920s.
Unfortunately, these plastics do not decompose readily in nature. In recent years,
engineers have designed processes to recycle many types of plastics. Practical problems
still remain, though, and overall plastic recycling rates are not yet optimized.

EVALUATE Some plastic objects, such as drinking straws or plastic bags, are designed to
be used one time and then discarded. Describe the environmental and societal impacts of
a single-use plastic. Should the production of single-use plastics be limited?

Structure and Function

Composite Materials in Prosthetic Limbs

In a composite, different materials are combined to form a new

FIGURE 15: Carbon fiber is a composite
material with unique properties. One component of a composite
material that makes prosthetic limbs
lightweight and durable. typically surrounds and binds the other component. The original
materials and the new material all exist separately in the final
structure. Fiberglass is made of glass fibers and plastic. Glass
is strong but brittle. The plastic holds glass fibers together to
form a light, strong, and flexible fiberglass composite. Other
composites include wood laminates, reinforced concrete, and

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Mark Davidson/Alamy

waterproof clothing.
Composite materials have revolutionized prosthetic limbs.
For example, “blade legs,” such as the one shown in Figure 15,
typically contain carbon fiber. This composite material was
originally developed for use in aerospace technologies, but its
use has expanded quickly due to its desirable properties. The
advantages of using carbon fiber over more traditional materials
include increased flexibility, greater durability and strength, and
reduced weight.

Language Arts Connection Research composite materials used in prosthetic limbs. Write a
blog post explaining the costs and benefits of these materials in terms of affordability, durability,
and environmental impact. Use evidence from your research to analyze how the properties of
these materials at the larger scale are related to their properties at the atomic scale.

Evidence Notebook For the automobile design problem, consider how the identified criteria
and constraints and material limitations affect the choice of materials for each component (dashboard,
frame, on-board computer, and windshield). Decide which criteria should have the highest priority,
and propose two or more materials that could be considered as a solution for each component.

210 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 EXPLORATION 4

Case Study: Shape Memory Alloys

Eyeglass frames must be shaped just right to hold the lenses where they belong. Imagine
wearing glasses with a metal frame and dropping them in gym class—where someone
steps on them and bends the frame. Although you can adjust the shape of the metal to
some degree, it is hard to get the frames back to the original shape.

APPLY What criteria would eyeglass frames need to meet to be able to bend but return
to their original shape?

Shape Memory Alloys

Plasticity is the ability of an object to change shape permanently without breaking when
a force is applied. Elasticity refers to the ability of an object to return to its original shape
when a force is applied and then removed. Many objects have Explore Online
either elasticity or plasticity. Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are FIGURE 16: The metal parts of these glasses are
metal alloys that exhibit both properties. made of a shape memory alloy. They return to
When an SMA object is bent, it can take a new shape. However, their original shape after being bent.
it returns to its original shape when heated. The temperature
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

change causes the alloy to become elastic. The eyeglass frames

shown in Figure 16 are made from an SMA. While stepping on
the frame might permanently bend or break eyeglass frames
made from plastic or a different metal, frames made from an
SMA will return to their original shape.
Shape memory alloys were first produced in the mid‑20th
century. Initial applications were in switches responsible
for opening and closing valves or turning things on or off in
response to applied forces and temperature changes.

ANALYZE Based on the properties discussed, which type of device would be the best use
of a shape memory alloy?
a. a device that can be bent into shape and then remain in position
b. a device that remains in the same shape during all operating conditions
c. a device that immediately returns to its original shape after being bent
d. a device that is easier to put into place in one shape but is used in another shape

SMAs are composed of two or three metal elements. The atoms are held together by
metallic bonds in which valence electrons move freely among positively charged metal
ions. These ions have a crystalline arrangement that can exist in different phases.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 211

 Molecular Structure Leads to Macroscopic Function
The key to shape memory is the arrangement of atoms in the alloy. The austenite phase of an
SMA, shown in Figure 17, occurs above a transition temperature, which varies among SMAs.
In this phase, the atoms are tightly packed, and the metal is hard and rigid.

FIGURE 17: Austenite structure FIGURE 18: Martensite structures

a twinned b detwinned

At lower temperatures, a phase change occurs. The layers in the crystal rearrange and form
the martensite phase, shown in Figure 18. The twinned martensite phase has the same
bulk shape as the austenite material, but the layers are not locked into place. When a force
is applied, the layers shift and the material deforms. The deformed phase is detwinned
martensite. Because the material in this phase is plastic, the object holds the new shape.

APPLY Select the correct terms to complete the statement.

Shape memory alloys exist in different phases, depending on the temperature. A
wire formed of material in the austenite | martensite phase keeps its shape, even
when heated. When the wire is cooled below the transition temperature, it enters the
austenite | martensite phase. Applying a force to the wire at this point can | cannot
change the shape of the wire. When the wire is heated after being deformed, it returns
to the austenite | martensite phase and takes on the original | deformed shape.

Collaborate As a group, discuss patterns in SMAs at the molecular scale that affect their
properties at the macroscopic scale. How do the three phases affect the function of the metal?

Another property of SMAs that can be useful is superelasticity above the transition
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
temperature. When a large force is applied to material in the austenite phase, the stressed
area changes into the martensite phase, and the object bends. When the force is removed,
the object returns to the austenite phase and the original shape. SMA eyeglass frames that
spring back into shape after you step on them take advantage of this property.

MODEL Develop a diagram that shows how an SMA device could expand and contract.
What problems might this function help solve?

212 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Applications of Shape Memory Alloys
After the shape memory effect was discovered, engineers began looking for problems
that SMAs could solve. One issue is that SMAs are more expensive than many other
metals, so the applications of SMAs have to provide benefits that justify their higher price.

EVALUATE Propose a problem that could be solved through the phase change of an
SMA that would provide a benefit that is worth the price of the SMA.

Consider the criteria and constraints for a medical

FIGURE 19: This stent can be collapsed in the martensite
device implanted in the human body. The device
phase and will return to its original shape when warmed
should have long-term stability and provide health by the body.
benefits that outweigh its price. One constraint is
size. In addition, the device must be compatible with
the tissues that it touches. Based on this analysis,
SMAs may be a good choice for biomedical devices.
For example, arterial stents can be made of SMAs,
as shown in Figure 19. A stent is implanted into a
narrow artery to hold it open, restoring blood flow. A
stent with shape memory can be manufactured and
then cooled below the transition temperature to the
martensite phase. In this phase, it is collapsed to a
much thinner shape that is easier to slide into position
in the artery. Once in place, the stent is warmed by the
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©AlexeyKamenskiy/iStock/Getty

body and expands into its original austenite shape.

EXPLAIN Place the steps of making and using a shape memory alloy as a medical stent in
the correct order.

a. Stent is compressed in its c. Stent is formed into its e. Stent undergoes

martensite form. final shape in its austenite transition from detwinned
form. martensite form.
b. Stent is cooled to below
transition temperature. d. Stent is placed into the
patient’s artery.

Applications of shape memory alloys can also be found in space. A common constraint
Images Plus/Getty Images

is size, as room inside a space vehicle is very limited. For space telescopes, the arms that
hold the solar panels can be manufactured with SMAs, cooled, and bent inward to fit
inside the vehicle for launch. Once the telescope is in space and absorbing energy from
the sun, the arms become warm enough to change phase. They expand and straighten to
the original shape, effectively deploying the solar panels.
Other applications take advantage of the unusual properties of SMAs. For example,
because the size and shape of an SMA device can change as temperature changes, it may
be able to expand and contract. That motion could drive a generator to produce electrical
energy. Although it is not yet commercially feasible, engineers have designed a prototype
SMA device that generates electrical energy from waste heat in industrial processes.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 213

 Limitations of Shape Memory Alloys
A major limitation of shape memory alloys is metal fatigue due to repeated cycling
between phases. Imagine what would happen if you bent the end of a paper clip back and
forth repeatedly. The end would eventually break off due to metal fatigue. This is similar
to fatigue in shape memory alloys. When an SMA is fatigued, its ability to change between
phases decreases, and it may break or bend permanently.
Some applications, such as the arms that open solar panels in space, require only one
phase change cycle. In other cases, a device may be required to undergo many phase
changes. Currently, SMAs are not suitable solutions to these problems because they are
limited by how many deformations they can undergo before breaking.
Explore Online
ARGUE The tire in Figure 20 is made of a shape
FIGURE 20: NASA engineers conduct tests on the
memory alloy formed into many chains. Describe how
durability of shape memory alloy tires.
the SMA in the tire will change as the tire is tested.
Would you expect metal fatigue to be an issue in this
situation? Use evidence to support your argument.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©NASA Glenn Research Center
Materials scientists and engineers work to optimize the
function of materials, including shape memory alloys.
Scientists have developed a new alloy formula that is
not limited by fatigue, even after many cycles between
phases. Like most SMAs that have been used in commercial and medical applications, the
new material consists mostly of titanium and nickel, but it also contains some copper and
cobalt as well.
Although the research is not finished, scientists think that the copper atoms form tiny
chunks within the alloy that act like bricks in a wall. The bricks bond with the surrounding
atoms in both phases and function like a guide during transitions. This configuration
helps the atoms jump back into place more reliably, avoiding the possibility of the
bonds breaking and forming in ways that cause instability in the crystal. As scientists and
engineers study this new shape memory alloy, they are looking for ways to produce it as
a bulk material. Possible applications could include heart valve replacements that would
need to open and close thousands of times each day. This application is currently not
feasible due to metal fatigue in shape memory alloys.

Evidence Notebook Each material used to build a car has particular properties that add or
detract from its usefulness for a particular purpose. Cost and availability of materials also vary. For
each component, consider the tradeoffs that must be made when selecting a material type. Then
use a decision matrix to evaluate your proposed materials for each component.

214 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 TAKE IT FURTHER

Careers in Science

Organic Chemist

Could you use your knowledge of intermolecular FIGURE 21: Professor Nowick studies a model of an
forces to help develop a cure for a disease? One person organic molecule.
who is doing just that is James Nowick, a professor
and organic chemist. Organic chemistry is the field
of study that focuses on the chemistry of carbon-
based molecules, especially those in living things. An
organic chemist may study the structure and function
of proteins, carbohydrates, DNA, or lipids. A person in
this field might want to learn how these molecules are
produced in the body, how they interact with other
molecules, or how they affect a person’s health.
Understanding the structure and function of proteins is
an important part of finding cures for diseases such as
Alzheimer’s disease. Professor Nowick studies proteins
involved in Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative
diseases. His research group is developing synthetic
molecules that are similar in structure and function
to these proteins. The purpose of developing these
synthetic proteins is to model interactions between James Nowick has been honored many times for
different parts of molecules. For example, a beta- his teaching, mentorship, and contributions to his
pleated sheet is a zig-zag-shaped structure found in community. He identifies as part of the LGBTQ+
some proteins. When two beta-pleated sheets are near community and has worked with organizations such
each other, hydrogen bonds form between the polar as the Gay and Transgender Chemists and Allies
carbon-oxygen and nitrogen-hydrogen groups on the subdivision of the American Chemical Society. This
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©Daniel Do

two sheets. group works to promote inclusion, advocacy, and

collaboration among LGBTQ+ chemists. Nowick’s
By using synthetic proteins as models, Nowick and his
contributions to science and his community are
team are able to learn more about the forces that hold
numerous. His work will likely continue to drive
these molecules together and how changes in these
important discoveries in this field and inspire others to
interactions might lead to disease. The techniques his
pursue careers in science.
team uses include molecular modeling, spectroscopy,
and x-ray crystallography. These tools allow the team
to understand how the building blocks of proteins Chemistry in Your Community Using
interact and how the team could possibly manipulate multiple sources, research a scientist who works in the
those interactions. The general process Nowick’s team field of organic chemistry or biochemistry. Develop a profile for
uses typically involves making new molecules that this person that explains the topics they study, what questions
they think will interact through hydrogen bonding and they hope to answer through their research, and how they
other intermolecular forces. They can then analyze how collaborate with others in their field. Discuss the real-world
the proteins fold and interact with other molecules and applications of their research, and, if applicable, explain how
how they might operate in the human body. intermolecular forces are related to their area of study.

APPLICATIONS OF EVAPORATION CAREER: BIOMEDICAL Go online to choose one

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND INK SOLVENTS ENGINEER of these other paths.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 215

EVALUATE

Lesson Self-Check

CAN YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM?

FIGURE 22: Materials for car parts are designed and chosen based on the properties of the
material, the function of the part, and defined criteria and constraints.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: ©supergenijalac/Shutterstock

The choice of a material for a specific function depends on the properties of the material
and how well it meets the defined criteria and constraints. Engineers decide what
materials to use for each part of a car by analyzing the role of that part in the operation
of the car and matching materials to the criteria determined for that role. The structural
elements that give strength and bind together the rest of the vehicle have very different
functions from the panels that provide the outer covering. Every material has specific
properties that are based on its structure at the molecular level. Therefore, some materials
are suitable for a particular function, but others are not.

Evidence Notebook What are the best materials to use for manufacturing different
parts of a car? Refer to notes in your Evidence Notebook to propose a solution using a claim,
evidence, and reasoning. Your solution should address the following points:
Claim What is the best material type (ceramic, metal, polymer, or semiconductor) for each
car component: dashboard, frame, on-board computer, and windshield?
Evidence Summarize the evidence you have gathered to support your claim. Include
information about the relationship between the molecular structure and properties of the
material, and the function of each car component.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you cited supports your claim.

216 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 Name Date

CHECKPOINTS

Check Your Understanding 4. Which statements best describe a composite

material? Select all correct answers.
1. Why are metals generally ductile, or able to be a. Composites all contain carbon, which makes
pulled into wires? them lightweight.
a. Metal ions form strong, rigid three- b. A composite may have more desirable
dimensional networks. properties than its components.
b. Ions within the metal structure easily slide c. Composites form hydrogen bonds, which
past one another. makes them stronger than their components.
c. The bonds between metal atoms are very d. A brick made of mud and straw is an example
strong and they stick tightly together. of a composite; a brick made of mud is not.
d. Valence electrons can flow freely through the
material when there is an electric potential. 5. Select the correct terms to complete the statement
about how molecular patterns affect a shape
2. How does the addition of an element that can memory alloy valve.
donate electrons, such as phosphorus, into a A temperature-sensitive valve is manufactured
silicon crystal change the electrical properties of
from a shape memory alloy in its austenite |
the crystal?
a. Conductivity is not affected by an increase in twinned martensite | detwinned martensite
electrons. phase. When the device is cooled, a phase change
b. The donor atoms bond with all free electrons, occurs, and the material’s plasticity decreases |
increasing conductivity. increases | remains stable. After being deformed,
c. The unbonded electrons from the donor the material holds its new shape until it is bent |
atoms are mobile, increasing conductivity. cooled | heated | stressed, which causes another
d. Conductivity is lower at high concentrations phase change. The phase change from the
of the donor atoms than at low deformed state to the original state is an example
concentrations of the donor atoms.
of the conductivity | elasticity | plasticity of shape
3. Select the correct terms to complete the statement memory alloys.
about thermoplastic polymers.
6. Given the constraint of metal fatigue, for which of
The strength of intermolecular forces between
these problems might SMA materials be a suitable
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

polymer chains affects the properties of the solution? Select all correct answers.
material. The greater the intermolecular forces a. wires that hold teeth in place for a long time
between adjacent molecules, the more | less during orthodontic procedures
rigid one would expect the material to be. As the b. automated pistons that move up and down
strength of attractive forces between molecules in an automobile engine
increases, more | less energy is required to melt c. connectors between bones in a replacement
the material. Therefore, it would be easier to knee joint
recycle a plastic with relatively strong | weak d. sensors to open a sprinkler head during a fire
intermolecular forces between its molecules as e. landing gear on a robotic Mars lander
compared to other types of plastics.

Lesson 3 Engineering Materials 217

EVALUATE

CHECKPOINTS (continued)

7. How does defining an engineering problem and identifying criteria and

constraints help engineers determine the types of materials that are likely to be
suitable for use in a device?

8. How do the electrical interactions of attraction and repulsion determine the

properties of a material and how it can be applied to an engineering solution?

9. Describe a material that has had unintended consequences on society or the

environment. What constraints could be considered when evaluating solutions
that use this material?

MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that supports the main ideas from this lesson:
The engineering design process is a way to determine the best material for a solution.
The properties of materials are determined by structure at the molecular level.
Different materials are used based on the required function of the part or product.
Remember to include the following information in your study guide:
• Use examples that model main ideas.
• Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
• Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can include drawings, data, graphs,
laboratory conclusions, and other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how the structure and function of a system or product can be explained by examining how its
components are connected and determining the molecular structure of materials used.

218 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 UNIT CONNECTIONS

Engineering Connection FIGURE 1: Conditions inside an active

volcano crater are not suitable for humans,
Studying Volcanoes Scientists have limited, but ever-growing, so research relies on robots and drones.
knowledge about the conditions inside active volcano craters.
These are places filled with toxic and corrosive gases, extreme
heat, and unpredictable shifts of matter—not easy laboratories
in which to work. Because scientists cannot enter a volcano
themselves, they send in robots to collect data for them. The
challenge for engineers is to design a robot or drone that can
withstand those inhospitable conditions that keep humans out of
volcano craters.

Using a range of sources, prepare a poster presentation describing

the processes used to engineer robots for extreme tasks, such as
collecting data in an active volcano. Pay attention to the properties of the
materials engineers use to build robots for these extreme tasks.

FIGURE 2: An array of different pigments

Social Studies Connection
Pigments Pigments are substances used for coloring. They have
the ability to absorb and emit light at certain wavelengths, giving
them distinct colors. Pigments derived from natural sources, such
as plants or minerals, often have special significance for cultures
where the natural source is located.

Research ways that pigments are used in various cultures around

(c) ©Obencem/iStock/Getty Images; (b) ©Susumu Nishinaga/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credits: (t) ©NASA/Science Source;

the world. Write a report explaining how the pigments are used,
how they are derived, and ways in which their production may have
become more environmentally friendly or safe over time.

FIGURE 3: A false color scanning electron

Life Science Connection micrograph of a neuron (green) grown on
cultured cells (orange).
Cell Chemistry Cells in the nervous system called neurons rely on
the charges of sodium and potassium ions in order to send signals
through the nervous system. When a neuron receives a signal,
sodium ions are quickly pumped into the inner membrane of the
cell while potassium ions are slowly pumped out. This begins a
chain reaction that moves the signal through the neuron.
Eventually, the neuron releases neurotransmitters which then
signal a different neuron to begin the cycle again.

Choose another type of cell to investigate. Research the roles of

ions, molecules, and chemical reactions in the cell. Using multiple
sources as references, develop a comic strip or short animation that shows
how the cell uses chemistry to function. Along with your comic strip or
animation, provide a short description that briefly explains the process.

Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures 219

 A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS

THE WATER IN
OUR BODIES
Blood and other kinds of
watery stuff inside us
Plasma, the liquid part of blood, is made up of water, salts,
and protein. Blood also contains some solids, such as red RANDALL MUNR
OE
XKCD.COM
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. What makes up
the other watery substances our bodies produce?

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

220 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 MOSTLY WATER
People often say that our bodies are mostly water, not to get holes in them—but blood makes up
which is true. By weight, our bodies are about only a small part of a human body’s water. Most of
three parts water to two parts everything else. This the water is locked up in other parts of our body.
water has all kinds of other things added to it. Your Almost all the pieces we’re made of have water in
blood, the wet stuff in your mouth, the stuff that them—even our bones!
comes out of your eyes when you cry, and the stuff Most of our body parts, like all living things, are
in your nose are almost all water; there’s just a little made of very tiny bags. Some of these bags hang
other stuff in there too, and that stuff makes those around in our blood, while others stick together to
kinds of water different from the normal clear water make body parts like our hearts and skin. These
that you drink. bags are full of all kinds of things, but they’re also
Since so much of our bodies are made of water, full of water. If you get a hole in your body, a lot
you might think that if you got a hole in your body, of the water is stuck in those bags—or in small
all your water would run out. It’s true that your spaces in between them—and won’t go anywhere
blood could come out—which is why people try unless all the tiny bags break up.

WHERE IS ALL THE WATERY STUFF?

Here’s what the different kinds of water in your bodies would look
like if you put it in large bottles. (These are the size of bottles that
people bring to parties to fill lots of people’s cups from. They’re
often full of colorful drinks that make young people stay up all night.)

WATER OUTSIDE OUR

WATER IN OUR BLOOD BAGS
BLOOD BAGS This is the water that’s not locked
This is water that’s locked inside the tiny bags that make up
inside the tiny bags in our our bodies. Some of it makes up
body. Some of the bags are the stuff in our blood, stomach, and
free to move around, like eyes, but most of it is found in the
the red ones in our blood, tiny spaces between our bags. It
but a lot of them are stuck helps the moving parts of our body
together in certain shapes move, keeps things from drying
to make up body parts. out, and acts like a road or river
between different bags, carrying
in the stuff they need and carrying
away the stuff they’re done with.

BLOOD
Most people have
enough blood
to fill between
two and three of
these bottles.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

WATER IN THE RED BAGS THE REST OF OUR BLOOD

IN OUR BLOOD This stuff is yellow-colored
These bags are free to move and almost all water. It’s
around in our blood, and are what things in our blood
what gives it that red color. move around in.

Unit 3 Thing Explainer 221

BLOOD
WATER INSIDE OUR BAGS
This is the water that’s inside the red bags in our blood. These bags are red
because they have a lot of metal in them.

A big plastic bottle, the kind

used to fill smaller cups
WATER STUFF THAT STICKS TOGETHER TO
COVER HOLES
If something makes a hole in your body, all
RED STUFF your blood can fall out, which is bad. This
This stuff is full of metal, stuff tries to fill those holes before you lose
and it’s what makes our too much blood.
blood look red. The hole-filling stuff is made of tiny flat circle-
The metal in our blood shaped bags. When they get near a hole,
turns red when we breathe they stick together, making a thick layer that’s
for the same reason metal strong enough to hold in your blood while
things turns red-brown your skin grows back over the hole.
when you leave them
outside for a long time.
BODY GUARDS
Some of the bags in your blood are there
to keep you safe from attacks by tiny living
things. Things that get into your body can
make you sick. To stop them, these guards are
always traveling around your body, looking
for anything that’s not supposed to be there.
When they find something they don’t like, they
have all kinds of ways to mark it, attack it, and
get rid of it.

SMALL-SIZE BOTTLES
These bottles are the
WATER OUTSIDE OF OUR BAGS
largest size that you’re
This is the part of our blood that’s not locked up in the red
allowed to carry on a flight
bags. It’s almost all water, and is kind of yellow in color if you
in the US.
take out all the red stuff.
STRONG STUFF
WATER This is made of lots
of long, thin pieces
shaped like hairs.
When the sticky bags in © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
your blood are coming
STUFF TO PUT ON CHIPS together to stop up a
This part of blood has the hole, these hairs help
same stuff as on chips or in make them strong.
the sea.

METAL CARRIER ROUND STUFF

This stuff carries red This is like the white
metal in the blood. It can stuff, but made of
pick up metal and carry it bigger pieces. It does
into a bag. a lot of things , like
carrying stuff around
WHITE STUFF the body and sticking
This is like the stuff in egg to things that shouldn’t
whites. Lots of things stick be there so your body
to it, and it carries them guards can find and get
around the body. rid of them.

222 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 OTHER WATERY STUFF Go online for more
about Thing Explainer.

SKIN WATER YELLOW WATER

This is the water that comes out of your skin when you get This stuff holds all the watery things
too hot. As your skin dries, the water carries away heat. your body is getting rid of.
This water comes from the clear part of your blood. It’s mostly water. The main other thing
A normal person might make this much of it in a day, but in it—which got its name because it’s
they might make a lot more if they spend time in the heat. found in yellow water—carries stuff out
of the body. It’s full of the kind of stuff
KINDS OF SKIN WATER that makes trees and grass grow.
One kind of skin water keeps you cool.
It comes out of your skin all over your body,
and it doesn’t smell like much. It’s mostly
water, with just a little bit of stuff in it that
makes it like the sea.
Another kind of water only comes out of
certain parts of the body with hair on them,
like under your arms. Your body makes it when
you’re worried or afraid, and it’s thicker and
less watery than the other kind. And after it’s
been there for a while, it starts to smell.

This is about
A drink bottle for how much
one person yellow water a
person makes
in a day.
A tiny glass, the
kind that holds
BRAIN WATER
drinks that you
This is the layer of water that goes around
drink all at once
the brain. It’s very much like the yellow stuff
in your blood, but it’s more clean and clear,
so nothing gets in the brain and hurts it.
MOUTH WATER When you hit your head, this water holds If you have a
The water in your mouth your brain in place and tries to keep it from cold, this is how
helps food slide down running into the bone around it. much of this
your throat. It’s also full of stuff can fit in
stuff that starts breaking your nose.
down food as you eat it. STOMACH WATER
This is the stuff in your stomach.
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

NOSE STUFF
A normal
This is the stuff that comes out of
person’s mouth
your nose sometimes. It’s mostly
makes about
water and is a lot like the stuff that
this much water
lines your throat and stomach.
every day.
It helps keep the layers under
it from drying out and breaking
open, and catches and stops dust
and things that you breathe in.
When you eat
dinner, your THE STUFF INSIDE YOUR EYE
stomach might This is almost completely water,
fill with about this but it’s full of thin hairlike stuff, too
much stomach small to see, which makes it thicker
water to break than water and helps the eye keep
down the food. its shape.

Unit 3 Thing Explainer 223

UNIT PERFORMANCE TASK

Testing Water-Repellent Fabrics

You are working for a company that

FIGURE 4: Water-repellent fabrics resist water but let air flow through.
makes water-repellent materials.
Water-repellent fabrics are often used
in tents, garments such as coats and
shoes, and tarps that protect valuable
materials. Your challenge is to develop
a procedure to test a fabric that repels
water. Not only should the material keep
water out, but it should be breathable,
or allow air to flow through.

1. D E F I N E T H E P R O B L E M
Describe the problem you will address
in this activity. Include criteria and any
constraints that you will consider in your
design. How will you determine how 4. E V A L U A T E D A T A
well your design repels water and how Explain which parts of your testing procedure worked
breathable it is? well and which could be improved. How might the
testing procedure differ if the tests were conducted in
2. C O N D U C T R E S E A R C H a facility with more advanced equipment? How would
you use the results of your tests to suggest further
Research water-repellent fabrics and methods used
improvements to water-repellent fabrics?
for testing them. What is meant by the term water-

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company • Image Credit: ©Volodymyr Plysiuk/istock Getty
repellent, and how is this different from waterproof?
5. C O M M U N I C A T E
How do the adhesive and cohesive properties of water
influence the way water-repellent fabrics are designed? With your team, develop a presentation including
Consider examples of plants that can also repel water the problem you defined, your research on water-
and how these have influenced human-made designs. repellent fabrics, and the results of your tests. Explain
how intermolecular forces are related to the results you
obtained, and suggest areas for further research.
3. C A R R Y O U T A N I N V E S T I G A T I O N
Develop a plan for testing water-repellent fabric.
Consider what materials and technology you will need, CHECK YOUR WORK
how you will safely collect and analyze data, and how
you will properly dispose of waste materials. A complete presentation should include
Explore Online the following information:
Images Plus/Getty Images

Engineering Lab • a clearly defined problem that was addressed

during the course of the investigation
Design Water-Repellent Fabrics Plan an investigation
• a description of water-repellent fabrics and how
to design and test a water-repellent fabric. Develop a
they work
procedure to test how well the fabric repels water, as well as
• an analysis of your test results
its breathability.
• a description of possible improvements that could
be made to the testing procedure

224 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures

 UNIT PRACTICE AND REVIEW

Name Date

SYNTHESIZE THE UNIT DRIVING QUESTIONS

Look back to the Driving Questions from

In your Evidence Notebook, make a concept map, other graphic the opening section of this unit. In your
organizer, or outline using the Study Guides you made for each Evidence Notebook, review and revise
lesson in this unit. Be sure to use evidence to support your claims. your previous answers to those questions.
Use the evidence you gathered and other
When synthesizing individual information, remember to follow these observations you made throughout the
general steps: unit to support your claims.
• Find the central idea of each piece of information.
• Think about the relationships among the central ideas.
• Combine the ideas to come up with a new understanding.

PRACTICE AND REVIEW

1. Which of these compounds would likely conduct 4. Scientists are conducting an experiment to
an electrical current if dissolved in water? Select all determine the melting point of a substance.
correct answers. They find that the melting point is about 90 °C
a. dioxygen, O2 higher than they expected based on the size and
b. magnesium bromide, MgBr2 molecular mass of the compound. What would
explain their results? Select all correct answers.
c. gallium(III) nitrite, Ga(NO2)3
a. Dipole-induced dipole attractions strongly
d. carbon tetrabromide, CBr4
hold the molecules together.
e. dinitrogen tetroxide, N2O4
b. Temporary dipole-induced attractions form in
the solid when it melts.
2. A company wants to develop a plastic that can
c. The substance is strongly polar, so dipole-
be used to hold food while it cooks in an oven.
dipole attractions exist.
Complete the statement comparing different types
of polymers the company could use. d. Hydrogen bonding strongly holds the
molecules together in the solid state.
Linear polymers stack together neatly, whereas
branched polymers do not. Linear polymers are 5. A substance is dissolved in pure water, and both
held together less | more tightly by intermolecular the freezing point and the boiling point of the
liquid change. Which of these statements are true?
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

forces. As a result, linear polymers typically have

Select all correct answers.
melting points that are lower than | higher than |
a. The change in boiling point is directly
the same as branched polymers. Therefore, a
proportional to the molarity of the solution.
linear | branched polymer is best because the b. The freezing point of the pure water is higher
product will be used at high temperatures. than the freezing point of the solution.
c. The change in the freezing point occurs
3. Which of these is a correctly written formula for because the vapor pressure of the solution is
the compound? Select all correct answers. higher than that of the pure water.
a. aluminum bromide, AlBr3 d. The change in vapor pressure causes the
b. strontium iodide, Sr2I boiling point of the solution to be higher than
the boiling point of the pure water.
c. sodium fluoride, NaF
d. barium phosphide, Ba3P2
e. magnesium selenide, Mg2Se

Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures 225

UNIT PRACTICE AND REVIEW

6. A 3.28 L solution is prepared by dissolving 535 g CaCl2 in water. What is the

molarity of the solution? Though more expensive than NaCl, CaCl2 can prevent
water from freezing and melt ice at lower temperatures than standard road salt.
Explain why this happens.

7. Explain how hydrogen bonding is related to the properties of materials, such as

water. Why is hydrogen bonding so important to biochemistry?

8. A water molecule, H2O, has a bent shape. Explain how the valence electrons of the
atoms cause the molecule to have this shape.

© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

UNIT PROJECT

Return to your unit project. Prepare a presentation • How can you model detergent and soap
using your research and materials, and share it structures to help illustrate their functions?
with the class. In your final presentation, evaluate • Why might different detergents be used for
the strength of your hypothesis, data, analysis, and different applications?
conclusions.
• How do intermolecular forces facilitate the
Remember these tips while evaluating: usefulness of detergents?
• What structural features are common to all
detergents, and how do they affect the properties
of detergents?

226 Unit 3 Compounds and Mixtures