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intensity e- emitted
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KE
of electrons

"
Thick walled
glass
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Aluminum
Filter

Metal casing

Accelerated electron beam

1. Electrons are emitted by thermionic emission.

2. Tube current depends upon voltage across filament.
3. Electrons are accelerated by the anode voltage across the tube.
4. Kinetic energy of incident electron depends upon anode voltage.
5. The incidence of electrons on the metal target causes number of excitations, followed by de-
excitation with the release of photons. If an incident electron knocks out/emits an electron from
the lower energy level then an electron from the highest level de-excites and releases a photon
of large amount of energy.
6. If an incident electron loses its total energy in causing one excitation/ejection, a photon of
maximum energy is released.
7. Incident electrons lose their energy in variable fractions as they decelerate by different sizes.
8. Large fractions of energy are lost as heat. Therefore target remains at high temperature and
-

hence required to be water-cooled to maintain the temperature/avoid overheating of the target.

9. Incidence give rise to the emission of photons with range of energy, with maximum photon
energy equal to the kinetic energy of incident electron.
10. The target is sharp edged to increase the area for the incidence of electrons.
11. The target is continuously rotated to increase the area of the target.
12. The aperture is covered by metal sheets to filter low energy photons.
13. Filtration minimizes the excess exposure on the patients.
14. Aperture is adjustable. Narrow aperture for parallel beam.
15. Sketch shows variation of intensity of emitted
x-rays against wavelength.
No .

of photons
emitted per unit
When an electron is caused to decelerate it loses time .

its KE in the form of photons. The continuous

spectrum of shows emission of photons in a
continuous range of photon energy as electrons
decelerate by different magnitudes.

Sharp peaks show the emission of photons from

excitation and de-excitation of electrons in large
numbers (discrete electronic transitions) in the atoms if target material.

Sharp cutoff at shortest wavelength shows emissions of highest energy photon which is emitted
when an incident electron loses its total K.E in one collision, causing emissions of one photon.

Principle of diagnosis

1. `Brief shots of x-rays exposed to the part of patients body under investigation.
2. X-
behind the patient.
3. Different absorption capacity of different section therefore different degree of darkening.
4. Good contrast on the film if different sections have different degree of darkening; for good
contrast brief shots of appropriately low intensity are used.
5. Good sharpness if boundaries between sections are clear/ clear edges; for good sharpness beam has
to be straight before and after penetrating through. (anode size, aperture size, collimator)
6. The image produced on the film is 2-D flat shadow picture that does not provide depth
impression.
7. The intensity decreases exponentially with distance when X-rays
penetrate through matter of uniform density.
8. Linear absorption coefficient depends upon ability of absorption
of a section and the beam intensity.
9. The thickness of matter which reduces intensity to its half is called half value thickness.

Linear absorption coefficient:

½ value thickness in a sample of uniform density depends upon

ability of absorption and energy of the beam. A high intensity
beam can penetrate deeper before reducing its intensity to half.
Therefore linear absorption coefficient has greater magnitude for
low energy beam. Low intensity beam is more likely to be
absorbed by matter therefore exposes higher degree of danger.
Principle of Diagnosis

I=Ioéµ
"

* shadow image absorption ability

*
Sharpness F? - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
•
I
>

* contrast →

* 2- D
flat image Limited details
No depth
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impression
*

*
Intensity variation exponential decrease
Absorption coefficient F? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
•
I
>
%=%Z
*
Half value thickness
"

%=°iµ
Variation
*
of µ against X-Ray energy .

* Hardness X Rays
of
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I
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9=4 Mmx ,
I, = I. e- e-
< >< >
2,
Rz
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 Linear absorption attenuation coefficient

nniforrmmlyyddennsesaammpple =
é④② > Thickness
of
matter
p I r Uniformly dense sample
→
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Initial
intensity
a-
intensity
-
µx
I = Ioe

%
¥ = Io

µ ""
Uniformly dense sample e-
g- =

→ •Q >
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Iok
=
µ Ny ,

¥ >
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% ,
=

÷
E -¥ .

1--2/2
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¥
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µ =

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ray
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>
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 A Level Science Applications Support Booklet: Physics

29. Remote Sensing

(a) Candidates should be able to explain in simple terms the need for remote sensing (non-invasive
techniques of diagnosis) in medicine.
Historically, diagnosis consisted of two techniques – observing the patient outwardly for signs of fever,
vomiting, changed breathing rate etc, and observing the patient inwardly by surgery. The first technique
depended greatly on experience but was still blind to detailed internal conditions. The second quite
often led to trauma and sometimes death of the patient. In earlier times there was also the significant
risk of post-operative infection.
Modern diagnostic techniques have concentrated on using externally placed devices to obtain
information from underneath the skin. X-rays have been used for a century. More recently, ultrasound
has been used, especially in cases of pregnancy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is now becoming
a frequently-used technique. Other techniques involve lasers that can shine through a finger or can be
used in a very narrow tube that can be inserted into the body through various orifices.
In all these situations, the aim is to obtain detailed information concerning internal structures. This may
be concerned, for example, with the functioning of an organ or the search for abnormalities. This is
achieved without the need of investigative surgery and is described as a non-invasive technique. Non-
invasive techniques are designed to present a much smaller risk than surgery and are, in general, far
less traumatic for the patient.

(b) Candidates should be able to explain the principles of the production of X-rays by electron
bombardment of a metal target.
X-rays are produced by bombarding metal targets with high-speed electrons. A typical spectrum of the
X-rays produced is shown in Fig. 2.1.

intensity

0
wavelength
Fig. 2.1
The spectrum consists of two components. There is a continuous distribution of wavelengths with a
sharp cut-off at short wavelength and also a series of high-intensity spikes that are characteristic of the
target material.
Whenever a charged particle is accelerated, electromagnetic radiation is emitted. The greater the
acceleration, the shorter is the wavelength of the emitted radiation. This radiation is known as
Bremmstrahlung radiation. When high-speed electrons strike a metal target, large accelerations occur
and the radiation produced is in the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the electrons
have a continuous distribution of accelerations, a continuous distribution of wavelengths of X-rays is
produced. There is a minimum wavelength (a cut-off wavelength) where the whole of the energy of the
electron is converted into the energy of one photon. That is,
kinetic energy of electron = eV = hc / λ,
where e is the charge on the electron that has moved through a potential difference V, h is the Planck
constant, c is the speed of light and λ is the wavelength of the emitted X-ray photon.
13
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2009
 A Level Science Applications Support Booklet: Physics

As well as the continuous distribution of wavelengths, sharp peaks are observed. These peaks
correspond to the emission line spectrum of the atoms of the target. The electrons that bombard the
target excite orbital electrons in the lower energy levels and the subsequent de-excitation of electrons
gives rise to the line spectrum.

(c) Candidates should be able to describe the main features of a modern X-ray tube, including control
of the intensity and hardness of the X-ray beam.
A simplified diagram of a modern form of X-ray tube is shown in Fig. 2.2.

0 – +

cooled
metal

:
anode

heated filament
(cathode)

evacuated
chamber
X-ray window
Fig. 2.2
Electrons are emitted from the heated cathode (thermionic effect). The electrons are accelerated
through a large potential difference (20 kV → 100 kV for diagnosis) before bombarding a metal anode.
The X-rays produced leave the tube via a ‘window’. Since the majority of the energy of the electrons is
transferred to thermal energy in the metal anode, the anode is either water-cooled or is made to spin
rapidly so that the target area is increased. The anode is held at earth potential.
The intensity of the X-ray beam is determined by the rate of arrival of electrons at the metal target, that
is, the tube current. This tube current is controlled by the heater current of the cathode. The greater the
heater current, the hotter the filament and hence the greater the rate of emission of thermo-electrons.
The hardness of the X-ray beam (the penetration of the X-rays) is controlled by the accelerating voltage
between the cathode and the anode. More penetrating X-rays have higher photon energies and thus a
larger accelerating potential is required. Referring to Fig. 2.1, it can be seen that longer wavelength X-
rays (‘softer’ X-rays) are always also produced. Indeed some X-ray photons are of such low energy that
they would not be able to pass through the patient. These ‘soft’ X-rays would contribute to the total
radiation dose without any useful purpose. Consequently, an aluminium filter is frequently fitted across
the window of the X-ray tube to absorb the ‘soft’ X-ray photons.

(d) Candidates should be able to show an understanding of the use of X-rays in imaging internal body
structures, including a simple analysis of the causes of sharpness and contrast in X-ray imaging.
X-ray radiation affects photographic plates in much the same way as visible light. A photographic plate,
once exposed, will appear blackened after development. The degree of blackening is dependent on
the total X-ray exposure.
X-ray photons also cause fluorescence in certain materials. The mechanism is similar to that by which
visible light is produced on the screen of a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
X-ray beams are used to obtain ‘shadow’ pictures of the inside of the body to assist in the diagnosis or
treatment of illness. If a picture is required of bones, this is relatively simple since the absorption by
bone of X-ray photons is considerably greater than the absorption by surrounding muscles and tissues.
X-ray pictures of other parts of the body may be obtained if there is sufficient difference between the
absorption properties of the organ under review and the surrounding tissues.

14
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2009
 A Level Science Applications Support Booklet: Physics

The quality of the shadow picture (the image) produced on the photographic plate depends on its
sharpness and contrast. Sharpness is concerned with the ease with which the edges of structures can
be determined. A sharp image implies that the edges of organs are clearly defined. An image may be
sharp but, unless there is a marked difference in the degree of blackening of the image between one
organ and another (or between different parts of the same organ), the information that can be gained is
limited. An X-ray plate with a wide range of exposures, having areas showing little or no blackening as
well as areas of heavy blackening, is said to have good contrast.
In order to achieve as sharp an image as possible, the X-ray tube is designed to generate a beam of X-
rays with minimum width. Factors in the design of the X-ray apparatus that may affect sharpness include
• the area of the target anode, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3,

partial
partial
anode object shadow anode object
shadow

full full
shadow shadow

partial
partial shadow
shadow
electrons electrons

Fig. 2.3
• the size of the aperture, produced by overlapping metal plates, through which the X-ray beam
passes after leaving the tube (see Fig. 2.4),

Fig. 2.4
• the use of a lead grid in front of the photographic film to absorb scattered X-ray photons, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
"
patient < I -0 m
film

size anode
→
of
→ size window
of
X-ray
beam
→
grating .

Fig. 2.5
In order to improve contrast, a ‘contrast medium’ may be used. For example, the stomach may be
examined by giving the patient a drink containing barium sulphate. Similarly, to outline blood vessels, a
contrast medium that absorbs strongly the X-radiation would be injected into the bloodstream.
The contrast of the image produced on the photographic film is affected by exposure time, X-ray
penetration and scattering of the X-ray beam within the patient’s body. Contrast may be improved by
backing the photographic film with a fluorescent material.
15
© University of Cambridge International Examinations 2009
Ultrasound March 10,2022

Production of Ultrasound

1. Use of piezo-electric / quartz crystal.

2. Opposite faces of the crystal coated with silver to act as good electrodes.

3. Shape change with electrical signal applied. Vibration of crystal with alternating current
signal across it.

4. Vibration frequency equal to that of a.c signal / Use of a.c in ultrasound range.

5. Resonance of crystal if frequency of a.c matches with that of lattice vibration;

ultrasound of high amplitude / high penetrating power are produced.
Silver electrodes
When an a.c signal is applied across a piezo-electric
>

Incident

crystal, it produces a sound wave of frequency equal to

L > Soundwave
Emitted
Sound

that of a.c signal. If frequency of a.c is equal to the wave

frequency of lattice vibration, the crystal resonates,

ultrasound waves of high amplitude are produced. These
ultrasound waves exhibit great penetration ability and
① >
signalgenerator
fora .c of desired
C) > CRO

freq .

therefore used for imaging internal body structures. electrical

n

Piezo-electric crystal can also detect sound waves. When N

signal soundwave

alternating
a sound wave strikes at a piezo-electric crystal, an emf
is generated across its width.

An ultrasound probe consists of piezo-electric crystals to

produce and detect an ultrasound wave.
-
+
< Incident sound Emitted sound
:
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+
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-

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Principle of diagnosis

1. Brief shots of ultrasound (to avoid interference of transmitted and reflected pulse) are

2. Reflections from boundaries between different sections are detected by crystal, processed
and displayed on CRO.

3. Time interval between transmitted and reflected pulses provides information of depth.

4. Strength of reflected pulse/echo indicates the nature of boundaries.

5. A-scan with ultrasound probe placed at one point for depth impressions.

6. B-scan with probe moved, placed at different points, detected, processed/ superimposed
by a computer program to build up an image; many crystals in the probe of B-scan to
have more detail and depth of diagnosis.

7. Exponential decrease of intensity; absorption coefficient, half value thickness

8. Specific Acoustic impedance, Intensity Reflection coefficient.

9. Use of coupling gel to avoid reflection from outer layer of the skin.

Ultrasonic Probe
Allows sound waves

toemitin
one direction

silver

Ifor good electrical

contacts

Produces detects
waves

> Hinders sound waves For electrical insulation

 Linear absorption attenuation coefficient

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→
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= Io ɵ%
µ ""
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=

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2 =p C

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> IT
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÷= ÷i
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 Fat Muscle Bone Scan A :
placed at one point
Probe
,

short pulse sent reflections are ,

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detected , depths are
found positions
,
are

Ultrasound detected .

probe

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Transmitted pulse
>
Reflected from Fat Muscle boundary -

Reflected from Muscle Bone boundary

> -

s=vt

s = vt
,

Scan B Probe is placed at different

?
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viewed
points ,
short pulses are sent,
reflections
are detected and reading are stored by a

< >
computer program ,
the
computer program

processes the readings to build up an

image .

Zz -2,

⑤ =④
=

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( Speed of sound I→
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impedance 2
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enhances detail/depth
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ax
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>
I = 0.389 I
,
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=/
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,

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, NX
13 = I e-
,
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I = 0.389 Iz
,

I = 0.389 I
3 ,

Is = 0.389 Iz
Iz 0.389 0.389×0.331 I
= Iz =
,

= 0.389×0.331 I = 0.389×0.331×0.389 I
,

= 0.389×0.331×0.389 I
?⃝
 1

C T Scanning March 17, 2022

Computed tomography (CT) scanning, also known as computerized axial tomography (CAT)
scanning, is a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses X-rays in order to present cross-sectional
images ("slices") of the body. Cross sections are reconstructed from the measurements of
attenuation coefficients of X-ray beams in the volume of the object studied. CT is based on the
fundamental principle that the density of the tissue passed by the X-ray beam can be measured
from the calculation of the attenuation coefficient.

In CT scanning, an X-ray tube and its solid state detector are rotated with the object
being scanned at centre of rotation. The flat x-ray beam is emitted which passes through
a layer/slice of the object being scanned.
Number of brief exposures are repeated from different angles through one particular
plane, the results are stored and then superimposed / processed by a computer program
to build up a two dimensional image of the slice.
The plane of rotation is changed and the steps are repeated for the image of another
slice.
The results of different slices are then superimposed to build up an image with details of
three dimensions.
The image produced on the screen is two dimensional but it can be rotated for the
details of 3D.

Comparing CT scanning with X-ray imaging

Much larger exposures of radiation / larger radiation dose

More expensive
More time consuming
Greater depth and details of diagnosis
Involves more electronics
3D images compared to flat images
 2

1. Outline the principle of CT scanning

X-ray images taken from different angles / X-rays directed from different angles
of one section / slice
all images in the same plane
images combined to give image of section / slice
images of successive sections / slices combined
image formed using a computer
image formed is 3D image
that can be rotated / viewed from different angles

2. Outline briefly the principle of CT scanning

series of X-ray images (for one section/slice)
taken from different angles
to give image of the section/slice
repeated for many slices
to build up three-dimensional image (of whole object)

3. An X-ray image is taken of the skull of a patient. Another patient has a CT scan of his
head. By reference to the formation of the image in each case, suggest why the exposure
to radiation differs between the two imaging techniques.
X-ray image involves a single exposure
CT scan: exposure of a slice from many different angles
repeated for different slices
CT scan involves a (much) greater exposure

4. Explain why the radiation dose received by a patient is different for a CT scan from that
for a simple X-ray image.
CT scan consists of (many) X-ray images of a slice
and there are many slices
X-ray image is a single exposure
(so much) greater exposure with CT scan

5. Distinguish between an X-ray image of a body structure and a CT scan.

X-ray: flat / shadow / 2D image
regardless of depth of object / depth not indicated
CT scan: built up from (many) images at different angles
image is three-dimensional
image can be rotated / viewed at different angles
 3

6. Distinguish between the images produced by CT scanning and X-ray imaging.

CT image: (thin) slice (through structure)

any further detail e.g. built up from -D image
X- -D image

7. By reference to the principles of CT scanning, suggest why CT scanning could not be

developed before powerful computers were available.

X-ray image of slice taken from many different angles

these images are combined (and processed)
repeated for many different slices
to build up a 3-D image
3-D image can be rotated
computer required to store and process huge quantity of data

8. Describe how the image produced during CT scanning differs from that produced by X-ray
imaging.
X-ray image is flat OR 2-dimensional
CT scan takes many images of a slice at different angles
these build up an image of a slice through the body
series of images of slices is made
so that 3D image can be built up
image can then be rotated
 vv C T scan
%
computed Tomo
graphical scanning
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voxel

voxel

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graphical scan .

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4
 PET Scanning Positron Emission Tomography
Annihilation
of matter
when a particle and
matter its antiparticle (e.g. quark
and it's antiquark ) meet at a point they completely
,

into effect is called annihilation

decay energy .
The
of matter .

e-
Photon
e+
During this decay two 8) ray photons of same
gamma > - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
← +

ñ¥¥ Photon
opposite directions; Momentum and V V
energy are released in

f.
remain conserved
energy .

r
④ =

constant 3×18
Energy of t > a

photons Total mass

decaying particle E = Am c-

If an electron meets with it's anti -

particle positron 2 E = Am i
,
Total of
particles completely annihilate
mass
the two with emission >

of positron and
two V -

ray photons exactly in opposite

direction .
④ ⑨④ =
electron .

The pair annihilation

of electron e- and positron É is Energy 07
the
> 9×18
one
of
used in PET scanning . emitted photons

E = Am CZ "

E =
2×9.11×1 -031×(3×108)
2 E = Am I 2

"
>
E =
hf
8.2×10-1
20
A medical tracer is a radioisotope combined J
1.2×10 Hz
f
=
=

with an element which is absorbed by tissues

of a section of a
patient's body being scanned .

= 0-51 MeV

The radioisotopes are

placed inside the body and
radiation are detected externally ; the detections are

used to build -

up an
image by special purpose comp
-

B B
'

uter program .

A
I >
A- 1
Y + pi +
ve +
Energy
the radioactive medicine radioisotopes used
for imaging
must have
very
short
half life but high activity .
Beta -

plus decay

A medical tracer that emits a

positron p+ ) is

injected through line It takes some time to

IV .

the blood stream and absorbed by

spread in
specific
location .
When tracer decays by positron emission with neutrino
These emitted positrons
interact
and gamma
section being
ray photon
with electrons in the
of
.

tissue scanned

and annihilate .

The annihilation causes emission

of gamma ray photons
in opposite direction ; Gamma ray detectors placed around
patient 's body pick up photons and analyse their time of
arrival .
The readings are stored and processed to by a
computer program to find location of annihilation The readings .

also used to build image through time arrival

are
up an
of
-

and speed of photons .

tracer radioisotope ; its

Florine -18 is a
famous medical ,
a

half life is
approx .
2 hrs .

18

9
F >
% If + + if + r-

photon

It mixes
up with
blood as
sugar crystals
and
decays by B+ .
 Pair production ^

In production method photon

ÑÉÑ"
E pair ,
a

☐ Electromagnetic of energy particular

above a value converts
energy ( photon )
photon e- 0
converts into
into two matter particles of equal mass
E=hf two matter and opposite charge travelling in opposite
particles direction ; law of conservation of momentum
'
E = Am c is
applicable .

hf = 2 mech

'
Pair annihilation u J E = me

§
2⑤=④mc
-
'
E Amc
=

2-
.
1
.

Energy of Total mass electron

one Photon and positron which
e- ☐E et
> - - -- - - - -
← + decayed .

E-
- - - - -

v v
"

E =
2×9.11×1 -031×(3×108)
2
E =
hf
=8.2✗|o
>
zo

f = 1.2×1011-2

= 0-51 MeV

In pair annihilation ,
an electron interacted
with it 's anti -

particle ,
a
positron .
The two

B B
'
particles completely decayed and two photons
emitted in opposite
pi Je energy value are
, Y Energy
A
>
Atl
+ + +
of same

direction ; law conservation of momentum is

of
emitted
B B
'
applicable .
the photons are gamma

A
1 >
A- I
Y + pi +
ve +
Energy radiations .

" "
- i
,
-
-p
,

'
-
. . .