UNIT 1: PHONOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, focusing on their description and
classification based on how they are produced by vocal organs (articulatory
phonetics), how they are perceived by the ear (auditory phonetics), and how
they are transmitted in the air (acoustic phonetics).
Phonology is concerned with how a particular language organizes its sounds
into distinctive units called phonemes. It also examines how phonemes combine
into syllables and how the prosodic features of length, stress, and pitch are
organized into patterns.
1.2 THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH
Speech involves a complicated series of operations, beginning with the speaker's
brain.
The nerves communicate linguistic forms to the speech organs.
The movements of these organs create disturbances in the air, which are received
by the listener's ears.
The nerves carry the sensation to the brain, where the sounds are perceived and
their meaning is interpreted.
The air-stream coming out of the mouth provides the energy for the production
of speech.
Organs of Speech:
Windpipe (trachea): Carries air from the lungs to the larynx.
Larynx: At the top of the trachea, contains the vocal cords.
Vocal Cords: Brought together to close the air passage. They vibrate when air
from the lungs passes between them, producing voice. When air is first held up
and then suddenly released by separating the vocal cords, it's a cough.
Glottis: The opening between the vocal cords.
Vibration of vocal cords: Produces a musical note called voice. Sounds can be
either voiced (vocal cords held together and vibrating, e.g., /s/ and /z/ in
szzzzzzsss) or voiceless (vocal cords far apart and not vibrating).
Mouth cavity: Its shape changes depending on the position of the tongue and
lips. The roof of the mouth is divided into three parts:
Teeth ridge: Just behind the upper teeth.
Hard palate: The bony part of the roof of the mouth.
Soft palate (velum): The fleshy part at the back of the roof of the mouth.
Oral sounds: Produced when the soft palate is normally raised, blocking the air
passage through the nose, so air comes out through the mouth.
Nasal consonants: Produced when the soft palate is lowered so air comes out
through the nose.
Lips: Can assume various positions from being rounded to neutral to unrounded.
Tongue: Has three sections – the tip, the blade, and the back. The tip is the part
opposite the teeth ridge, the blade is opposite the hard palate, and the back is
opposite the soft palate. The base of the tongue is called the root. Various parts
of the tongue can be raised towards the roof of the mouth to produce different
sounds.
1.3 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
1.3.1 Vowels and Consonants
Speech sounds are divided into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.
Vowels: Produced when a vowel sound is made, the air from the lungs comes out
freely through the mouth, and the vocal cords vibrate to produce voice. There is
no closure of the air passage and no narrowing that would cause audible friction.
Consonants: All other sounds are consonants.
1.3.2 Description of Vowels
The quality of a vowel depends on the shape of the mouth cavity, which is determined
by the positions of the tongue, the lips, and the lower jaw. * Tongue Position (Front,
Back, Central): * Front vowels: Tongue raised towards the front (e.g., English words
sheep, ship, bed, bad). * Back vowels: Tongue raised towards the back (e.g., English
words calm, pot, caught, put, boot). * Central vowels: Tongue raised in the central
position (e.g., English words cut, bird, father). * Height of Tongue (Close, Open, Half-
close, Half-open): * Close vowels: Tongue is raised as close as possible to the roof of
the mouth (e.g., English words sheep and boot). * Open vowels: Tongue is lowered as
open as possible (e.g., English words calm and pot). * Intermediate categories: Half-
close and half-open. * Lips: Lips can assume various positions for different vowels
(e.g., rounded or unrounded).
1.3.3 Description of Consonants
When describing a consonant, we indicate: * Whether the sound is voiced or voiceless.
* Voiced: /b, d, g, v, z, m, l, r/. * Voiceless: /p, t, k, f, s, h/. * Whether the soft palate is
raised or lowered: * Air-stream passes through the mouth only (for oral sounds like
/p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, s, z/). * Air-stream passes through the nose only (for nasal sounds
like /m, n/). * The place of articulation (where in the mouth the closure or narrowing
takes place). * The manner of articulation (the degree or kind of closure or narrowing
that is assumed in producing the sound).
1.4 PLACE OF ARTICULATION
Consonants are classified according to the place of articulation as follows: * Bilabial:
Closure or narrowing is between the two lips (e.g., /p, b, m/). * Labio-dental:
Narrowing is between the lower lip and the upper teeth (e.g., /f, v/). * Dental: Closure
or narrowing is between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth (e.g., English
sounds /θ, ð/ at the beginning of thing, the, then). * Alveolar: Closure or narrowing is
between the blade of the tongue and the teeth-ridge (e.g., /t, d, s, z, n, l/). * Palato-
alveolar: Closure or narrowing is between the blade of the tongue and the teeth-
ridge, with the front of the tongue also raised towards the hard palate (e.g., /tʃ, dʒ,
ʃ/ at the beginning of the English words cheer, jump, short). * Velar: Closure or
narrowing is between the back of the tongue and the soft palate (e.g., /k, g/). *
Glottal: Narrowing is between the vocal cords (e.g., /h/).
1.5 MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Consonants are classified according to the manner of articulation as follows: * Plosive:
Complete closure of the air passage, air held up and then released with an explosion
(e.g., /p, b, t, d, k, g/). * Affricate: Complete closure of the air-passage, then the air is
released slowly with friction (e.g., /tʃ, dʒ/ at the beginning of the English words cheer
and jump). * Nasal: Complete closure of the air-passage in the mouth, but the soft
palate is lowered to let the air come out through the nose (e.g., /m, n, ŋ/). * Lateral:
Closure in the middle but the air is free to come out along the sides (e.g., /l/). *
Fricative: Narrow passage for the air to pass through, creating audible friction (e.g., /f,
v, s, z, h/). * Approximant: Less narrow opening between articulators, so that the
sounds can pass relatively freely without any friction (e.g., /w, j/).
1.6 BROADER CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS
Speech sounds are also classified across the vowel-consonant distinction based on
phonetic properties. * Obstruent: Involves a narrowing or closing of the air passage in
the oral cavity, where air pressure before the closure is involved in the production of
sounds (e.g., plosive, fricative and affricate sounds). * Sonorant: Produced with
opener transitions or with closure in one cavity but free release through another
cavity, without air pressure being involved. Vowels, nasals, laterals, and approximants
are sonorant sounds.
UNIT 2: PRONUNCIATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Every language has a number of distinctive sound units called phonemes.
The smallest units in a language that can bring about a difference in meaning are
phonemes.
Example: A list of seven distinctive consonant phonemes: /p, t, d, h, m, r, w/.
One or more phonemes form a syllable. Every syllable has a nucleus, usually a
vowel or a syllabic consonant.
Length, stress, and pitch are prosodic features. The mark /' / indicates that the
following syllable is stressed.
2.2 THE ENGLISH VOWELS
In English-speaking world, Received Pronunciation (R.P.) is the standard in
England.
The sound /r/ does not occur in the pronunciation of the following words in R.P.:
arm, born, force, serve, modern.
Different varieties of spoken English exist (e.g., American and Indian English).
Example: In R.P., Shot and short are distinguished by two different vowel sounds.
The /r/ in short does not occur in R.P..
2.3 VOWELS IN BRITISH RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION
English (British R.P.) operates on a system of 20 distinctive vowel units or
phonemes.
These can be divided into two broad categories:
Pure vowels or monophthongs: Vowel units that do not change in quality
even when they are made long.
Diphthongs: Vowels in the production of which there is a glide from one
quality to another within the same syllable.
There are 20 vowel phonemes. Diphthongs consist of two letters, indicating a
glide in vowel quality. R.P. vowel phonemes vary from one book to another.
2.4.1 Closing Diphthongs
There are 8 distinct diphthongs in British R.P.. The first five are called closing
diphthongs because the glide is towards a closer vowel. The last three are called
centering diphthongs, because the glide in them is towards a central vowel. * /ei/ as in
play: * Word initial: aim /eım/, eight /eıt/. * Word medial: played /pleıd/, plate /pleıt/. *
Word final: say /seı/. * Other examples: bell /bel/, bail /beıl/, cell, sell /sel/, sale /seıl/,
debt /det/, date /deıt/, fell /fel/, fail /feıl/, men /men/, main /meın/. * /əʊ/ as in go: *
Word initial: oats /əʊts/, own /əʊn/. * Word medial: boat /bəʊt/, foam /fəʊm/. * Word
final: go /gəʊ/. * /aɪ/ as in bite: * Word initial: ice /aıs/, eyes /aız/. * Word medial: bite
/baıt/, side /saıd/. * Word final: buy /baı/, cry /kraı/. * /aʊ/ as in cow: * Word initial: owl
/aʊl/, out /aʊt/. * Word medial: crowd /kraʊd/, noun /naʊn/. * Word final: cow /kaʊ/,
now /naʊ/. * /ɔɪ/ as in boy: * Word initial: oil /ɔɪl/, ointment /ɔɪntment/. * Word
medial: boil /bɔɪ/, soil /sɔɪl/. * Word final: boy /bɔɪ/, joy /dʒɔɪ/.
2.4.2 Centering Diphthongs
/ıə/ as in here:
Word initial: ear /ıə/, eerie /ıərı/.
Word medial: fierce /fıəs/, merely /mıəlı/.
Word final: dear/deer /dıə/, near /nıə/.
/eə/ as in hair:
Word initial: aerial /eərıəl/, air /eə/.
Word medial: careful /keəfl/, daring /deərıŋ/.
Word final: care /keə/, dare /deə/.
/ʊə/ as in poor:
Word medial: during /dʒʊərıŋ/, tourist /tʊərıst/.
Word final: poor /pʊə/, tour /tʊə/.
2.5 THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS
R.P. has a system of 24 consonant phonemes: * /p/ as in pen * /b/ as in back * /t/ as in
tea * /d/ as in day * /k/ as in key * /g/ as in gate * /tʃ/ as in chair * /dʒ/ as in jump * /f/ as
in fat * /v/ as in van * /θ/ as in think * /ð/ as in there * /s/ as in sit * /z/ as in zero * /ʃ/ as
in ship * /ʒ/ as in measure * /h/ as in hot * /m/ as in map * /n/ as in neat * /ŋ/ as in sing
* /l/ as in let * /r/ as in red * /j/ as in yes * /w/ as in wet
UNIT 3: MORPHOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words.
Words are the most fundamental units of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Understanding and analyzing words involves knowing about various properties
that words have.
Example: read and reader are structurally related, but reader means
'someone who reads', making it distinct from read.
3.2 PHONETIC/PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION
This refers to how a word is pronounced.
Example: The phonetic symbols /bet/ give the pronunciation of the word
bet.
3.3 MORPHOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Every word has an internal structure.
Example: reads is made of read and -s. invitation is made of invite and -
ation.
3.8 IDENTIFYING THE PARTS OF A WORD
The Criteria
Words like whenever, helps, younger, etc. have two parts.
Words like ungentlemanliness have five parts.
Criterion 1: If a word is made up of two or more parts that also occur
independently as words, then the word can be divided into those parts.
Example: homework can be divided into home and work, both independent
words.
However, words like helps, younger, and brothers are not made up of two
independently occurring words.
In helps, younger, brothers:
i) If a word is wholly made up of two or smaller words, each smaller
word constitutes a part (i.e., a structural element) of the word.
Example: whenever (when+ever), home (home), work (work),
homework (home+work).
ii) A word can be divided into two or more parts if the parts are such
that they also occur in other words. Example: young and -er in
younger (occurs in older, taller, sweeter, longer), and -s in helps
(occurs in works, sleeps, hits, kicks).
iii) A portion of a word can be recognized as constituting a part (or a
structural element) of the word if it carries a clearly recognizable
element of meaning. Example: brother and -s in brothers (plural),
young and -er in younger (comparative).
iv) A portion of a word can also be recognized as constituting a part of
the word if it performs a particular grammatical function. Example: -s
in helps (indicating ing-working).
3.9 MORPHEMES
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful element of a language or the smallest
unit which is grammatically significant. A morpheme has no parts.
Free Morphemes: Can occur by themselves as words.
Examples: when, and, ever, brother, helps, in, younger, brothers (from
previously discussed examples), time, brother, table.
Bound Morphemes: Cannot occur by themselves as words. These are often
called affixes.
Examples: -s in helps (from previous examples).
Simple word: Made up of a single free morpheme.
Examples: time, brother, table.
Compound word: Made up of two or more free morphemes.
Example: homework.
Complex word: Made up of one free morpheme and one or more bound
morphemes.
Example: ungentlemanliness (from previous examples).
Analyzed complex words:
disallow: dis- (bound morpheme), allow (free morpheme).
desirable: desir(e)- (free morpheme), -able (bound morpheme).
kindness: kind- (free morpheme), -ness (bound morpheme).
UNIT 4: PREFIXATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Prefixes are added to the beginning of words and affect their meaning.
Examples: incomplete (in- + complete), disconnect (dis- + connect),
maltreated (mal- + treated), bilingual (bi- + lingual).
Prefixes convey the effect of negating the meaning of the word.
4.2 PREFIXES: NEGATIVE, REVERSATIVE, PEJORATIVE,
NUMBER, DEGREE, TIME, LOCATION AND ATTITUDE.
4.2.1 Negative prefixes
un-:
Typically occurs with adjectives and verb forms.
Examples: unkind, unending, unexpected.
Used with adjectives to express opposite meanings.
Examples: good (un-good), strong (un-strong), tall (un-tall).
Can carry a 'bad' or 'pejorative' meaning.
Examples: naughty, wicked, cruel.
Sometimes combines two 'bad' senses to result in a 'good' sense.
il-: Occurs before stems beginning with l.
Examples: illegal, illegible.
ir-: Occurs before stems beginning with r.
Examples: irregular, irreligious.
im-: Occurs before stems beginning with p, b, m.
Examples: impossible, imbalance, immovable.
in-: Occurs with all other stems.
Examples: incomplete, invisible, informal.
4.2.2 Reversative prefixes
de-: 'Reverses the action of the verb'.
Examples: de-activate, de-compose, de-frost.
dis-: 'Reverses the action of the verb'.
Examples: dis-connect, dis-agree, dis-appear.
un-: 'Reverses the action of the verb'.
Examples: un-do, un-pack, un-tie.
4.2.3 Pejorative prefixes
mal-: 'Badly, wrongly'.
Examples: mal-function, mal-nutrition, mal-practice.
mis-: 'Wrongly, incorrectly'.
Examples: mis-understand, mis-interpret, mis-lead.
pseudo-: 'False, imitation'.
Examples: pseudo-science, pseudo-intellectual.
4.2.4 Prefixes of number
mono-: 'One'.
Examples: mono-tone, mono-logue.
bi-: 'Two'.
Examples: bi-lingual, bi-cycle.
tri-: 'Three'.
Examples: tri-angle, tri-pod.
multi-: 'Many'.
Examples: multi-cultural, multi-purpose.
4.2.5 Prefixes of degree or size
arch-: 'Chief, principal'.
Examples: arch-enemy, arch-bishop.
super-: 'Above, beyond, great'.
Examples: super-human, super-market.
sub-: 'Under, below'.
Examples: sub-marine, sub-way.
over-: 'Too much'.
Examples: over-cook, over-sleep.
under-: 'Too little'.
Examples: under-estimate, under-nourished.
4.2.6 Prefixes of time and order
pre-: 'Before'.
Examples: pre-view, pre-paid.
post-: 'After'.
Examples: post-pone, post-script.
ex-: 'Former'.
Examples: ex-president, ex-wife.
re-: 'Again'.
Examples: re-write, re-do.
4.2.7 Prefixes of location
inter-: 'Between'.
Examples: inter-national, inter-act.
trans-: 'Across'.
Examples: trans-port, trans-atlantic.
sub-: 'Under'.
Examples: sub-way, sub-terranean.
4.2.8 Prefixes of attitude
pro-: 'In favor of'.
Examples: pro-government, pro-democracy.
anti-: 'Against'.
Examples: anti-social, anti-war.
auto-: 'Self'.
Examples: auto-biography, auto-pilot.
UNIT 5: SUFFIXATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Suffixes are added to the end of words and often change their grammatical
function or part of speech.
Examples: kind (adjective) -> kindness (noun), read (verb) -> reader (noun).
5.2 NOUN SUFFIXES: Suffixes Forming Nouns
5.2.1 Denominal Noun Suffixes: forming nouns from nouns
-age: 'Collection, aggregate'.
Examples: bondage, mileage, package.
-dom: 'State, condition, domain'.
Examples: freedom, kingdom, stardom.
-er: 'Person connected with'.
Examples: foreigner, southerner.
-ess: 'Female'.
Examples: actress, lioness.
-hood: 'State, condition, period'.
Examples: childhood, brotherhood.
-ian: 'Person from, belonging to'.
Examples: librarian, historian.
-ism: 'Doctrine, belief'.
Examples: socialism, capitalism.
-ist: 'Person who practices'.
Examples: artist, scientist.
-ite: 'Follower, inhabitant'.
Examples: Israelite, socialite.
-ship: 'State, condition, skill'.
Examples: friendship, leadership.
-ry: 'Collection, place'.
Examples: gentry, peasantry.
5.2.2 Deadjectival Noun Suffixes: forming nouns from adjectives
-ce: 'State, quality'.
Examples: innocence, importance.
-cy: 'State, quality'.
Examples: accuracy, normalcy.
-dom: 'State, condition'.
Examples: wisdom, freedom.
-hood: 'State, condition'.
Examples: falsehood, likelihood.
-ity: 'State, quality'.
Examples: ability, sanity.
-ness: 'State, quality'.
Examples: kindness, happiness.
-th: 'State, quality'.
Examples: strength, warmth.
5.2.3 Deverbal Noun Suffixes: forming nouns from verbs
-age: 'Action, result'.
Examples: breakage, drainage.
-al: 'Action, process'.
Examples: arrival, refusal.
-ance/-ence: 'Action, state'.
Examples: performance, dependence.
-ant/-ent: 'Agent, performer'.
Examples: assistant, student.
-ation: 'Action, process'.
Examples: creation, examination.
-ee: 'Recipient of action'.
Examples: employee, trainee.
-er/-or: 'Agent, instrument'.
Examples: teacher, actor.
-ing: 'Action, result'.
Examples: building, feeling.
-ion: 'Action, state'.
Examples: action, opinion.
-ment: 'Action, result'.
Examples: agreement, development.
-ure: 'Action, result'.
Examples: exposure, pressure.
5.3 ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES: Suffixes Forming Adjectives
5.3.1 Denominal Adjective Suffixes: forming adjectives from nouns
-al: 'Pertaining to'.
Examples: cultural, natural.
-ary: 'Pertaining to'.
Examples: elementary, honorary.
-ful: 'Full of'.
Examples: beautiful, helpful.
-ic: 'Pertaining to'.
Examples: historic, poetic.
-ish: 'Characteristic of'.
Examples: childish, foolish.
-less: 'Without'.
Examples: careless, helpless.
-ly: 'Like'.
Examples: friendly, lovely.
-ous: 'Full of'.
Examples: courageous, famous.
-y: 'Characterized by'.
Examples: cloudy, healthy.
5.3.2 Deverbal Adjective Suffixes: forming adjectives from verbs
-able/-ible: 'Capable of being'.
Examples: readable, visible.
-ive: 'Tending to'.
Examples: active, creative.
-ing: 'Present participle'.
Examples: interesting, charming.
-ed: 'Past participle'.
Examples: interested, charmed.
5.4 VERB SUFFIXES: Suffixes Forming Verbs
5.4.1 Denominal Verb Suffixes: forming verbs from nouns
-ate: 'To make, to cause to be'.
Examples: activate, complicate.
-ify: 'To make, to cause to be'.
Examples: beautify, clarify.
-ize: 'To make, to cause to be'.
Examples: civilize, equalize, modernize.
5.5 Adverb Suffixes: Suffixes Forming Adverbs
V A) Denominal Adverb Suffixes: forming adverbs from nouns
-ward/-wards: 'Towards the direction or place denoted by the noun'.
Examples: homeward(s), eastward(s). This suffix also occurs with some
adverb stems.
-wise: 'In the position or direction denoted by the noun stem'.
Examples: lengthwise, clockwise, crosswise. Also 'in connection with what
is stated by the stem'.
Example: education-wise ('insofar as education is concerned').
V B) Deadjectival Adverb Suffix: forming adverbs from adjectives
-ly: A very commonly used suffix. It is freely added to adjectives to produce the
meaning 'in the manner stated by the adjective'.
Examples: silently ('in a silent manner'), angrily, unexpectedly, hesitatingly.
Or the meaning 'in the degree indicated by the stem'.
Examples: completely, extremely, highly.
Suffixal Homophones: Two derivational suffixes with different grammatical functions
and different meanings which are identical in spoken form.
