Subject: MCN 301 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Module 1

Systems of earth:
Lithosphere - composition, rocks, soils; Atmosphere-layers,
ozone layer, greenhouse effect, weather, cyclones,
atmospheric circulations, Indian Monsoon; hydrosphere-
Oceans, inland water bodies; biosphere
Definition and meaning of key terms in Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management- disaster, hazard, exposure,
vulnerability, risk, risk assessment, risk mapping, capacity,
resilience, disaster risk reduction, disaster risk management,
early warning systems, disaster preparedness, disaster
prevention, disaster mitigation, disaster response, damage
assessment, crisis counselling, needs assessment.
What is Disaster Management?
▶ Disaster management refers to the conservation of lives and
property during natural or human-made disasters.
▶ Disaster management plans are multi-layered and are planned
to address issues such as floods, hurricanes, fires, mass failure
of utilities, rapid spread of disease and droughts.
▶ Disaster management can be of either natural disasters or
man-made disasters.
Lithosphere
Lithosphere- Introduction

▶ Earth has four concentric zones.

▶ The innermost zone is the ’Inner core. This zone is a solid
mass of iron which has a radius of about 1,216 km, covering
the inner core is the outer core.
▶ This is a layer of molten liquid containing nickel and iron. It is
about 2,270 km thick.
▶ The outer core is covered by solid ’Mantle’, which is about
2,900 km thick.
▶ The outermost hardened exterior zone is known as Crust. The
crust varies in thickness from about 5 km. The crust and the
mantle which is hard and brittle is lithosphere
Lithosphere- Introduction

▶ Lithosphere is the outer layer (oceanic and continental) of

earth that includes the crust and solid part of the mantle.
▶ Lithosphere interacts with atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere and forms Pedosphere.
▶ Pedosphere has both biotic and abiotic components.
▶ There are two types of lithosphere, the oceanic lithosphere
which is about 5 km to 8 km thick composed of basalt and
the continental lithosphere which is 30 km to 40 km thick.
Lithosphere- Introduction

▶ Earth has seven major plates, which includes Africa.

Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North America, South America
and Pacifica, and a number of minor ones.
▶ A few important minor plates include Adria. Arabia.
Caribbean. Nazca, Philippines, etc.
▶ These plates are composed of oceanic and continental
lithosphere. They move independently over the mantle
relative to one another, below the outer rigid lithosphere.
▶ This area known as asthenosphere is about 100 km to 200 km
thick, they move with at restricted independence from the
seven large plates.
Lithosphere- Introduction

▶ The plates periodically reorganise themselves with new plate

boundaries being formed, while certain others closing up.
▶ In addition to these movements, the plates also change in
shape.
▶ The plates have three different motions
1. They are Moving apart, thereby creating divergent
boundaries
2. Gliding horizontally along each other, thereby creating
wrench and transform boundaries
3. Moving towards one another, and creating convergent
boundaries
▶ The plates periodically reorganise themselves with new plate
boundaries being formed, while certain others closing up.
▶ In addition to these movements, the plates also change in
shape.
▶ The plates have three different motions
1. They are Moving apart, thereby creating divergent
boundaries
2. Gliding horizontally along each other, thereby creating
wrench and transform boundaries
3. Moving towards one another, and creating convergent
boundaries
Composition of Lithosphere
▶ The lithosphere contains minerals, rocks and soil.
▶ It has more than 100 chemical elements and most of them are
rare.
▶ More than 99 percentage of the volume includes elements like
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium
and magnesium.
Continues...

▶ Only a few elements are present in pure forms in the earth’s

crust called native elements, they include copper, gold, lead,
mercury, nickel, platinum and silver.
▶ These elements contained in ores are found in different
combinations as minerals.
▶ Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids
that have definite chemical compositions.
▶ Certain minerals are composed of single element. For
instance, diamond and graphite composed of only carbon.
Rocks
Rocks:

▶ Lithosphere has various types of rocks

▶ Rocks are naturally occurring hard and consolidated inorganic
materials, composed of one or a large number of minerals.
▶ Certain other materials, like coal and limestone are developed
from plant and animal remains.
▶ There are various types of rocks. They are:

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks

▶ These rocks are formed by solidification of magma in the

interior, or lava on the surface of earth.
▶ Igneous rocks are composed of primary minerals, which are
predominantly silicates.
▶ Igneous rocks sometimes overlap with sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks

▶ Sedimentary rocks are formed by the precipitation from

solutions, and consolidation of remnants of biotic components
like plants and animals.
▶ These rocks contain both original primary minerals (Quartz,
Mica) and altered as well as newly synthesised secondary
minerals (Clay, calcite, gypsum).
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks

▶ Also known as Thermal rocks they are formed from

pre-existing rocks (igneous or sedimentary) due to change in
the temperature and pressure in solid state is known as
metamorphic rocks.
▶ These rocks are formed when magma intrudes through
pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks.
▶ All types of pre-existing rocks could undergo metamorphism.
▶ Further, igneous and metamorphic rocks get weathered and
form sediments. These sediments get deposited and lithified
into sedimentary rocks.
Soil
Soil

▶ Soil is the surface layer of the land

▶ It is a natural body that contains a variable mixture of broken
and weathered materials and decaying organic matter, which
covers the earth in a thin layer.
▶ It takes long period of time for the soil to form through the
natural process.
▶ The formation takes place from the weathering and
decomposition of rocks and minerals.
▶ Soil is a dynamic layer of earth’s crust which is constantly
changing and developing. The upper limit of soil is air or
water and its lateral margins grade to deep water or barren
areas of rock or even ice.
▶ Soil accomplishes various functions, which include the
following:

▶ 1. It provides mechanical support to the plant

▶ It has the ability of holding water as it has the property of
porosity. This ability makes soil a reservoir of water
▶ 3. Soil provides micro and macro nutrients, as well as ideal
pH required for the growth of the micro-organisms, plants and
animals.
▶ 4. Soil prevents excessive leaching of nutrients.
▶ 5. Soil houses bacteria that fix nitrogen and other elements;
fungi, protozoa and other micro-organisms. These organisms
aids in the decomposition of organic matter
Layers of Atmosphere
Layers of Atmosphere Based on Temperature
Variation

Based on the temperature, the atmosphere is divided

into four parts
1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
1. Troposhere

▶ The bottom dense part, containing 70 percent of the mass,

close to the ground is troposphere.
▶ It reaches up to 11 km from the ground. Clouds, storms, fog
and haze are found only in troposphere.
▶ The temperature in this layer decreases at about -6.4°C/km
with height.
▶ This decrease of temperature with altitude is called lapse rate.
▶ The boarder of troposphere is called Tropopause. Tropopause
acts like a lid over troposphere.
▶ Temperature stops decreasing with height from tropopause.
2. Stratosphere

▶ This is a clear layer above troposphere that extends to a

height of about 50 km from earth’s surface.
▶ This layer does not have clouds, storms or dust. Clouds are
not formed since water vapour is absent.
▶ Ozonosphere is an important layer found within stratosphere.
Ozone (O3) is found in this layer.
▶ Ozone absorbs and prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations
from reaching earth, thereby protecting life.
▶ The maximum concentration of ozone occurs at 22 km from
the ground level.
▶ Above the stratosphere, there is a small layer called
stratopause where temperature neither increases nor decreases
with height.
3. Mesosphere
▶ The portion of the atmosphere above stratosphere, between
50 km and 80 km is known as mesosphere.
▶ It starts from the edge of Stratopause.
▶ Though the temperature in mesosphere near stratosphere is
higher by about 10°, it falls to -75°C at 80 km.
▶ The density of air at this height is about 1/1000 as that of
sea level.
▶ Mesosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication as
ionisation occurs here.
▶ The sunlight passing through this layer converts individual
molecules to charged ions. These ionised particles are
concentrated as a zone in this layer, which is named D-layer.
The D-layer reflects radio waves transmitted from earth.
▶ Just above the mesosphere is a small layer called Mesopause,
where temperature is stable.
4. Thermosphere

▶ Thermosphere extends from 80 km to about 60,000 km from

earth. Here the temperature increases to about 2000°C.
▶ The property of thermosphere is radically different from the
others. Ions are abundant in thermosphere.
▶ In thermosphere that most of the approaching meteoroids
burn up before reaching earth.
Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer

Ozonosphere is an important layer found within stratosphere.

Ozone (O3) is found in this layer. Ozone absorbs and prevents the
harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching earth, thereby
protecting life. Without Ozone layer, life would not have been
possible on earth. The maximum concentration of ozone occurs at
22 km from the ground level.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Due to human activities ozone layer is becoming thin. The
thinning of this layer is called ozone depletion.

* Ozone Oxygen Cycle

▶ The ozone layer is located in the lower part of the

stratosphere between 15 km and 35 km.
▶ Concentration of ozone is the maximum at about 25-30 km.
▶ The level of ozone is maintained at this level by
Ozone-Oxygen Cycle.
▶ When ultra-violet radiation that spread out from the sun
strikes the oxygen molecule (O2), it splits the molecule into
two individual oxygen atoms (O+0).
▶ The oxygen atoms, thus produced, combines with O2
molecule and produce ozone molecule (O3).
Continues...
▶ This reaction is aided by either Nitrogen (N2) or Oxygen,
which absorbs the excess energy that is liberated. Ozone thus
formed will be split by ultra-violet rays into a molecule of
oxygen (O2) and an atom of oxygen (0).
▶ It is through this repeated circular ozone and oxygen
formation that the concentration of ozone is maintained in the
stratosphere.
▶ The concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is determined
by the rate of its formation and destruction in the above
manner.
▶ Due to severe depletion of ozone in the atmosphere ’ozone
holes’ are created. Ozone holes, which were discovered in
1985, are overhead areas having less than 220 Dobson Units
(DU). The chemistry of ozone depletion by CFCS, BFCS and
Nitric oxides are now discussed.
Depletion by CFCs and BFCs

▶ CFCS and BFCS are stable compounds in the atmosphere

that have the property of living longer (50 to 100 years). Due
to their long life, they rise up to the stratosphere.
▶ Through the action of UV radiation from the Sun on these
compounds, Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) radicals are
released. These radicals act as catalysts, and initiate breaking
down of ozone molecules.
▶ It is estimated that a single such radical of either Cl or Br is
capable of breaking down over a lakh of ozone molecules.
▶ Due action, Ozone concentration is decreasing at a drastic
rate of four percent per decade. As a result of the inherent
long life of CFCs and BFCs, they continue to deplete ozone
layer in a recurrent manner.
Depletion by Nitric Oxide

▶ One molecule of nitric oxide (NO) combines with ozone (O3);

it gets oxidised to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Oxygen (O2).
▶ This NO2 combines with another O3 molecule to become
NO3 (Nitrate) and O2. The NO2 and NO3 then combine to
form N2O5 (Dinitrogen pentoxide). Even the atomic oxygen
(O) readily combines with NO2 to yield NO3.
▶ Due to this series of actions and reactions, ozone is
completely utilised, and thereby depleted. Large quantities of
nitrogen are emitted by aircrafts that community decided to
withdraw the operation of jet aircrafts that emit oxides of
nitrogen. This step has also helped in reducing the depletion
of ozone to a very large extent near stratosphere.
Green House Effect
Green House Effect

▶ Certain physical processes that takes place in the troposphere

are responsible for the weather and climate of that particular
place.
▶ To understand clearly about the process of green house effect,
it is needed to know about Incoming solar radiation and the
outgoing radiation.
a) Incoming Solar Radiation
▶ Atmosphere behaves like a complex mega heat engine. A large
number of processes like air movements (storms and
cyclones), evaporation and formation of clouds, precipitation,
etc. take place in the atmosphere.
▶ Only two in a billionth of the solar energy reaches Earth, of
which only a small portion is responsible for the physical and
biological processes.
Continues...

▶ Solar radiation contains X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet (UV)

rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves, radio waves etc.
▶ Of all the energy received by earth: UV, visible and infrared
portions constitute over 95 per cent.
▶ The harmful UV radiation is prevented from reaching earth by
the ozone layer. The solar radiation which ultimately reaches
the earth comprises mainly of visible light, which is composed
of seven colours.
▶ While travelling through the atmosphere, a portion of the
radiation energy is reflected by clouds, and some are scattered
and absorbed by gases and particles. The scattered radiation
that reaches earth is called diffuse radiation.
▶ Only a small quantity of the scattered radiation (22 per cent)
reaches earth’s surface.
b) Outgoing Radiation

▶ If the entire energy that is received from sun retained in its

earth’s surface, the planet would be very hot and would
become an inhabitable place.
▶ The earth, after heating up of its surface, reflects a certain
amount of energy. Some of this heat energy is transmitted to
the upper layers of air through conduction.
▶ The heat energy so emitted from the earth’s surface is in the
form of long wave radiation, and is called outgoing radiation.
▶ While a portion of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by
certain gases in the atmosphere and retained as heat energy
and the remaining energy escapes into the outer space.
▶ Gases capable of absorbing outgoing radiation are CO2, CO,
water vapour, etc. They are called Green House Gases (GHG).
b) Continues...

▶ Due to the effect of Green house gases, Earth is prevented

from cooling down drastically. GHGS thus act like a blanket
and provide earth with an ideal climate for life to flourish.
This known as Green house effect.
▶ The intensity of Green house effect varies from place to place
depending upon the concentration of GHGS.
▶ For instance, the quantity of vapour-and carbon dioxide is less
in dry places like deserts. The usage of carbon dioxide and the
release of oxygen is high in places were like forests where trees
are in abundance.
Weather
Weather
▶ When radiation from insolation strikes earth, its top layer gets
heated.
▶ The heat energy so created through the interplay of insolation
and outgoing radiation is transferred to the overlying
atmosphere through activities like conduction and convection.
▶ Due to this, as well as the movement of earth, air moves in all
directions-both horizontally and vertically. This movement of
air is the basis of weather.
▶ Weather is the atmospheric conditions that exist for a short
duration which can span over few hours to a number of days.
Weather conditions can fluctuate very often.
▶ The average weather or atmospheric conditions over a fairly
long period of time like months, years or even decades; in a
particular area is called climate.
▶ Before discussing in detail about climate, certain other
phrases, like temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc. should
be understood.
Temperature

▶ Temperature is the index of heat that is sensible. It indicates

the kinetic energy of molecules, or the speed at which the
molecules moves.
▶ While in air and water, molecules keep on moving and change
their location very often and in solids the molecules involve in
a vibration movement and not moving.
▶ The speed at which this vibration takes place is described as
temperature.
▶ A body having higher temperature has the property of
transmitting it to another one having lower temperature.
▶ Temperature is measured using thermometer, and is reported
in either Celsius, Kelvin or Fahrenheit scales.
Temperature Variations in Troposphere

The earth’s temperature varies in an altitudinal and horizontal

manner in the troposphere. A fair knowledge about this altitudinal
variation is ideal to understand more about weather and climates.
1. Altitudinal Variation:

▶ In the troposphere, temperature decreases with height. It

decreases at a rate of -6.4°C/km. This rate at which
temperature decreases with height is called lapse rate. The
lapse rate is not uniform and it varies due to different
conditions like pollution in the atmosphere.
2. Horizontal Temperature Variation

Temperature varies at different times of the day at different

locations due to various reasons and factors. It also varies at
different months and seasons of the year. A few reasons for this
variation are discussed as follows:

(a) The hour of the day: More solar energy is received during
the noon, when sun’s rays strike vertically overhead; than hours in
the morning hours, when the rays strike at angles.
(b) Insolation: The phenomenon of day and night occurs as a
result of the revolution and rotation of earth. Due to revolution
one half of the globe is exposed to sunlight and the other half is in
darkness. The temperature of any given area is based on the
insolation of that area. The length of daylight and the angle at
which the rays fall on earth also determine the amount of
insolation and the temperature of that particular area.
Continues...

(c) Distance from the Equator: The sun rays strike in

perpendicular manner on the equator. Near to the poles it strikes
at an angle. Due to this, areas farther away from equator will
experience lesser temperature as compared to the areas near the
equator.
(d) The tilt of the axis: The earth’s axis is tilted at angle of 66½
degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. This tilt is maintained
throughout its orbit. This tilting of the axis leads to seasonal
variations. Due to this, the months closer to June are summer
months in this hemisphere. During this period, the northern
hemisphere receives greater amount of solar energy, and hence,
higher temperature. Places near to the equator receive more solar
energy resulting in higher temperature
Continues...

(e) Distance from the Equator: The heating of earth’s surface

differs according to the type of the surface in an area. For
instance, rocky surfaces get heated rapidly, while water takes
considerably long time to get heated up. In the same way, rocky
surfaces loose heat rapidly as against water which loose heat
slowly. In any given place, different types of surfaces exist. Hence,
there will be a mixture of heating and cooling properties.
Cyclones
▶ The atmospheric pressure in a given area has an important
role to play with respect to the formation of a cyclone. When
a flow of air moves along curved isobars which is a net
centripetal acceleration pulls it toward the centre of a
curvature, making the air to rotate. Such wind (called
gradient wind) is called cyclone
▶ If the movement of the gradient wind is in the anticlockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere. it is called cyclone and
anticyclone in southern hemisphere.
▶ In the southern hemisphere, the clockwise motion of gradient
wind is called cyclone and anticyclone in northern hemisphere.
▶ During a cyclone, the surface air moves towards the centre
having low pressure and hence converges. The converged air
has the property of ascending in the centre within the low
pressure area.
▶ The reverse happens in a high pressure area. Air tends to sink
in the centre of a high pressure area during anticyclones.
Atmospheric Circulations

▶ When Earth rotates on its axis, the rotation causes the

deflection in the wind flow due to Coriolis force.
▶ Coriolis force is a force which is produced due to the rotation
of the earth.
▶ In addition to this, a low pressure belt is formed over the
tropical regions, since the equatorial region is heated
throughout the year. This belt is called the Inter-Tropical
Convergent Zone (ITCZ). This zone is also known as
doldrums.
▶ This is not a conspicuous belt, but a discontinuous one that
fluctuates in its position and intensity.
Atmospheric Circulations
Continues...
▶ Even with disruptions like weather fronts and storms, there is
a consistent pattern to how air moves around our planet’s
atmosphere. This pattern, called atmospheric circulation.
▶ This is caused because the Sun heats the Earth more at the
equator than at the poles. It’s also affected by the spin of the
Earth.
▶ In the tropics, near the equator, warm air rises. When it gets
about 10-15 km (6-9 miles) above the Earth surface it starts
to flow away from the equator and towards the poles.
▶ Air that rose just north of the equator flows north. Air that
rose just south of the equator flows south.
▶ When the air cools, it drops back to the ground, flows back
towards the Equator, and warm again. Now the warmed air
rises again, and the pattern repeats. This pattern, known as
convection, happens on a global scale. It also happens on a
small scale within individual storms.
The Indian Monsoon

Monsoon is a regional wind that blows towards land at a certain

season and blow from the landmasses during other season. These
wind blows in the opposite direction in summer and winter.
Though monsoon winds blow over all parts of the world, it is
well-developed over India and the South-east Asian regions.
The Indian subcontinent has two types of winds.
1.South-West Monsoon
2.North-East Monsoon
1. South-West Monsoon

▶ The south-east trade winds originate from the southern

hemisphere in the Indian Ocean. When these winds cross the
equator, they get deflected towards the right by the Coriolis
force, becoming the south-west trade winds. These winds
gather large quantities of moisture as they pass over the
Indian Ocean.
▶ As the SW monsoon winds approaches the Indian Peninsula,
they are diverted into two-the Arabian Sea Branch and the
Bay of Bengal Branch.
▶ When the moisture laden Arabian Sea branch reaches the
south-western side of India, they are blocked by the Western
Ghats.
Continues...

▶ When the mountain range blocks the horizontal flow, the wind
ascends along the slope of the mountain range, gets cooled
down and form clouds. These clouds then results in
precipitation.
▶ Kerala gets the south-west monsoon mostly during early June
every year.
▶ These winds then take a west turn and continue their journey,
and spread over the northern parts of India bringing in rains to
these areas.
▶ Monsoon winds normally reach Delhi in the first week of July
and could last till end September/early October.
2. North-East Monsoon
▶ The Inter-Tropical Convergent Zone (ITCZ) moves to the
south of the equator, when the position of the sun shifts to
the southern hemisphere. This leads to the reversal of winds,
and the winds start blowing from the north-eastern direction
towards the ITCZ. These winds are known as the north-east
monsoon winds or the north-east trade winds.
▶ Since North-East winds originate mainly from the land masses
of the north-east region of India, they are relatively dry.
▶ When these winds pass over the Bay Bengal towards south,
they gather moisture and cause rainfalls over parts of Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
▶ Cyclone formation is common over Bay of Bengal during the
north-east monsoon season. The cyclones also bring in
abundant rainfall over Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telengana
and Tamil Nadu.
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere

▶ Hydrosphere forms over 70 per cent of the earth’s surface . In

terms of area, it comes to 3,62,000 km2 . Water is found in
the oceans as well as on land. Life is made possible on earth
due to the availability of water.
▶ The hydrosphere has a direct influence on weather and
climate conditions on Earth. This occurs due to the important
role played by the worldwide oceanic circulations.
▶ The average depth of oceans is around 3.7 km. The floor of
the oceans has mountain ranges and valleys, isolated volcanic
peaks, and vast plains. Many of these mountain ranges and
valleys exceed in size of their counterparts on land.
▶ As on date , less than 10 per cent of the ocean floor has been
surveyed .
Continues...

▶ Water has a number of unique properties like high heat

capacity, dissolving capacity, etc. These properties are made
possible due to its molecular structure. A water molecule
consists of two atoms of Hydrogen that are bound to an
oxygen atom.
Oceans (Water in Oceans)

▶ Water in oceans is saline in nature. This salinity occurs due to

the dissolved materials (mainly salts) contained in it. The
mean salinity of sea water is around 34.7 g/kg. The lowest
value being 33 and highest being 36 g/kg .
▶ Though sea water contains a mixture of several dissociated
salts, NaCl is the most important one. Additional salts are
always added to the oceans through various processes.
▶ However,seawater salinity is stable due to various mechanisms
that remove salt from the oceans. Salt is spreaded to the
atmosphere when wind blows sprays of sea water.
▶ The salt particles in the atmosphere enable water molecules to
stick to it, and this falls on the land with rain and snow.
a) Oceans as Moderator of Climate
▶ Water in oceans is constantly in movement in regular patterns
due to the activity of winds. These movements of water in
oceans are called ocean circulations or ocean currents. These
currents arise due to the interplay of wind and water.
▶ Oceans as Moderator of Climate Oceanic circulations have a
profound and significant influence in heating up the globe,
and hence, its climate. When water moves up from the colder
and deeper parts of the ocean to the warmer surface, the heat
is carried with it .
▶ Due to the interplay of various factors, the ocean water moves
around the globe , and with it the heat or cold is transferred .
This heat transfer plays a major role in impacting earth’s
climate.
▶ When extremes of incidents, like rainfall or droughts occur,
the normal path of the ocean current can be disturbed and
climate change could occur.
b) Oceans as Heat Reservoir

▶ Oceans play a role of a heat reservoir, moderating extreme

temperatures.
▶ The water in the upper portion of oceans store higher heat
than in the entire atmosphere.
▶ During spring and summer seasons, the oceans are cooler than
the nearby lands. During winters oceans are warmer than the
land masses.
▶ Due to this temperature difference in sea and land, there is
heat energy transfer from land to water and vice-versa.
c) Oceans as Carbon Reservoir

▶ The oceans are the largest carbon reservoirs of Earth.

Periodically. it gives off large amounts of carbon into the
atmosphere. Through certain biological and chemical
exchange processes it plays an important role in carbon cycle.
c) Oceans and Sea Ice

▶ The sea ice plays an important element in the Earth’s climate

system, The polar ice extends between 17 and 27 million km2,
depending on the seasons. It covers around one-tenth of the
land area and 6.5 per cent of the oceans.
▶ Of the total ice, about 90 per cent is located in the Antarctic
as ice shelf. nine per cent in the Greenland ice sheet and the
balance in the various glaciers around the world.
▶ It is estimated that if all the ice in Greenland and Antarctica
is to suddenly melt, the sea would rise to an approximate
height of 70 m.
Water on Land

▶ Fresh water constitutes the basis for life on land. On land,

water is found in all the three states.
▶ In liquid form. the water is found in lakes, rivers and streams
and also as ground water and soil moisture.
▶ The water found in these sources is fresh in nature.
▶ In solid form water is found as glacial ice, ice caps and ground
ice.
▶ The fresh water in earth is perpetually being interchanged
between the surface of the earth and atmosphere by a process
of evaporation and precipitation. This interchange is known as
water cycle or hydrological cycle.
Continues...

▶ In the hydrological cycle, solar energy causes water from the

oceans to evaporate and change to atmosphere vapour.
▶ Evaporation also takes place from inland water bodies like
lakes, rivers, streams, etc.
▶ The evaporated water rises to the upper layers of the
atmosphere, where it is cooled and condensed. The condensed
water falls back to the earth as precipitated form.
▶ Rain, snow and dew are different forms of precipitation.
▶ The water that falls on the earth runs along the ground and
flows into rivers and in turn returns to the sea. A part of the
rainwater that falls on the land drip into the ground is known
as ground water.The ground water is used by human beings
and plants.
Biosphere

▶ Biosphere is an important realm of Earth. The term biosphere’

was first coined by the geologist Eduard Suess in 1875. More
insights about biosphere were provided in the early 20th
century by the ecologists Henry Cowles and Frederic Clements.
Kirkham (2007) provided a comprehensive description of
biosphere he referred it as: the totality of life on earth and its
interdependency on abiotic environmental factors.
Biosphere

▶ Biosphere consists of the complex interdependency between

biotic and abiotic environmental components.
▶ Basically, biosphere is a thin envelop that encircles most of the
earth, and supports life. It is the global sphere in which the
biota interacts with lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.
▶ It is totally dependent on, and involves complex interactions
between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
▶ Biosphere is the spherical terrestrial layer that comprises of
the lower part of the atmosphere. the seas and the upper
layers of the soil wherein living organisms exist naturally.
▶ All forms or life including human beings dwell in biosphere.
The health of the biosphere is determined by the availability
of oxygen, moisture, temperature, air pressure and soil.
Components of Biosphere

Biosphere is a giant ecosystem that consists of two major

ecosystems:
(a) Terrestrial ecosystem
b) Aquatic ecosystem
a) Terrestrial ecosystem
The terrestrial ecosystem consists of plants, animals,
microorganisms their dependencies and interdependencies with the
non-living items around it on the land. A terrestrial ecosystem is
made up of either natural ecosystem or artificial/man-made
ecosystem.
b) Aquatic ecosystem

▶ Aquatic ecosystem consists of marine and fresh water

ecosystem. While seas and oceans form the marine ecosystem;
the rivers, pond, lakes, and wetlands form fresh water
ecosystem. Aquatic ecosystems provide human beings with a
wide range of services.
▶ Some of the services include the availability of water for day
to day uses, foods like fish and crustaceans, breaking down: of
chemical and organic wastes, recreation, etc. The aquatic
ecosystem provides the human beings with a wealth of natural
resources.
Definition and Key terms in Disaster Management
A sudden occurrence of an accident that causes huge loss of life
and property is called as a disaster. It is also called as a calamity.
Types of Disasters
▶ 1. Natural Disaster: A disaster caused by natural factors
called as a natural disaster e.g., earthquake, flood, cyclone etc.
▶ 2. Man-made disaster: A disaster caused due to the human
activities e.g: wars, fire accidents, industrial accidents etc.
Hazards:
A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical
event, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation. Typical examples of hazards can be absence of
rain (leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to
floods). Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements and
incorrect agricultural techniques, can also been seen as
hazards which could lead to possible disasters. Hazards can be
the creation of man or the environment.
Exposure:
Exposure refers to people, property, systems, or other elements
present in hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential losses.
Vulnerability: Vulnerability refers to the characteristics and
circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various
physical, social, economic, and environmental factors. Examples
may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate
protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness,
limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures.
Risk:
There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various
physical, social, economic, and environmental factors. Examples
may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate
protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness,
limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures.
Risk Assessment:
A risk assessment is a process to identify potential hazards and
analyze what could happen if a hazard occurs.
Disaster risk assessments include: the identification of hazards; a
review of the technical characteristics of hazards such as their
location, intensity, frequency and probability; the analysis of
exposure and vulnerability, including the physical, social, health,
environmental and economic dimensions; and the evaluation of the
effectiveness of prevailing and alternative coping capacities with
respect to likely risk scenarios.
Risk Mapping:
Risk mapping is a process of analyzing the hazard, vulnerability
and capacity through a scientific methodology. The process of risk
map preparation includes analysis of several variables and
parameters which are sub-sets of base categories; hazard,
vulnerability and capacity. Hence, preparation of multi hazard risk
map is a combination of all risk elements on several hazards. This
process is important in risk map preparation and obviously in
disaster management field for appropriate implementation of
disaster risk reduction activities.
Capacity:
Capacity refers to all the strengths, attributes and resources
available within a community, organization or society to manage
and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience.
It is important to emphasize people’s capacity to anticipate, cope
with, resist and recover from disasters, rather than simply focusing
on the vulnerability that limits them.
Resilience:
Disaster resilience is the ability of individuals, communities,
organisations and states to adapt to and recover from hazards,
shocks or stresses without compromising long-term prospects for
development.
Disaster Risk Reduction:
Disaster risk reduction involves structural and non-structural
measures.
Structural measures include the use of physical or
engineeringsolutions (such as ocean wave barriers or earthquake
resistant buildings) to avoid disaster or reduce its impacts.
Non-structural measures involve the use of policies, laws,
education and awareness creation, and practices to avoid or reduce
the impacts of disaster.
Early Warning System (EWS):
EWS is a socio-technical system designed to generate and circulate
meaningful warning information in a timely manner to enable a
target system take a proactive response to a hazardous threat in
order to avoid disaster or reduce its impacts.
We emphasise “socio-technical” because an early warning system
comprises all the steps from detection of the threat, through
communication to target community or people, to the ability of the
target to understand and respond appropriately to the warning.
Disaster Preparedness:
It consists of the knowledge and capacities of institutions,
communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to,
and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent or active hazard
events or conditions.
Disaster Prevention:
Disaster Prevention is the elimination or reduction of the likelihood
of occurrence of natural hazard event, or their adverse impacts.
Examples of disaster prevention actions include flood protection
embankments.
Disaster Mitigation:
It refers to a set of measures to reduce or neutralise the impact of
natural hazards by reducing social, functional, or physical
vulnerability.
Disaster Response:
Disaster response (relief) is the provision of assistance or
intervention through the emergency services during or immediately
after a crisis in order to save lives, reduce further impacts on
health and public safety and to meet the basic subsistence needs of
affected populations.
Damage Assessment:
Damage Assessment is the process for determining the nature and
extent of the loss, suffering, and/or harm to the community
resulting from a natural, accidental or human-caused disaster.
Damages are normally classified as:
▶ Severe: The target facility or object cannot be used for its
intended purpose. Complete reconstruction is required.
▶ Moderate: The target facility or object cannot be used
effectively for its intended purpose unless major repairs are
made.
▶ Light: The target facility or object can be used for intended
purpose but minor repairs would be necessary.
Damage Assessment:

▶ Crisis counselling is the process of alleviating the emotional

and psychological disturbances of persons affected by disaster
in order to restore a sense of control and mastery and to aid
the process of recovery and reconstruction.
▶ Normally, disasters overwhelm the physical and psychological
capacity of people to cope. This can lead to emotional and
psychological disturbances which can affect a person’s ability
to make right decisions or adopt reasonable responsive actions.
▶ Crisis counselling addresses these problems and is a crucial
part of recovery and reconstruction.
Needs Assessment:

▶ Needs assessment is a process of estimating the financial,

technical, and human resources needed to implement the
agreed-upon programmes of recovery, reconstruction, and risk
management.
▶ Post-damage needs assessment is normally a rapid,
multi-sectoral assessment that measures the impact of
disasters on the society, economy, and environment of the
disaster-affected areas.