Introduction

An interconnected collection of autonomous computers is called a computer network. Two

computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange the information. If one
computer can forcibly start, stop and control another one, the computers are not autonomous. A
system with one control unit and many slaves is not a network, nor is a large computer with remote
printers and terminals.

In a Distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous computers is transparent(i.e., not

visible) to the user. He can type a command to run a program and it runs. It is up to the operating
system to select the best processor, find and transport all the files to that processor, and put the
results in the appropriate place.
The user of a distributed system is not aware of that there are multiple processors; it looks like a
virtual uniprocessor. Allocation of jobs to processors and files to disks, movement of files between
where they are stored and where they are needed, and all system function are automatic.
With a network, users must explicitly log onto one machine, explicitly submit jobs remotely,
explicitly move files around and generally handle all the network management personally. The
distinction between Network and distributed system lies with software (OS) rather than software. In
network user invokes, in distributed system the system invokes.
A network is a set of devices connected by media links. Anode can be a computer, printer or any
other device capable of sending and receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
The links connecting the devices are often called communication channels.

Networks use Distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers.
Advantages of Distributed processing are

 Security/ Encapsulation
 Distributed data bases
 Faster problem solving
 Security through Redundancy
 Collaborative processing

Network Criteria

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Network Criteria

Performance Reliability Security

Performance:

The performance can be measured in many ways and depends on number of factors.

 Number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Hardware
 Software

Reliability

This is measured by the following factors

 Frequency of failure
 Recovery time of a network after a failure.
 Catastrophe.

Security

Network security issues include protecting data from the following

 Unauthorized access

 Viruses

Applications
 Accessing Remote databases
 Accessing Remote programs
 Value added communication facility
 Marketing and sales
 Financial services
 Manufacturing
 Electronic message
 Directory services
 Information services
 Teleconferencing
 Cellular telephone
 Cable television

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Network Structure
Hosts

IMP

Subnet

The end systems are called the HOSTS. The hosts are connected through acommunication
subnet or simply Subnet as shown in fig.
The subnet consists of two parts: a) Transmission lines b) Switching elements.
The Transmission lines transmit the raw bits. The Switching elements are specialized
computers, which switches packets. This is called Interface Message Processor (IMP) or
Router or data switching exchanges or packet switching nodes.
The data can be transmitted through the subnet in two ways. They are
a) Point to point or store and forward
b) Broad casting

Network Architecture

To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a series of layers or
levels, each built upon on the one below it. The number of layers, the name of each layer
,the contents of each layer ,and the function of each layer differ from network to network
However, in all networks the purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher
layers ,shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually
implemented.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The
rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n
Protocol.
The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called Peers.

Layer 5 protocol
Layer 5 Layer 5

Layer 4/5 interface

Layer 4 protocol
Layer 4 Layer 4

Layer 3/4 interface

Layer 3 protocol
Layer 3 Layer 3

Layer 2/3 interface

Layer 2 Layer 2 protocol Layer 2

Layer 1/2 interface

Layer 1 protocol
Layer 1 Layer 1

Physical Medium

Layers, protocols and interfaces.

The interface defines which primitive operation and services the lower layer offers to the
upper one.

A set of layers and protocol is called network architecture.

Data transfer methods:

a. Simplex communication:

Data will be transferred in one direction only.

Simplex transmission
A B
Ex: Keyboards, Monitors

b. Half -- duplex communication:

Data will be transferred in both the directions, but not simultaneously.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee
Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Half duplex transmission
A B

Ex: One way bridge with two directional traffic.

c. Full – duplex communication:

Data will be transferred in both the directions simultaneously.

A B

Ex: Two-way road, where traffic will be there in both the directions.

REFERENCE MODELS

The ISO OSI REFERENCE MODEL

In 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) proposed a network model that covers all
network communications .This model is called Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. An open
system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.

The OSI model is built of seven layers: Physical (layer 1), Data link (layer 2), Network
(layer 3), Transport (layer 4), Session (layer 5), Presentation (layer 6) and Application layers
(layer 7).

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.layer 3,for
example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides for layer 4.Between machines layer
on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed
by protocols. The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer
–to – peer processor.

At the physical layer, communicate is direct: Machine A sends a stream of bits to machine B. At
the higher layers, however, communication must move down through the layers on machine A, over
to machine B, and then back up through the layers. Each layer in the sending machine adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package
to the layer just below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are
added to the message at layers 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2.At layer 1 the entire message converted to a form
that can be transferred to the receiving machine. At the receiving machine,
Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee
Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant
for it.

Organization of the layers:

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers 1, 2, 3 –are the network
support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from onr machine to another.
Layers 5, 6, 7—can be thought of as user support layers: they allow interoperability among unrelated
software systems. Layer 4,the transport layer, ensures end to end reliable transmission while layer
2 ensures reliable transmission on a single link. The upper layers are implemented almost always
in software; lower layers are a combination of hard ware and software, where as physical layer is
mostly hardware.

Name of unit
Layer exchanged

Application protocol
7 Application Application

Interface Presentation protocol

6 Presentation Presentation
Session protocol
5 Session Session
Transport protocol
4 Transport Transport

3 Network Network Network Network

2 Data link Data link Data link Data link

1 Physical Physical Physical Physical

Host A Host B

The OSI reference model

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS:

Functions of the Layers

Physical Layer :

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media

 Representation of bits.
 Data rate
 Synchronisation of bits
 Line configuration (point to point or multipoint)
 Transmission Mode
 Physical Topology

Data Link Layer :

 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Error control
 Flow control
 Access control
Network Layer :
- Routing
- Congestion control
- Billing
Transport Layer :
- Service – Point addressing
- Segmentation and reassembly
- Flow control
- Error control
Session Layer :
-Dialog control
-Synchronization
Presentation Layer :
- Data encoding
- Encryption
- Compression

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Application Layer :
- File Transfer
- Mail services
- Directory services
TCP/IP reference model

OSI TCP/IP

Application Application

Presentation
Not present in
Session the model

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

Switching Methods

Two different types of switching methods are used: Circuit switching and Packet switching.

Circuit Switching

In this switching there are three phases

a. Circuit establishment b. Data transfer c. Circuit disconnection

B
2
3
1
5 C
7
A
4 6
D
Represents the node

The network station

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Suppose if we want to send the data, say, from A to D. before sending the data a circuit will be
established between A to D as shown in fig with doted lines. All the data will follow the same path.
After data is transferred the circuit will be disconnected.
Circuit switching Virtual packet switching
Propagation delay

Propagation delay

call accept signal

call accept signal

P1

P2
DATA

P3

Ack signal

Ack signal

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

P1

P2 Packet switching

P3

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Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Packet switching will be done in two ways.

1. Virtual Packet switching 2. Data gram Packet switching

Circuit switching Data gram packet Virtual packet

Dedicated transmission No dedicated path No dedicated path
Continuous transmission of
data Transmission of packets Transmission of packets
Packets are stored until
Messages are not stored Packets are stored delivered
Path will be established for Route will be established for Route will be established for
entire conversation each packet. entire conversation
Fixed bandwidth transmission Dynamic use of bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth

X.25

X.25 is a packet switching wide area network.

It is an interface between DCE and DTE for terminal operation in the packet mode on public data
networks.

It defines how a packet- mode terminal connected to a packet network for the exchange of data.

It describes the procedures for establishing maintaining and terminating connections.

X.25 is known as a subscriber network interface (SNI).

It defines how the user‘s DTE communicates with the network and how packets are sent over that
network using DCE‘s.
X.25 has three layers:
 Physical layer
 Frame layer and
 Packet layer
Physical Layer:
At the physical layer, X.25 specifies a protocol called X.21.
This is similar to other physical layer protocols.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Frame Layer:

X.25 provides data link control using a bit oriented protocol called link access procedure balanced
(LAPB).

Packet Layer:

The Network layer in x.25 is called the Packet Layer Protocol (PLP).
 This layer is responsible for establishing the connection, transferring data and terminating
the connection.
 It is also responsible for creating the virtual circuits and negotiating network services
between two DTEs.
 The Frame layer is responsible for making a connection between a DTE and DCE, the
Packet layer is responsible for making a connection between two DTEs.
 End-to-End flow and error control between two DTEs are under the jurisdiction of the
Packet Layer.

Examples of Networks

NOVEL NETWARE

The most popular network in pc world system is novel netware.it was designed to be used by
companies from a mainframes to a network of PCs.
1. In this system, each user has a desk top PC functioning as a client.
2. Some number of power full PCs operate as servers providing file services ,data base
services and other services to a collection of clients it uses a proprietary protocol.
3. It is based an old Xerox network system, XNS with various modifications. Because of five-
layers, it looks much like TCP/IP than ISO OSI.
4. Physical and data link layer can choose an Ethernet, IBM token ring and ARC net protocols.
5. The network layer runs an unreliable connectionless Internet work protocol called ARC net
protocols.
6. It passes packets from source to destination transparently; even both are of different
networks.
7. Application layer uses SAP (Service Advertising protocol), to broadcast a packet and tell
what

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 service it offered. These packets are collected by special agents of a process running on the
router machine. With this information they construct databases of which server are running
where.
8. When client machine is booted, it broadcast s a request asking where the nearest server is.
The agent on the local router sees, looks into the database of servers and matches up the
request with the best server; with this the client can now establish a NCP connection and act
like client-server model in all aspects.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN was developed by ITU- T in 1976.It is a set of protocols that combines digital telephony and
data transport services. The whole idea is to digitize the telephone network to permit the
transmission of audio, video, and text over existing telephone lines.
The goal of isdn is to form a wide network that provides universal end –to – end connectivity over
digital media. This can be done by integrating all of the separate transmission services into one
without adding links or subscriber lines.

HISTORY

Voice Communication over Analog Networks

Initially, telecommunications networks were entirely analog networks and were used for the
transmission of analog information in the form of voice.

Voice and Data Communication over Analog Networks

With the advent of digital processing, subscribers needed to exchange data as well as voice.
Modems were developed to allow digital exchange over analog lines.

Analog and Digital services to Subscribers

To reduce cost and improve performance, the telephone companies gradually began to adddigital
technologies while continuing their analog services to their customers.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Integrated Digital Network (IDN)

Next, customers began to require access to a variety of networks, such as packet- switched
networks and circuit –switched networks. To meet these needs the telephone companies created
Integrated Digital Network (IDN). An IDN is a combination of networks available for different
purposes.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

The ISDN integrates customer service with the IDN. With ISDN all customers‘ services become
digital rather than analog and will allow the customers services to be made available on demand.

SERVICES

The purpose of the ISDN is to provide fully integrated digital services to users. These services fall
in to three categories: bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services.
Bearer service

Bearer services provide the means to transfer information (voice, data, and voice) between users
without the network manipulating the content of information.

Tele Service

In teleservices the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services
correspond to layers 4 – 7 of the OSI ISO model. this service include telephony,telefax,videotex,
telex and teleconferencing.

Supplementary service

Supplementary services are those services that provide additional functionality to the bearer service
and teleservices. These services include call waiting, reverse charging, and message handling.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Supplementary
services
Tele Services

Telephony Telefax Teletex Call

waiting

Reverse
Telex charging
    

Teleconferencing 

   


Message
Circuit Packet  Cell
switching switching. switching Handling
- 

Bearer Services

SUBSCRIBER ACCESS TO THE ISDN



To allow flexibility, digital pipes between customers and the ISDN office are organized intomultiple
channels of different sizes. The ISDN standard defines three channel types, each with a different
transmission rate: bearer channels, data channels, and hybrid channels

Channel Rates

Channel Data Rate(Kbps)

Bearer (B) 64
Data (D) 16,64
Hybrid (H) 384,1536,1920

B Channel

A B channel is defined at a rate of 64 Kbps .It is the basic user channel and can carry any type of
digital information in full duplex mode as long as the required transmission rate does not exceed 64
Kbps. A B channel can be used to carry digital data, digitized voice, or other low data – rate
information.

D Channel
A D channel can be either 16 or 64 Kbps, depending on the need of the user. The primary function
of a D channel is to carry control signaling for the B channels. A D channel carries the
Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee
Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 control signaling for all the channels in a given path, using a method called common – channel
(Out – of – band) signaling.
Less common uses for the D channel include low- rate data transfer and applications such as
telemetry and alarm transmission.

H Channel

H Channels are available with data rates of 384 Kbps (HO), 1536 Kbps (H11), or 1920(H12).
These e rates suit for high data rate applications such as video, teleconferencing and so on.

Integrated Services Digital Network

ISDN
Integrated services digital network

IDN
Packet
switched
Digital
Pipes

ISDN
Circuit
switching
Office
Subscriber loops

………….

User Interfaces

Digital subscriber loops are two types: basic rate interface (BRI ) and primary rate interface (PRI
) .Each type is suited to a different level of customer needs .Both include one D channel and some
number of either B or H channels.

BRI

The basic rate interface specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels and one 16Kbps D
channel.

To ISDN office

64(B1) + 64 (B2) +16( D) +48(over head) = 192Kbps

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee
Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 BRI requires a digital pipe of 192 Kbps as shown in the fig. Conceptually, the BRI service is like a
large pipe that contains three smaller pipes, two for the B channels and one for D channel. The
remainder of the space inside the large pipe carries overhead bits required for its operation.
The BRI is designed to meet the needs of residential and small – office customers.

PRI

The usual PRI specifies a digital pipe with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel.

To ISDN office

P R I 1.544 Mbps

64 x 23 (B1 – B23) + 64 (D) + 8 (overhead)

PRI requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps. Conceptually, the PRI services is like a large pipe
containing 24 smaller pipes, 23 for the B channels and for the D channel. The rest of the pipe carries
the overhead bits.
One PRI can provide full – duplex transmission between as many as 23 sources and receiving
nodes. The individual transmission are collected from their source and multiplexed on to a single
path for sending to the ISDN office.

Functional Grouping

Functional Grouping used at the subscriber‘s premises includes network terminations, terminal
equipment and terminal adapters, enables users to access the services of the BRI and PRI.

Network Teriminator 1 ( NT1)

An NT1 device controls the physical and electrical termination of the ISDN at user‘s internal system
to the digital subscriber loop. These functions are comparable to those defined for the OSIphysical
layer.
An NT1 organizes the date stream from connected subscribers into frames that can be sent
over the digital pipe, and translates the frame received from the network into a format usable by the
subscriber‘s device.

Network Teriminator 2 ( NT2)

A NT1 device performs functions at the physical layer, data link, and net work layers of the OSI
model.NT2 provide multiplexing (layer 1),flow control (layer 2), and packetzing (layer 3).An NT2
provides intermediate signal processing between the Data – generating devices and an NT1.There
must be a point to point connection between an NT1 and NT1 ..NT2s are used primarily to interface
between a multi-user system and an NT1 in a PRI.
NT2s can be implemented by a variety of equipment types like a private branch exchange
(digital PBX), a LAN can function as an NT2.
Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee
Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Terminal Equipment 1 (TE1)

The TE is used by ISDN in the same manner as DTE in other protocol. Examples of TE1 are
digital telephones, integrated voice/data terminals, digital facsimiles.

Terminal Equipment 2 (TE2)

To provide backward compatibility with a customer‘s existing equipment, the ISDN standard defines
a second level of terminal equipment called Terminal Equipment 1 ( TE1 ).This is a non ISDN
device, such as terminal, workstation or regular telephone. This can be used with the helpof
another device called a terminal adapter (TA).

Reference Points

This refers to the label used to identify individual interface between two elements of an ISDN
installation. There are four reference points that defines the interface between a subscriber‘s
equipment and the network. They are R, S, T and U.

Reference Point R defines the connection between a TE2 and a Ta. Reference Point S defines
the connection between a TE1 or TA and an NT1 or NT2. Reference Point T defines the interface
between an NT2 and NT1. Reference Point U defines the interface between an NT1 and the
ISDN office.

R S U

To ISDN
TE2 TA
NT1 Office

S U

TE1 To ISDN
NT1 Office

S T U
To ISDN
TE1
2 NT1 Office

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 Reference Points
The ISDN Layers
Since the ISDN specifies two different channels ( B and D) with different functionalities ,unlike the
ISO OSI (which has seven layers) the ISDN is defined in three separate planes : the user plane,
the control panel ,and the management plane. All three planes are divided into seven layers
that correspond to the OSI model.

B channel D channel
User‘s choice
Layers 4,5,6,7

Network X.25 and others Call control

Q.931

Data link LAPB and others LAPD

Physical BRI (I.430) & PRI (I.431)

Simplified layers of ISDN

Physical Layer

The ISDN physical layer specifications are defined by two ITU-T standards: L430 for BRI access
and I.431 for PRI access. These standards define all aspects of the BRI and PRI. Of these aspects,
four are of primary importance:
 The mechanical and electrical specifications of interfaces R, S, T and U.
 Encoding
 Multiplexing channels to make them carriable by the BRI and PRI digital pipe.
 Power supply

Data Link Layer

B and D channels use different data link protocols. B channels use LAPB protocol. The D channel
uses link access procedure for D channel (LAPD).
Network Layer
Once a connection has been established by the D channel, the B channel sends data using circuit
switching, X.25,or other similar protocols. The network layer packet is called a message.

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani
 BROAD BAND ISDN
When the ISDN was originally designed data rates of 64 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps were sufficient to
handle all existing transmission needs. As applications using the telecommunications network
advanced, however, these rates proved inadequate to support many applications. In addition, the
original bandwidths provided too narrow to carry the large numbers of concurrent signals produced
by a growing industry of digital services providers.
To provide for the needs of the next generation of technology, an extension of ISDN,
called broadband ISDN is under study. B-ISDN provides subscribers to the network with data rates
in the range of 600 Mbps, almost 400 times faster than the PRI rate.
Services
B-ISDN provides two types of services: interactive and distributive.
Interactive services
Interactive services are those that require two-way exchanges between either two subscribers or
between a subscriber and a service provider. These services are of three types: conversational,
messaging and retrieval.
Conversational
These services are those, such as telephone calls, that support real time exchanges. These real
time services can be used for telephoning, video telephoning, and video conferencing, datatransfer.
Messaging
These services stored and forward exchanges. These are bi-directional, meaning that all parties
in an exchange can use them at same time. These services include voice mail, data mail, video
mail.
Retrieval
These services are those used to retrieve information from a central source called an information
center. These services are like libraries; they must allow public access to retrieve information on
demand. And information is not distributed unless asked for.
Distributive services
These services are unidirectional services sent from a provider to subscribers without the subscriber
having to transmit a request each time a service is desired. These services can be without or with
user control.
Access method
B-ISDN defines three access methods to provide for three levels of user needs. They are:

 155.520 Mbbs full duplex symmetrical

 155.520 Mbbs asymmetrical
 622.080 Mbbs full duplex
* * * * *

Ms. Swagata Panchadhyayee

Assistant Professor, AI/ML, IIE, Kalyani