IV B.Tech.

Civil Engineering

Ground Improvement Techniques

Lecture 3: Hydraulic Modification of Ground

Dr. N. Darga Kumar

Dept. of Civil Engineering
JNTUH University College of Engineering, Science and Technology Hyderabad
email: [email protected]
Unit. III: Hydraulic Modification
 Objectives and techniques
 Traditional dewatering methods and their choice
 Design of dewatering system
 Electro-osmosis
 Filtration, Drainage and seepage control with
Geosynthetics
 Preloading and vertical drains
 Electro-kinetic dewatering.
Dewatering
In general, dewatering means modification of
ground by redirecting seepages, lowering
the ground water table or in simple sense
reduction of water content in foundation soil.

Two types of dewatering techniques available;

(1) by gravity without application of external
forces,
(2) by forced consolidation.
What Is Dewatering?
 The process of removing water from an excavation
is known as dewatering. In this process, the water is
drained outside by pumping from the location.

 The main purpose of dewatering is to provide a dry

base for the foundation by lowering the ground
water table of a given location.
 The groundwater on site should be controlled to ensure easy and safe
accomplishment of the work on the construction site.

 So, it is necessary to carry out dewatering before the commencement of construction

activities.

 Dewatering is a useful method for dealing with running sand, construction as well as
repairing dams, sewers, basements, buildings, tunnels, etc.
Methods of Dewatering
There are various methods used for controlling the groundwater during an excavation.
Choosing the most suitable method of dewatering for a particular site is a critical step.

The presence of unwanted water on a construction site can lead to complications like an
unsafe work area, an increase in construction cost and delay in scheduled work.

So, it is important to select the right method of dewatering the undesired water on the
construction site.

There are four major methods of dewatering. They are as follows :

1. Open sumps and Ditches

2. Well point system
3. Deep Wellpoint Drainage system
4. Vacuum Dewatering System
5. Dewatering by Electroosmosis method
Purpose Of Dewatering
Dewatering is required for the following purposes
 To provide a dry area and permit construction to proceed efficiently.
 To reduce lateral loads on sheeting and bracing in excavation.
 To reduce the pressure of air in tunneling operation.
 To control the embankment seepage in dams.
 To improve support characteristics of foundation materials.
The objectives of dewatering are as follows:
 To keep working place dry like excavation for dams, building foundations
and tunnels
 To stabilize natural or constructed slopes
 To treat granular soils by reducing their compressibility
 To decrease lateral pressures on retaining walls or foundation
 To improve bearing capacity of foundation soils
 To improve hauling characteristics or workability of the borrow materials
 To reduce liquefaction susceptibility due to upward gradient
 To reduce liquefaction potential due to seismic activity
 To prevent migration of soil particles by groundwater (phenomenon of
piping
 To improve hauling characteristics or workability of the borrow materials
 To reduce liquefaction susceptibility due to upward gradient
 To reduce liquefaction potential due to seismic activity
 To prevent migration of soil particles by groundwater (phenomenon of
piping)
 To reduce surface erosion
 To reduce or prevent change from frost heave
Engineer must be Aware of the Following Points related to Dewatering
 A geotechnical engineer should be aware of benefits derived from reduction of pore
water pressure and respective increase in strength; here consequent improve in slope
stability and increase in bearing capacity are more important.

 An engineer who deals with road construction should have interest on assessing
equilibrium moisture condition within subgrade.

 The techniques required for coarse-grained soils are not same that for fine grained soil.

 Coarse grained soils can be dewatered by the action of gravity which allows drainage into
ditches, slump and wells. In this case pumping is required to discharge accumulated
water.

 Gravity drainage is not suitable for fine grained soils, as drainage is ineffective or very
slow. This type of soil dewatering process means forced consolidation; it includes
preloading or electro-osmosis.
Selection of traditional dewatering techniques as ground water
control depends on grain size distribution of respective soil.
Open sumps and Ditches
The application of sumps and ditches within an excavation is one of the elementary method of
dewatering employed in construction. The water entering these installed units can be pumped
out. The general procedure of dewatering with sumps and ditches is depicted in the figure. The
sump is located below the ground level of the excavation as shown in figure, at one or more
corners or the sides.

The procedure involves the cutting of a small ditch around the bottom of the excavation, that is
falling towards the sump.
Under the action of gravity, the
water from the slopes will flow to
the sumps. The sumps collect the
water and is later pumped out.

This is a simple method used for

dewatering shallow excavations that
have coarse grained soils or the
soils that have permeability that is Figure. Dewatering Method by the Installation
greater than 10-3 cm/sec. of Sumps and Ditches
Suitability of Sumps and Ditches for Dewatering
of Excavations
If the construction demands for lowering the water table
or the ground water head of the area to a depth greater
than 1 feet, the method of sumps and ditches is not
suitable.

If sumps and ditches are employed for greater depth

lowering, seepage will be prominent that will result in the
instability of the excavation slopes. This wrong decision
will also bring effects that are detrimental for the integrity
of the foundation soils of the area.

In order to overcome the problems that arise due to

minor raveling and to support the collection of seepage
water, it is recommended to employ filter blankets or
drains in the sump and ditch system installed.
Advantages of Sumps and Ditches
The advantages of Sumps and Ditches are:
1.The method is widely used. It is appropriate for small depth lowering.
2.This method is found to be most economical one among dewatering systems while
considering the installation and the maintenance procedures
3.This method can be applied for most of the soil and rock conditions.
4.The site is mostly recommended where boulders or massive obstructions are met
within the ground.
5.The greatest depth up to which the water table can be lowered by this method is 8m

Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches

The disadvantages of this method are:
1.In areas where there is high heads or steep slopes, the method is not demanded. This
method will bring collapse of the slopes and cause dangerous problems
2.The use of sumps and ditches in open or timbered excavation will bring risk in the
stability of the base.
Dewatering by Well Point System
A wellpoint system consists essentially of a
series of closely spaced small diameter water
abstraction points connected, via a manifold,
to the suction side of a suitable pump.

The wellpoint technique is the

pumping system most often used for modest
depth excavations, especially for trenching
excavations.

When creating a wellpoint system there are

several factors that will need to be known
before assembling a system.
Factors that will need to be known before assembling a Well Point
System

 Do you have a soil boring test from the excavation site? What soil type are you
excavating, sand, gravel, clay, gray slit, unclean fill, etc.
 Do you have a water source for jetting the wellpoints?
 What is the rate or gallons per minute of water flow entering the excavation?
 What is the distance of the water level below soil surface?
 Where is the water coming from? Below, one side, two sides, three sides.
 What is the length of the excavation?
 What is the depth of the deepest part of the excavation?
 What is the width of the excavation?
 How far away will you pump the water from the excavation site?
Considerations of Well Point System
 A wellpoint is a small diameter water abstraction point (the well screen), sometimes referred to as a
‘strainer,’

 They are installed into the ground at close centers to form a line alongside, or a ring around, an
excavation.

 The perforated wellpoint is typically about 0.7- 1.0 meter in length and of 40-50 mm nominal
diameter.

 Each is secured to the bottom end of an unperforated pipe (the riser pipe) of slightly smaller diameter,
38 mm.

 Often it will be necessary to install wellpoints at closer centers to compensate for the lesser screened
length of each short wellpoint.

 Each wellpoint is connected to a header main (typically of 15cm diameter) that is placed under vacuum
by a wellpoint pump.

 The header main is normally made of high impact plastic. The pipe is typically supplied in 6 meters
lengths and is joined on site by simple couplings.
Wellpoint System Design
Wellpoint systems consist of a series of small-diameter
wellpoints installed at a pre-determined depth (usually 8m
deep or less) on relatively close centers.

Quick to install & can handle a wide range of flows

Wellpoints connect to a common header pipe via a
swing-joint that runs to a vacuum-assisted centrifugal
pump.

The pump serves three basic functions:

Creates vacuum and primes the system
Separates air/water
Pumps water to the discharge point
Wellpoint Installation
Single & Multi-Stage Well Point Systems

Wellpoint systems are limited by suction lift and can

only lower water below grade to a certain point.

Well Point Systems are often installed as a Single-Stage

or Multi-Stage because of these limitations:
 Single Stage Well Point System

When excavations are 6m deep or shallower, one row of wellpoints may be

used to draw the groundwater below subgrade.

Careful consideration should be given to the project altitude as higher

altitudes will mean less available drawdown.
Multistage Well Point System
Wellpoints can be used on much deeper excavations, but multiple stages are
required. If necessary, two or more rows of wellpoints are installed at different
elevations. This is needed when the excavation is deeper than 18ft or when the
altitude would prevent dewatering with a single wellpoint stage.
Advantages of Well Point Systems

Disadvantages of Well Point Systems

Precautions to be taken while Dewatering
Given below are few tips to consider when choosing a discharge area:
 Dewatering should be done under special supervision; if any signs of erosion or instability
are found, stop dewatering instantly.
 The water should not be pumped directly into slopes.
 Wooded buffer should be used in dewatering, if possible.
 Select a proper area for water discharge.
 If possible, the water from the construction site should be discharged and directed to a forest
buffer zone.
 Channels to be used for dewatering must be stable and protected with grass or vegetation.
 Dewatering should be avoided under heavy rain.
 Water contaminated with oil, grease, and chemical products should not be discharged
directly. In such cases, an oil/water separator can be used.
 Investigations of local permits and requirements for dewatering are necessary before
discharging the water to a particular location from the construction site.
 Check and understand the water table condition of the dewatering location because the
underground water may be situated near the surface, so the plan might not work.
Deep-Well Drainage or Deep Well
Dewatering System:
 Deep-well drainage system consists of deep-wells
and submersible or turbine pumps which can be
installed outside the zone of construction
operations and the water table lowered to the
desirable level.

 This system is used for lowering the groundwater

table where the soil formation is pervious with
depth, the excavations extends through or is
underlain by coarse grained soil.

 The installation is done by sinking a deep bore

hole.

 This form of drainage can be used in gravelly to

silty fine sands, as well as water bearing rocks.
Deep-Well Drainage or Deep Well Dewatering
System:
Advantages:
•In case of drawdown there is no
limitation, unlike suction pumping.

•A well has to be constructed to

draw water from several layers
throughout its depth.

Disadvantages:
•The cost of installation is high.

•A very good form of site

investigation is required before the
design of deep-well.
Vacuum Dewatering Systems:

 This system is quite effective in case

of fine grained soil, unlike the gravity
methods such as wellpoints and
deep-well.

 A vacuum is applied to the piping

system for such dewatering.

 This method is most suitable in case

of stratified layer soils.

 In this case wellpoints should be

placed closer than the conventional
system.
Vacuum Dewatering Systems:
Advantages:

 Since vacuum is applied, so less electricity is

required. Hence cost is less.

 Effective for fine grained soil, which cannot

be effectively dewatered by other methods.

Disadvantages:

 The maximum height up to which water can

be lifted is only 3 to 6m.

 The wellpoints if not placed closer, does not

work properly.
Electro Kinetic Method of Dewatering by
Electro-Osmosis:
 In this case dewatering is done by electromotive
forces.
 When an external electromotive force is applied
across a solid liquid interface the movable diffuse
double layer will be displaced tangentially with
respect to fixed layer, this is known as electro-
osmosis.
 The surface of a clay particle, being negatively  Upon application of electromotive force
charged, attracts positive ions. This region of between two electrodes in a soil medium the
attracted positive ions in solution and the positive ions adjacent to the soil particles and
negatively charged surface of the clay is termed the water molecules attached to the ions are
the 'diffuse double layer'. attracted to cathode and repelled by the
 As the surface of fine grained soil causes negative anode.
charge, positive ions (cations) in the solution are
attracted towards soil particles and concentrated  This method of dewatering is used for silts,
near their surface. silty clays and peats.
Electro-Osmosis Method Explained through Sketch
 Electrodes Used in Electro-Osmosis
The electro osmotic flow (Qe) produced by an
applied electric field given by:  The simplest type of anode for
normal applications are old pipes of
Qe=keieA 25 mm or 50 mm diameter which
can easily driven into the soil.
Where, Ke= elecrtro osmotic permeability in
cm/sec.  Can be placed either singly or in
ie = electric gradient, A = C/s area. groups of two or three.

Hydraulic coefficient of permeability and  The anode corrode considerably in

hydraulic flow depend on the size of voids in the course of few weeks of electro
the soil and consequently on the grain size. osmotic treatment.

 They should be replaced as soon as

the current drops to less than 30%
of the consumption.
Electro Kinetic Method of Dewatering by Electro-Osmosis:
Advantages:
•When no other dewatering method can be
used for certain soils, this type of dewatering
technique can be applied.

•There are no limitations for drawdown.

Disadvantages:
•High maintenance and installation cost.
•The control becomes difficult in case of
optimum operation.

Safety Measures:
1. Only person wearing rubber boots should
be allowed at the site
2. While working between anode and
cathode neither electrode nor wiring
should be touched.
3. Precautions should be taken to avoid the
short circuits at the site.
Design Steps for Dewatering Systems

1. Subsoil investigation
2. Source and water table details
3. Distance of well points/wells from source of seepage
4. Effective well Radius
5. Discharge computations
6. Design of filters
7. Design and selection of well screens
8. Well point in deep excavation
9. Selection of pumps and accessories
10.Deep bored wells
11.Control of surface water
DESIGN STEPS FOR DEWATERING SYSTEMS
1. SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION
It is done to know the characteristics of soils adjacent and beneath the excavation

The depth and spacing of boring have to be properly planned

Samples should be taken at frequent intervals so as to identify each soil type,

permeability, characteristics of soil and layers of clay or any other impervious material

The position of water table and substratum pressure should be recorded.

Grain size distribution and permeability are the two important factors determined from
the soil investigation

Permeability determines from field Pumping test(as per IS 9759:1981)

 Various methods are used to determine the permeability

 A rough approximation of permeability may be obtained from table

 A better estimate could be from a comparison of grain size distribution curves of from
Hazen's empirical relationship:

k=C(D10)2
C = Constant varying between 100 and 150 in case of pumping test is not
conducted,
D10 = diameter of particle (cm).

 This equation is valid for uniform sand with uniformity coefficient (Cu) not greater than
2.
2. Source and water table details

 The source of seepage depends on the geological features of the area, near
by streams or other bodies of water, on the degree of perviousness of the
stratum and amount of drawdown.

 Streams close to the well act as line source of seepage depending on the
distance of the well from the effective source of seepage. This distance
commonly known as the radius of influence.

 Empirical equation based on sichordt’s equation is used to estimate the

radius of influence
R= C’(H-hw)k0.5
Where, R= radius of influence
C’= a constant= 0.9( for gravity flow)
H= depth of natural water flow in meters
hw= head at the well in meters
k = coefficient of permeability (10-4 cm/sec)
2. Source and water table details

 The initial elevation of water table is

considered in deciding the elevation at
which the first stage of well points/wells.

 In order to ensure the dry working condition

during construction it is preferable in most
soils to maintain the water table 1 to 2m
below the bottom excavation.
3. Distance of well points/wells from source of seepage
If the actual radius of influence (R) is large compared with the radius of the well (L), only an
approximate estimation of R may be sufficient.

An accurate estimation of ‘distance of well points from the line source (L)’ should be made for
a particular dewatering system, since the discharge is inversely proportional to the value L.
4. Effective well Radius
The effective well radius , rw for a well point/well is decided based on the installation of wells with or
without filter.

If a well point/well is installed without a gravel or sand filter, effective well radius can be taken as one-
half the outside diameter of well screen.

When a gravel or sand filter is used around the well screen the well radius is taken as the one half the
outside diameter of the filter.

If a well screen is installed without a filter in the pervious stratum but a natural filter formed around the
screen due to surging, the effective well radius will exceed one half of the outside diameter of the well
screen.
5. Discharge computations
The discharge Q of the well is then calculated using the formula given below:
where Q = the discharge, k = the permeability, H = the depth of strata, h = the
height of water in the well, r = the radius of well, R = the radius of influence

The following procedure is recommended by Indian Standard (IS: 9759-1981) for the design of
filter:

(i)If H is the head (natural water table) and h0 is the head at the slot, then head reduction =
(H-h0) at a slot required to produce the desired residual head hD should be computed from
equations as presented in Tables:
Table.3.5 Flow to a slot
from a single line
source (IS:9759-1981)
Table.3.6 Flow to a slot from two line sources (IS:9759-1981)

Courtesy: Ground Improvement Techniques by Dr. P. Purushothama Raj

 Table.3.7 Flow to two partially penetrating slots
midway between and parallel to two line sources Note.1: Qw = discharge per well
(IS:9759-1981) Note.2: a = uplift factor
Note.3: hw = head at the well
After the well point spacing and the head hw at the well
point have been computed, the flow Qw per well point
can be computed from the equation given in Table.
The above value of hw should be equal to or greater
than the value of hw computed from;

= ln ( )

The total head loss in a well point connection should

Table.3.8 Head reduction for finite length of slot be estimated afresh: hw = M-V+H+Hw
(IS:9759-1981)
Where, M = distance from base of pervious stratum
V = vacuum at pump intake
He = average head loss in header pipe up to pump
intake.
He = head loss due to screen entrance (He) + friction
loss due to flow through the well screen (Hs) + friction
loss due to flow in the riser pipe (Hr) + velocity head
(Hv).
Fig.3.19: Factor y vs ratio W/D Fig.3.20: Computation of factors k1 and k2
(ii)Assuming h0= hD and that (h0 –hw) is the head difference, well point spacing can be
computed from the following equations.

(a) For artesian case (b) For gravity case

= ln ( ) = ln ( )

Where, L = distance of well points from the line source,

H= depth of natural water flow in meters,
a = spacing of well points,
hw= head at the well in meters
rw = radius of well points.
Fig.3.21: Wellpoint Spacing for uniform clean sands and gravels (IS: 9759-1981)

Courtesy: Ground Improvement Techniques by Purushothama Raj)

Fig.3.22: Wellpoint Spacing for stratified clean sands and gravels (IS: 9759-1981)
Courtesy: Ground Improvement Techniques by Purushothama Raj)
6.Design of filters
The filter requirement for the filter material shall be as under:
Character of filter Ratio R50 Ratio R15
Materials
Where,
D50 of filter material
Uniform grain size 5 to 10 ------ R50 =
D50 of material to be protected
distribution (Cu = 3 to 4)
Well graded to poorly 12 to 58 12 to 40 D15 of filter material
R15 =
D15 of material to be protected
graded (non-uniform)
subrounded grains
Well graded to poorly 9 to 30 6 to 18
graded (non-uniform)
angular particles
7. Design and selection of well screens

 Design of wells and well points must ensure that there will be little resistance to
water flowing through the screen and riser pipe.

 Prevent infiltration of sand during pumping, and resist corrosion by water and
soil.

 Commercially available well points are: brass, stainless steel screens mounted
over galvanized, tin Dipped.

 High capacity type of well points used when large flows are foreseen in the field.

 The mesh or slot size of a screen should be smaller than 80% (D80) or 70% (D70)
size to avoid the infiltration of sand.

 Screens commonly used for deep large diameter wells are slotted steel or wood
or perforated steel pipe wrapped with galvanized.
7. Design and selection of well screens

 Slotted steel or wooden screens are commercially available with various width of
slots
 In order to enhance the efficiency at the same time to prevent infiltration use graded
filter material

As per IS following criteria should be observed in designing and selecting well screen:
 Slot width less than or equal to D70 (filter or aquifer sand)
 Hole diameter or width D80 (filter or aquifer sand)
8.Well point in deep excavation

 If the water table could not be lowered more than 6m or if a

deep excavation has to be made, it is advantageous to use
multistage well point system.

 The lowest header of the multistage system should be

located not more than about 4.5 m above sub grade to
ensure that proper drawdown of the ground water level can
be achieved with the vacuum available in the line.

 Observations should be made at every stage of operation for

discharge and ground water lowering.
9. Selection of pumps and accessories
 Pumps, headers, discharge lines and power unit must be of sufficient capacity to
remove the required flow from the wells or well points.

 The selection of pumps and power unit depends on the various factors such as
required discharge, suction lift plus positive head including hydraulic head losses,
air handling capacity, power available, fuel economy and durability of units.

 A well point pump consisting of a self priming centrifugal pump with attached
vacuum pump is generally adequate and develops 6 to 7.5m of vacuum.

 If the depth of water table lowering is large(>4.5 m) but the rate of pumpage for
each well point is relatively small (less than 10 to 15 gpm), with attached jet-
eductor pump may prove to be advantageous than a multistage wellpoint system.

 Water table up to 30m can be lowered using a jet – eductor wellpoint system.
9. Selection of pumps and accessories
 In selecting the power unit to be used for driving pumps, consideration
should be given to the initial cost of the unit, and the cost of preparations,
including maintenance of fuel.

 The capacity of a pump required for a dewatering system is decided by

horse power as obtained by the formula:

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒑𝒎 ×𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

Horse Power =
𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟎 ×𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆

Where,
Dynamic load = operating vacuum at the pump intake + discharge friction
losses.
10. Deep bored wells
 Design is similar to well point system.

 Well should be sufficiently large to accommodate pump and to keep the head loss
low.

 Deep wells are usually 15 to 45 cm diameter with screens of 6 to 22.5 m length.

 Pumping from wells done by surface pumps with their suction pipes installed in
bored wells.

 Effectively used up to a depth of 7.50

 For adequate submergence of well screen and pump, sufficient depth of pervious
material should be there below the level to which water table is lowered.

 For large diameter pipes (> 150mm) turbine or submersible pumps are used.
11.Control of surface water
 In laying out a dewatering system, proper steps should be taken to control
surface water so as to prevent flooding of pump results in failure of the system.

 Uncontrolled run-off may cause serious erosion of slopes.

 The required measures are: providing dikes, ditches, sumps, pumps, mulching
and seeding to minimize slope erosion.

 The following factors should be considered while designing and selecting

measures to control surface water (IS:9759-1981):
a. duration of construction
b. frequency of rainfall occurrence
c. intensity of rainfall and the resulting run-off
d. size of area to be protected, and
e. available sump storage
Drains
 Drain is a channel or pipe for carrying off water, sewage, etc.
 A complete drain consists of 3 components namely; filter, conduit or collector and
disposal system.

 Filter is essential for continued efficiency of the drain and to prevent seepage erosion
during high hydraulic gradients.

 The water is collected in the drain conduits from the filter and is carried away.

 Commercial pipes have perforations of 8 to 9mm in diameter and require a gravel filter
with a maximum size of 12 to 15mm.

 The permanent and simple disposal system is gravity.

 During wet weather, high water table and difficult topography, gravity system of disposal
cannot function, but pumping system has to be resorted to.
Types of Drains
 Open Drains
 Closed Drains
 Horizontal Drains
 Foundation Drains
 Blanket Drains
 Interceptor Drains
Open Drain:
An open drain is an open channel, mostly found
in urbanized areas and used for the discharge of
rainwater.

Rainwater collected by the channels is often

directed to rivers or other water sources.

The oldest method of draining excavations, roads

etc. is by open drains viz., a ditch or a sump. A
sump is merely a shot ditch which could be
constructed easily with unskilled labour.
Closed Drain:
When seepage erosion or piping is troublesome
or where a permanent drain is required,
perforated pipe can be laid at required depth in
ditches and the ditch is backfilled with a suitable
filter material.

As far as possible pipes should be laid in straight

lines.

Openings should be provided for every 30 to 50m

to flush out the pipe occasionally.

Also man holes should be provided at changes in

direction and at intervals of 100 to 150m along Pipe Drain with Double filter layers
straight sections.
Horizontal Drains
If field situations warrant to avoid open-cut work or non-
availability of adequate submergence, the ground water
can be lowered by means of a Ranny Drainage system.

This system consists of a reinforced concrete shafts or

wells from which a number of horizontal perforated
pipes are fixed.

These pipes may be extended to a required length in any

direction.

Water collected in the well is pumped out by means of a

turbine pump.

The system may not be effective in lowering water in

strtatified soils.
Drainage System After Construction
Foundation Drain System: Blanket Drain System:
Where ground water is present in the Continuous drainage blankets are
vicinity of a structure, provision should be sometimes constructed beneath dams
made to quickly carry away the water from and basement floor slabs to provide a
the building. highly permeable drainage path for
removal of ground water acting
against the bottom of slab.
 Drainage System After Construction
Interceptor Drains
 In a paved highways and
airfield runways trench drains
are provided parallel to the
shoulder.

 Such drains are termed as (a). Interceptor drain for highway constructed in a sidehill
interceptor drains.

 These drains are provided to

lower the ground water table
to a level beneath the
pavement and to permit easy
lateral drainage for water
finding its way into the coarse
base material. (b). Interceptor drain for highway in a flat terrain
Drainage System After Construction
Interceptor Drains

(c). Typical airport runway interceptor drains

(d). Typical open – shoulder ditch for roads

Preloading with Vertical Drains
Preloading is an economical and effective soil
improvement method that can reduce settlement and
increase the bearing capacity of soft soil.

In other words, preloading accelerates settlement of

the soil before the construction of the structure.

Commonly, the combination of preloading and vertical

drains is used to make the method more effective.

Preloading with vertical drains is a successful ground

improvement technique, which involves the loading of
the ground surface to induce most of the ultimate
settlement.

Usually, a surcharge load equal to or greater than the

expected to accelerate consolidation with the aid of
vertical drains.
Preloading Method with Vertical Drains/Wick Drains/PVDs

The function of vertical drains is to

shorten the duration of soil
treatment.

Preloading forces water out of the

soil matrix, facilitating soil
consolidation. Preloading without Vertical Drains and Preloading with
Vertical Drains

Preloading with vertical drains

permits the use of a cheaper shallow
foundation.

The soft soil is characterized by low

strength and high compressibility and Preloading Reduces
hence possesses low bearing the Cost of
capacity. Foundation
 PVD/Wick Drain

Installations of Vertical Drains/PVDs/Wick Drains

Preloading Method with Vertical Drains/Wick Drains/PVDs

 Surcharging is the preloading of soft soil through the application of a temporary load to the ground.

 The stress due to exerted load should be at least equal or greater than the magnitude of expected
design stresses.

 Surcharge increases pore water pressure at the beginning, but the draining of water creates voids
which is compressed by the temporary load.

 The combination of preloading and vertical drains is used to make the method more effective.

 Preloading with vertical drains is suitable for inorganic silts and clays with low to moderate
permeability, decomposed peat, organic layers, dredge spoils, varved cohesive deposit, and clay and
silty sand.

 Consolidation of compressible soil could take up to two years based on the thickness of the soft soil
stratum. However, the placement of vertical drains or artificial drainage paths into soft soil to make
way for water towards the soil matrix substantially cuts down the soil improvement duration.
Preloading Method with Vertical Drains/Wick Drains/PVDs
 Vertical drains reduce the path of water out of the soil matrix. The water flows horizontally into
the vertical drains and then drains it out vertically to the surface.

 Vertical drains make preloading to fit within the construction schedule. Preloading permits the
use of a cheaper shallow foundation rather than a costly deep foundation.

 Temporary load is removed when 90% of expected settlement is achieved, and no pore water
pressure remains in the soil.

 The expected settlement can be estimated based on Asaoka (1978) method. Practically, the
magnitude of the surcharge load and construction schedule control the duration for which the
surcharge load needs to remain in its position.

 Increasing the time of temporary overloading or increasing the size of overloading would reduce
or nearly eliminate the soft soils secondary settlement.

 Vertical drains can be plastic cores encased by a geotextile. It should accept water from the soil
around it and discharge it.
Preloading Method with Vertical Drains/Wick Drains/PVDs
The drain-influence zone depends on the
drain spacing.

For square pattern layout, vertical drain

spacing multiplied by 1.13 would give the
drain-influence zone.

For the triangular pattern layout, the drain

influence zone is equal to spacing time 1.05.

Triangular pattern layout provides a more

uniform consolidation between drain in
comparison with square pattern layout. Layout of Vertical Drains

However, the square pattern layout has

greater ease and control in the field.
Stabilization by Thermal Methods
1. Heating Thermal treatment refers to the modification and/or stabilization of soils by
2. Freezing application of (1) heat (typically by way of combustion of fossil fuels) for
improving properties of clayey soils and (2) artificial ground freezing for the
temporary treatment and stabilization of soils and fractured rock.

 Heating or Freezing of soil can cause changes in the

properties of soil and this process of improvement of soil is
comparatively expensive.
 Thermal stabilization of soil is a ground improvement
technique.
 Heating or cooling shows certain marked changes in the soil
properties.
 Heating and cooling have been extensively used as soil
improvement techniques.
Need of Thermal Stabilization:
Thermal evaluation of heat flow
 Heating or refrigeration system has to be
designed Ultimate strength of three soils with
 Strength and stress-strain-time properties temperature as a function
of the soil have to undergo performance
analysis.
Concept of Thermal Stabilization of Soil
 Like seepage or consolidation analysis of soil, a heat flow analysis can also be carried out.

 The transfer of heat in soil occurs by conduction, convection (free, forced, by thawing) and radiation.

 The most predominant mechanism of transfer is through conduction, which takes place in three
constituents of soil which are soil solids, water (which may be in the form of a liquid, ice or vapor) and pore
air.

 The phenomenon of heat conduction is influenced by soil thermal properties which are its thermal
conductivity, latent heat of fusion, the heat of vaporization of soil water and the heat capacity of the soil.

 The behavior of heat flow in soil is mainly governed by the latent heat of fusion of water on freezing and
heat of vaporization of water on heating above 1000C.

 The latent heat of fusion can be defined as the heat amount that must be added to the unit mass of a
substance to change it from liquid to solid or solid to liquid without any change in the temperature.
Concept of Thermal Stabilization of Soil
Now, the heat of vaporization is defined as the heat required to change the substance from
liquid to vapor.
The latent heat of fusion (L) of Water to ice = 333 x 103 J/kg
Heat of vaporization (V) of Water = 2260 x 103 J/kg
Freezing or thawing latent heat for soil water, Ls

Heat of vaporization of soil water, Vs

Where 'w' is the water content and d is the dry density (kg/m3). The heat
capacities of ice, water as well as soil minerals can be given as follows:
Ci = 2098(J/kg)/K, Cw = 4286 (J/kg)/K and Cm = 710 (J/kg)/K.

The heat capacities of unfrozen (Cu) and frozen soils (Cf) are given as

The thermal conductivity of soils can be determined

by several methods, some of which are Kernsten's
empirical equations, Johansen's method etc.
Thermal Stabilization of Soil from Heating
 It is noted that higher the heat input per mass of the soil (which should be treated), the greater would
be the effect.

 A small increase in temperature will cause a strength increase in fine-grained soils due to the
reduction of electric repulsion between the particles, pore water flow due to variation in thermal
gradient and due to the reduction in moisture content because of increasing evaporation rate.

 Therefore, it is found that it is technically feasible to stabilize fine-grained soils by heating.

The following mentioned statement gives the temperature and the corresponding possible change in
soil properties.
 1000C Cause drying and a significant increase in the strength of clays. This results in decrease in the
compressibility of the soil.
 5000C Cause permanent changes in the structure of clays results in a decrease of plasticity as well as
moisture adsorption capacity.
 10000C Cause fusion of the clay particles into a solid substance like brick.
Thermal Stabilization of Soil from Heating
Heat can able to change an expansive clay into an essentially non-expansive
material.

When liquids or gas fuels are burned in boreholes or an injection of hot air into
0.15m to 0.20m diameter holes, results in the formation of 1.3 to 2.5m diameter
stabilized zones after continuous treatment for 10 days.

Heating, therefore, would cause permanent changes in the soil making the soil
harder as well as durable.

So, heat treatment of soil would cause:

 Decrease Compressibility
 Increase in cohesion  These effects take place at a temperature range
 Increase in Internal friction angle from 300OC to over 10000C. Soil melts at a
 Increase in modulus of elasticity temperature of 1250 to 17500C.

 The melting point of the soil can be reduced by

addition of fluxing agents such as Na2CO3.
Thermal Stabilization of Soil from Heating

The amount of fuel energy that has to be generated

to obtain high temperatures is found to very costly.

Ingles and Metcalf (1973) could propose an

estimation equation in order to estimate the cost of
thermal stabilization by heating as

Where,
w= moisture content in percentage,
T = burning temperature,
Cf = unit heat capacity of the fuel, where 35% is
for open burning and 70% for closed burning and
F= fuel used per unit volume of the soil.
Applications of Thermal Stabilization of Soil

 The usage of heating as a mode for thermal stabilization of soil is mainly

employed in U.S.S.R and eastern Europe.

 It is used in Landslide stabilization

 Improving soil undergoing collapsing

 Mat foundation construction

 Forming vitrified piles in place

 Reduction of lateral stresses acting ton retaining walls

Soil Stabilization by Heating
 Higher the input of heat per mass of
soil, greater will be the stabilization.

 Combustion is most effective if

conducted within the stratum of the soil
to be stabilized.

 Liquid or gas fuels are burned in

boreholes or by injecting hot airs into it.

 Boreholes of diameters 15cm to 20cm

can produce 1.3 to 2.5m diameter of
stabilized zones after continuous
treatment for 10 days.
Soil Stabilization by Heating
Small increase in temperature increases the strength of soil due to:
- Reduction in electric repulsion between particles
- Flow of pore water due to thermal gradient
- Reduction of moisture content due to increased evaporation

 For stabilizing 1m3 of soil 50 to 100 liters of fuel oil is required.

 Used to strengthen loess soils

 It is applicable to unsaturated soil

 Expansive soils becomes non-expansive soil

 This heating method is used when site is located near a large and less
expensive heat source.
Ground Freezing: Use of Expandable Liquid Refrigerants
Ground Freezing is the use of refrigeration to  Liquid nitrogen, Liquid carbon dioxide, Liquid
convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice then acts propane
as a cement or glue, bonding together adjacent  Relatively simple method
particles of soil or blocks of rock to increase their  Freeze pipes are installed 1m centres; sufficiently
combined strength and make them impervious. vented
 Liquid nitrogen is injected and allowed to boil in
The ground freezing considerations are: these pipes
 Thermal analysis  Freezing takes place very rapidly
 Refrigeration system geometry  Frozen zone is irregular
 Thermal properties of soil and rock  Energy consumption is very high.
 Freezing rates, Energy requirements,
coolant/Refrigerant distribution system analysis.
Ground Freezing Applications:
 Temporary underpinning
 Temporary support for an excavation
 Prevention of ground water flow into excavated
area
 Temporary slope stabilization
 Temporary containment of toxic/hazardous
waste contamination.
 Ground Freezing
 Where soil needs to be stabilized so it will not collapse next to excavations,
or to prevent contaminates spilled into soil from being leached away. Ground
freezing has been used for at least one hundred years.

 Frozen soil can be as hard as concrete and it is far stronger and less pervious.

 On reduction of heat initially the strength of soil is reduced

 But when the soil starts freezing below 0oC, the soil strength rapidly
increases with the decrease in temperature.

 Required Bearing capacity of soil is achieved by artificially freezing the soil.

 Once the freezing is initiated the porewater around the refrigerant pipes
begin to freeze and with the continued exposure the ice layer expands until it
comes in contact with the ice spreading out from the adjacent refrigerant
pipes. Thus a continuous wall is formed.

 Pore water may be stationery or moving at a rate of less than 2m/day.

Dewatering Methods - Conclusion:

 The most challenging situation in civil engineering can be tackled with the help of
ground improvement by dewatering.

 The dewatering can either be gravity or a vacuum method to the desired extent.

 Groundwater can create a lot of problems like destabilization of foundation, seepage

into the structure, unequal settlement of the foundation, hence the structure may
collapse.

 So in order to avoid all these problems the dewatering of the groundwater must be
done.

 With the above mentioned techniques, a large amount of water can be withdrawn
and the structure can be saved.
References:
1.Ground Improvement Techniques by Purushothama Raj – Laxmi
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
2.Engineering Principles of Ground Modification – M.R. Hausmann -
McGraw Hill Education.
3.Principles and Practices of Ground Improvement - Jie Han - Wiley
India.
4.Google.com
5.Google Wikipedia.