Unit 4 Tutorials: Developing Your Speech

INSIDE UNIT 4

Outlining Your Speech

Components of a Speech
Choosing the Main Points
Highlighting the Main Points
Ordering the Main Points
The Preparation Outline
The Speaking and Rough Draft Outlines
The Role of the Introduction
Establishing Credibility: Topic, Thesis, and Main Points
Introducing the Topic, Thesis, and Main Points
The Role and Use of Transitions
The Role of the Conclusion

Choosing the Right Language

The Importance of Considering Language

Variations in Directness, Abstraction, Objectivity, and Accuracy
Choosing Your Words
Matching Personal Style

Persuasive Speeches

Definition and Goals of Persuasive Speeches

The Psychology and Ethics of Persuasion
Types of Persuasive Speeches
Managing Speech Expectations
Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Pathos
Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Ethos
Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Logos
Sample Persuasive Speech

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 Components of a Speech
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the different aspects that comprise an effective speech. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. Components of a Speech
1a. Introduction
1b. Body and Main Points
1c. Conclusion
1d. Transitions
2. Building a Speech: Starting With an Outline
2a. Brainstorming
2b. Topic Outline
2c. Sentence Outline
3. Organizing Your Speech
3a. Establish a Timeline
3b. Playing Devil's Advocate
3c. The Broad and the Specific

1. Components of a Speech
A speech is more than simply an essay read aloud. Listening to a speaker is inherently different from reading a
page, and public speakers should keep that difference in mind as they prepare their work.

A traditional academic essay consists of an introduction, a body with alternating concrete details and
commentary, and a conclusion. The role of the introduction and conclusion are similar in speeches and essays,
but the "body" is a different matter. In a speech, you need to focus on your main points quickly and concisely up
front, whereas in a traditional academic essay, you may spend more time including details and proof leading up
to your main point.

Break free of the essay mindset, and try to think of a speech as the sum of four components:

Body (Main Points)

Introduction

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 Conclusion
Transitions

What's the difference? Read on to see what is special about the components of a speech.

This diagram shows the components of a speech that includes three main points. Your speech may have more or

fewer main points, but it should follow the same structure.

1a. Introduction
"Begin at the beginning." While this might be a line from the fantastical world of Lewis Carroll's Alice in
Wonderland, it's an excellent piece of advice when thinking about the introduction to your speech. The
introduction is the first part of your speech that will ultimately set the tone for the rest of your speech. It is
sometimes referred to as your opening.

The introduction should get the audience's attention, describe the topic, state the thesis or key message, and
give an overview of the speech and its main points. With the introduction, you have the power to capture your
audience's attention and interest while simultaneously giving them an understanding of what they're about to
hear for the next five, ten, or even sixty minutes. Open with a detailed map of your speech—giving good
directions in the beginning will save your audience from getting lost along the way.

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 An introduction can make or break a speech because if you can't capture your audience's attention right at the
beginning, how will they possibly remain interested for the duration of your speech?

 BIG IDEA

Your opening sets the tone for your speech. Here are some functions of an effective opening:
Capturing your audience’s attention. When crafting your speech, you'll want to select an attention-
getter to use in your introduction to instantly capture your audience's attention right from the
beginning. There are a variety of attention-getting techniques you can use, including humor, sharing an
anecdote or quotation, or referencing historical or current events. Using references is a simple and
effective way to grab your audience's attention. You may refer to the event at which you're speaking or
share a personal reference to the topic about which you're speaking. It's important to remember that
you want to select an attention-getter that is appropriate to your topic, your audience, and the venue or
occasion at which you are speaking.
Stating your purpose. When beginning your speech and as you capture your audience's attention,
you'll want to express exactly why they should listen to you. You may be giving a speech arguing a
certain point. You might be giving an informational speech about a specific topic. Your speech could
even be delivered at a special event such as an awards banquet, wedding, or political event.
Regardless of the context of your speech, it is important to establish the purpose of your speech to
your audience so your audience knows why they should listen to you. Your introduction is not just an
introduction to your topic but an introduction of who you are and why you are the appropriate
individual to speak about your subject. In some speeches, you may be introduced by someone who will
introduce you to your audience. If not, it's important to establish your credibility and authority as the
speech-giver to your audience.
Outlining your agenda. It is helpful for your audience to know what you plan to speak about. Use your
introduction to share your train of thought with your audience. You don't have to break your speech
organization down into minute detail; that's what the body of your speech will accomplish. Give your
audience an overview of your main points so they know what to expect as you continue your speech.

So, how do you start writing your introduction?

 STEP BY STEP

1. Write your introduction last. As counterintuitive as this may seem, you want to write your introduction
last. Since the introduction is often used as an outline for the key points of your speech, it's helpful to
have written the entire speech before you distill it into its major points and arguments. Once your entire
speech is written, minus your introduction, it's much easier to see which points emerge as your major
points.
2. Write your introduction word for word. While extemporaneous speeches don't give you this kind of
freedom, writing your introduction verbatim, or word for word, is vital for any prepared remarks. Writing
it down word for word lets you quickly see if you've left out any of your major points as you set up your
speech outline. You can also see if you have the right attention-getter suitable to your topic, audience,

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 and venue. Finally, since your introduction sets the tone for the rest of your speech, preparing it word
for word allows you to begin your speech with confidence.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Introduction
The first part of your speech, also known as the opening.

Anecdote
An account or story which supports an argument but is not supported by scientific or statistical analysis.

1b. Body and Main Points

Once you've captured your audience's attention with your opening, it's time to move into the “meat and
potatoes” of your speech: the body. The body should take up about three-quarters of your speech time since
this is where you will detail your main points.

Thinking of the body as containing “main points” can help speakers remember to keep it simple. A restless
audience may not have patience for the predictable, orderly progression of concrete details and commentary
that is typical in the body of an academic essay. Above all, communicate a few important points!

Here is a simple process for writing the body of your speech:

 STEP BY STEP

1. Establish your purpose. In Unit 2, you learned three general reasons you might be giving a speech: to
inform, to persuade, or some combination of the two. Each of these purposes requires a slightly
different approach to successfully communicate its objectives to an audience. Once you've established
your purpose, you can formulate a strategy for achieving that purpose with your main points. To
illustrate each main point, you will need to use a series of examples.
2. Determine your main points. Once your purpose is established, it's time to decide what main points
you will use to achieve that purpose. You'll want to start by brainstorming a list of all possible main
points to support your purpose. Once you've completed this list, begin to assign them weights and
priorities. Consider which points more effectively communicate your purpose than others. You may
want to nest some points under others, creating a natural hierarchy of main points and sub-points.
Equally important is determining exactly what does not belong in your speech or is irrelevant to your
subject. Ultimately, you'll want to boil down your main points to no more than three or four points. While
this may seem minimalistic, know that your audience will only be able to remember so much, and you
don't want to overwhelm them with too much information. Three or four main points allow you to
develop complete arguments to support your purpose while enabling your audience to follow your
logic.
3. Decide how you will tell your story. You'll want compelling evidence to support each speech's main
point. This evidence can be from researched data, facts and figures, or personal anecdotes and
references. You may cite quotations and historical or current events to bolster your arguments further.
Depending on your subject, audience, and venue, humor may also be appropriate to weave throughout

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 your speech. If the purpose of your speech is to inform, you will rely heavily on data, statistics, and
research to illustrate your points. You may even use an accompanying presentation, video, chart, or
images to help support your purpose. If the purpose of your speech is to persuade, you may find
yourself using a combination of research and anecdotes to get your points across. You may also use
accompanying media to illustrate your points; however, your data should be tailored to argue your
particular case best. This is not to say that you should manipulate your data; rather, present only the
information your audience needs to see and hear to support whatever argument you are trying to
make. No matter the purpose or order of your main points, it's important that you remember to stick to
the outline of your speech. If you begin to wander off-topic by sharing too many anecdotes or
presenting extraneous data, your audience may be unable to keep up, and you will quickly begin to
lose their interest.
4. Write the body of your speech. Once you've brainstormed and refined the main points of your speech,
you can begin to write the body of your speech. The easiest strategy is to outline your main points and
list the supporting evidence you'll provide for each main point. Depending on how comfortable you are
with memorization, this may be all you need when you get up in front of your audience. Many
professional speakers do not rely on anything other than a brief outline of their speech, either
memorizing what they plan to say in advance or simply speaking extemporaneously with only a basic
guide. If this is one of your first speeches, and the situation allows, you may want to write your
complete body word for word.

1c. Conclusion
Your conclusion is delivered at the end of the speech and is often what most people remember immediately
after a speech has ended. It should summarize the main points and repeat your key message or thesis.
Remember that many people struggle with auditory learning and have trouble focusing on spoken words.

Your listeners may not put everything together on their own, so you should make it easier for them by
summarizing your argument and reviewing central ideas in the conclusion. As important as your introduction is
for grabbing the audience's attention, the conclusion is doubly important as it leaves the audience with a lasting
impression.

 BIG IDEA

Leave a lasting impression! If your body is the meat and potatoes of your speech, then the conclusion is the
icing on the cake.
So, what do you need to accomplish with your conclusion?

Summarize your main points. The purpose of the conclusion is to summarize your main points and to
prepare the audience for the end of your speech. You'll want to recapture the essence of your speech: your
main points and the purpose of why you spoke. It is imperative to remember that the conclusion of your
speech is not the time to introduce new points or new supporting evidence; doing so will only confuse the
audience. Try to think of your conclusion like tying a bow or a ribbon: It's the final touch that makes your
project stand out.

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 Paraphrase. While summarizing your main points is important, be wary of simply repeating your main points
word for word. You'll want to paraphrase your main points rather than directly repeat them from your
speech's body. Instead, paraphrasing allows you to capture the essence of your speech, unlike rote
repetition of identical sentences you may have spoken just minutes earlier.
End on a high note. Your conclusion is the last thing your audience hears from you. Just as an introduction
can make or break a speech, you always want to end your speech on a high note with something
memorable. The conclusion is where you'll insert your takeaway message: What do you want the audience
to remember after you've finished speaking? What do you want them to recall in the days or weeks after
your speech? To create a memorable ending, you may want to share a quotation or anecdote. It's important
to remain relatable and credible to the audience up until your final word, so be sure to craft your conclusion
in a way that is still appropriate to the topic, audience, and venue.

Here’s a process you can follow when writing your conclusion.

 STEP BY STEP

1. Review and rephrase. Review your speech's body and ensure that you've touched upon all the main
points you wish to discuss, then rephrase those main points in your conclusion. Determine the take-
home message that you want to leave with your audience and either include it word for word in your
conclusion or use it as a guiding theme for how you'll end your speech. If you have any final anecdotes
or quotations to share that either drive home a particular point or capture the theme of your speech,
include them here.
2. Include a trigger phrase. While there is no set time or sentence limit for your conclusion, ensure you
don't finish your speech so suddenly that your audience is caught off guard when the speech ends.
Using trigger phrases such as "in conclusion" or "in summary" signifies to your audience that the
speech is about to end and that they should pay special attention to your final thoughts.

 TERM TO KNOW

Summarize
To give a recapitulation of the salient facts; to recapitulate or review.

1d. Transitions
As you craft your speech, you must transition from one point to the next to fully articulate your purpose or
objectives. When read aloud, your speech should flow smoothly from the introduction to the body, from main
point to main point, and then finally into your conclusion. Transitions are essential to help your audience follow
along your line of reasoning.

A transition is a change or shift from one topic to another. It may be surprising that transitions are one of the
four key components of a speech. Academic writers think of transitions as important stylistic elements rather
than essential building blocks.

However, transitions are crucial for public speakers since speakers need to compensate for the loss of visual
formatting. On a written page, formatting provides a helpful road map: The reader sees topic headings,

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 paragraph breaks, and other visual cues that signal transitions naturally.

 BIG IDEA

Transitions help you (and your audience) to see the flow of your ideas more clearly.

 KEY CONCEPT

There are different types of transitions often used in speeches, including:

Temporal: Using words like "before" and "after."
Equality: Highlighting points of equal importance, like "in addition" or "moreover."
Causality: Using words that show cause and effect.
Compare and contrast: Using words and phrases that compare one part of the speech to the next, like
"contrarily" or "on the other hand."
Introductions and summaries: These transitions let listeners know what a person will be speaking
about and offer a way to understand the important parts of a speech.

Speakers can replicate these cues and signal transitions using visual aids and body language. Still, it will take
more conscious effort than simply hitting "enter" to create a paragraph break. Speakers can emphasize
transition points with visual aids, body language, vocal delivery, and transitional words and phrases.

Visual aids such as slides and handouts are a great way to guide the audience through your transitions. A slide
or handout with topic headings printed on it is a good road map for a speech, preparing the audience for any
twists and turns that may come up.

Here are a few tips for writing your transitions.

Use a smooth segue. To move from one point into the next, you'll want to segue into your new point.
Sometimes your points may share similar themes or concepts—order your points in such a way as to
capitalize on those similarities.
Present the opposing view. You can also use opposition to present the main opposing points. Suppose you
have multiple pieces of supporting evidence. In that case, you may need to transition between examples so
your audience knows you are furthering a point with another model, anecdote, or set of researched data.
Use trigger words. However you decide to transition, you'll want to use triggering keywords that let your
audience know you're moving on to a new point. Ordinal words like "next," "second,” and "third" give your
audience the heads up that you're about to proceed in a new or continued direction of thought.

These transitional words and phrases signal a change, giving the audience a "heads up" about an upcoming
transition:

Transition Transitional Words

Connecting additionally
also
again

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 moreover
furthermore
coupled with
for example
for instance
likewise
similarly
specifically
indeed
in fact

however
although
but
nevertheless
on one hand
Contrasting on the other hand
besides
yet
on the contrary
conversely
comparatively

overall
above all
therefore
thus
accordingly
Concluding consequently
in conclusion
finally
in essence
in other words
in short
Here’s a process you can consider when writing your transitions.

 STEP BY STEP

1. Prioritize and sort main points. After you have identified your main points and outlined what evidence
you'll use to support them, begin to prioritize and sort your main points, so they follow in the most
logical order.
2. Identify transitions. From there, you'll be able to pinpoint how you'll want to transition your speech from
one point to the next. Try to think of transitions as a way to connect the dots of your speech's purpose.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Segue
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

2. Building a Speech: Starting With an Outline

It is always a good idea to make an outline before you begin writing a speech. An outline is a structural plan
that lists main points, summarizes claims, and serves as a guide for the writing process. Working from an outline
can help you organize your speech and put supporting elements, such as definitions and supporting evidence,
in order.

Some outlines are minimal, providing a quick sketch of a speech's main points. Other outlines are very detailed,
filling in a skeleton of topic headings with topic sentences, pieces of evidence, and transitions.

Many students are familiar with outlining techniques from academic writing classes. Outlining a speech is
similar, but there is one key difference: Speechwriters can use the outlining process to create prompts to aid
with delivering the speech. Some speakers like to use handwritten notes, and others use cue cards; still others
read from a printed script, and some experienced speakers don't use any prompts at all.

Ideally, with practice, you will avoid reading a script word for word; burying your face in paper for the entirety of
the speech will limit your ability to engage the audience. However, minimal prompts such as cue cards and
outline-style notes may help you stay on topic and remember the main points. Whether or not you plan to use
prompts, creating an outline is a great way to refine your argument—and you can always ignore it once you
begin writing.

 TERM TO KNOW

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

2a. Brainstorming
Many speakers like to brainstorm before making an outline. Brainstorming, which involves techniques such as
creating "idea maps" or flowcharts that connect ideas and evidence, is less formal and structured than outlining.

It is a great place to begin if you have a hard time settling on a definite plan for your speech.

2b. Topic Outline

A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech's main points. Topic outlines tend to use keywords and short
phrases rather than complete sentences.

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 A topic outline is fragmentary—it serves as a prompt rather than a draft of material to use in the actual speech.

This outline provides a general overview of the structure of a science presentation.

 TERM TO KNOW

Topic Outline
A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech's main points. Topic outlines use keywords and short
phrases rather than complete sentences.

2c. Sentence Outline

A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences.

Sentence outlines are more detailed than topic outlines but less detailed than first drafts.

 TERM TO KNOW

Sentence Outline
A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences.

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 3. Organizing Your Speech
Now that you have done some research, it’s time to organize your speech.

You did keep all of your notes centrally collected and easily accessible, right? If you put all of your research
notes and thoughts onto notecards, it is particularly helpful to lay them out in front of you and begin to organize
your points and sub-points in ways that make the most logical sense.

In Unit 2, we discussed the importance of knowing your purpose and audience. How you organize your speech
will depend on your purpose, your audience, and the message you want to get across. If you’re giving a
persuasive speech, you will need to organize your content based on how your audience may react. Are they
open to your message, or are they resistant?

If you are giving an informative speech, you need to consider what your audience already knows, what they
don’t know, and what they need to know.

Your thesis is what you want the audience to take away from your speech. When composing your thesis,
consider and answer the following questions:

What is the primary message you want the audience to take away from your speech?
What do they already know about your topic? What don’t they know?
What is their viewpoint? Will they be receptive? Indifferent? Resistant?
What’s in it for them? Why should they care?
What other opinions have been expressed about your topic?
Are there any cultural or societal issues you need to consider?

 TERM TO KNOW

Thesis
A concise summary of the argument or main points, usually one to three sentences long, also referred
to as a speech’s key message or primary message.

3a. Establish a Timeline

There are several ways to organize an informational speech. One way is to establish a timeline.

Depending on your subject and the point you are attempting to make, it might make sense to order your
research and points in chronological order.

EXAMPLE If you are giving a speech on the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, it makes sense to start
with its rise, and end with its fall.
Outlining your speech as a series of chronological events or points allows your audience to follow along a linear
timeline for an easy understanding of your subject matter.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Chronological
In order of time from the earliest to the latest.

3b. Playing Devil's Advocate

If your speech is persuasive, it’s crucial to take a step back and play devil’s advocate—that is, take a look at your
argument from the opposing viewpoint.

By considering all sides of your argument, you will bolster your case by preparing for all possible objections and
rebuttals to the claims you intend to make in your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Rebut
To deny the truth of something, especially by presenting arguments that disprove it.

3c. The Broad and the Specific

If you have a receptive audience, you can present your big idea first and then support it with sub-points that
support or explain the idea. For example, you may present your solution to a problem and then present the
proof.

However, if you have a resistant audience, you may need to start with supporting points that logically lead them
to understand and accept your solution or big idea.

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 You can present your idea from smallest to largest or largest to smallest.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the components of a speech include the introduction, body and main
points, conclusion, and transitions. Public speakers can emphasize transition points with visual aids,
body language, vocal delivery, and transitional words and phrases. When you are building a speech,
you should always start with an outline. If you are having trouble writing your outline, try brainstorming
first. A topic outline, or a general list of topics, evidence, quotes, and other details, is a good way to
organize your main points and create a general overview of the speech. If you want to make an outline
that includes text from the actual speech, write a sentence outline.

You also learned that organizing your speech will help you to communicate your ideas clearly to your
audience and accomplish the goals of your speech. Depending on the nature of your speech, you may
choose to organize your ideas chronologically by establishing a timeline. Your thesis (primary
message) is at the core of your organizational structure. If your speech is persuasive, consider playing

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 devil’s advocate to your argument. You can also choose to present your ideas from the broad to the
specific or vice versa.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Anecdote
An account or story which supports an argument but is not supported by scientific or statistical
analysis.

Chronological
In order of time from the earliest to the latest.

Introduction
The first part of your speech, also known as the opening.

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

Rebut
To deny the truth of something, especially by presenting arguments that disprove it.

Segue
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Sentence Outline
A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences.

Summarize
To give a recapitulation of the salient facts; to recapitulate or review.

Thesis
A concise summary of the argument or main points, usually one to three sentences long, also
referred to as a speech’s key message or primary message.

Topic Outline
A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech's main points. Topic outlines use keywords and short
phrases rather than complete sentences.

Transition

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 The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

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 Choosing the Main Points
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to determine the focus of your speech. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Choosing Main Points
1a. Focus on the Audience
1b. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Audiences
2. The Stakes
3. The Innovation
4. The Purpose

1. Choosing Main Points

When you are preparing a speech, it is important to establish a clear focus from the beginning.

How should you narrow your focus and choose your main points? Follow the first commandment of public
speaking: Know Thy Audience.

1a. Focus on the Audience

According to a Greek philosopher named Epictetus, "We have two ears and one mouth so that we can listen
twice as much as we speak." Epictetus's wisdom applies to public speaking: Listening to the audience is twice
as important as speaking to the audience.

Find out what your audience members already know about your topic, what they want to learn, and why it is
important to them. If you focus on information that is obvious, irrelevant, or incomprehensible to them, you may
find yourself speaking to a room full of yawns, cell phones, and backs walking out of your talk.

However, if you research your audience's demographics, you may avoid some common last-minute dilemmas:
"Do I need to define this term?" "Will this anecdote offend anyone?" "Will anyone care about what I'm saying?"

Of course, some groups are easier to figure out than others.

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 IN CONTEXT

Let's say you are speaking at a professional development conference for paralegals. In that case, the
attendees share a common purpose, which makes it easier to address their specific needs. You could
look at sources such as professional journals and conference bulletins from previous years to see
what issues are important to ambitious paralegals.

If, on the other hand, you are speaking at a high school graduation ceremony, the audience may
include a wide range of people with very little in common except the ceremony itself. In that case, your
main points could focus on graduation, the one thing that binds everyone together.

Before you choose your main points, answer these questions about the audience:

What does the audience know about my topic?

Is the audience homogeneous or heterogeneous?
How does this topic relate to the audience?
Why is this topic important to the audience?
What is at stake for the audience?
What does the audience want to learn about my topic?
How can I show the audience that my main points are relevant and useful?

1b. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Audiences

A homogeneous audience is a group of people who share a consistent level of interest and expertise in your
topic. A heterogeneous audience includes people with different levels of expertise and interest in your topic.

It is important to determine what type of audience you have and plan your speech accordingly.

EXAMPLE If you are writing a toast for your best friend's wedding, you already know what your listeners
want: They are gathered to celebrate the happy couple, and your toast should help them do that. On the
other hand, if you are presenting scientific research to a mixed audience of academics and wealthy donors,
you need to navigate a varied set of interests, agendas, and levels of knowledge as you select your main
points.
If there are non-experts in the audience, it is important to provide background information and define key terms.
For a heterogeneous audience, you should make points that appeal to different segments of the audience but
also try to identify points that will unite your listeners under a common cause.

If you are addressing a homogeneous group, don't take their interest for granted. It's not a free pass—a
homogeneous audience is not a captive audience.

EXAMPLE If you are presenting research on business ethics to a group of specialists in your field, make
sure to include points that might be applicable to their research.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Heterogeneous
Diverse in kind or nature; composed of diverse parts.

Homogeneous
Having the same composition throughout; of uniform makeup.

2. The Stakes
How does your topic relate to your listeners, why should they care about it, and what is at stake for them? The
answers to these questions will be your best guide in choosing the main points.

If you want to hold your audience's attention, your speech needs to answer these questions as early as
possible.

3. The Innovation
What are you adding to the existing conversation about your topic? What can your speech offer that the
audience won't find elsewhere?

If you want to hold your audience's attention, make a case for the comparative advantage of your perspective.

4. The Purpose
Most speeches aim to do one of three things: to inform, to persuade, or to commemorate.

Choose main points that will fulfill your speech's overall purpose:

For an informative speech, provide a foundation of relevant information and then present knowledge and
wisdom that will be useful to your audience.
A persuasive speech assumes that your audience already has preconceptions about your topic. Address
these preconceptions, and then introduce points that prove the value of your position.
A commemorative speech usually compiles stories and wisdom that will help the audience honor,
remember, or celebrate something.

Remember the broad purpose of your speech (to inform, to persuade, or to commemorate) as you choose your
main points.

 SUMMARY

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 19
 In this lesson, you learned that when choosing your main points, you should remember to focus on
your audience. If you are speaking to a homogeneous audience, research the particular interests of
that group and tailor your speech to meet their needs. If you are speaking to a heterogeneous
audience, try to find points that will interest each segment of your audience and also a common
purpose to unify diverse elements. As you choose your main points, ask yourself what is at stake for
the audience. What is innovative about your perspective, and what is its purpose?

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Heterogeneous
Diverse in kind or nature; composed of diverse parts.

Homogeneous
Having the same composition throughout; of uniform makeup.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 20
 Highlighting the Main Points
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to highlight the focus of your speech for your audience. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. Highlighting the Main Points
2. Visual and Textual Cues
2a. Highlighting With Graphics
2b. Highlighting With Text
2c. Highlighting With Signal Words and Phrases
2d. Highlighting With Examples

1. Highlighting the Main Points

The scenario: Your teacher is droning on and on, and your mind wanders... "Mmm, food. What's in the fridge?
Should I buy groceries after class? What could I make for dinner?" When you snap back into focus, the teacher
has just finished explaining a key concept. Nothing else makes sense without that piece of the puzzle, but you
can't just turn back a page or hit rewind, so you're out of luck!

We've all been there, right? This is an important lesson for public speakers: No matter what you do, audience
members will zone out occasionally. In an ideal world, your listeners would cherish every word that comes out
of your mouth, but in the real world, that's not going to happen.

It's practically a law of nature, so you might as well accept it and plan accordingly: Highlight your main points to
help your audience catch the most important ideas.

2. Visual and Textual Cues

Public speakers can highlight important points using visual cues and textual cues. Visual cues are cues the
audience can see, including aids such as slides, handouts, charts, and also the speaker's body language.

Textual cues relate to the content of the speech: signal words and phrases, examples, anecdotes, and
selections of text that appear on a slide or handout.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 21
 Take responsibility for your message and use some of these tried and tested techniques to get your message
across.

Using visual cues helps to highlight your main points.

The combined effect of both visual and verbal messaging has a positive impact on long-term memory.
Experimental psychologists and educators have found that retaining information three days after a presentation
is six times greater when that information is presented both visually and verbally than when it’s presented by
the spoken word alone.

Fortunately, speakers can use visual cues to make their words "stick." For examples of visual cues, just look at
the page you are reading right now. Important points are highlighted with topic headings in large typeface, bold
font, italics, bulleted lists, banks of key terms, etc.: The visual presentation of a printed page functions as a
guide for the reader.

For a speech, the rules are a little bit different. To highlight key terms and new topic headings, a speaker can
create slides or handouts that outline the speech's main points. To convey the effect of italics or bold print, a
speaker has to rely on tone of voice rather than visual cues. Speakers can also poll the audience and ask them
to raise their hands and look around the room to see the results.

Here are several techniques for using visual aids such as slides, handouts, or posters to enhance your
presentation.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 22
  TERMS TO KNOW

Visual Cues
A signal the audience can see. Examples of visual cues include slides, handouts, charts, and also the
speaker's body language.

Textual Cues
Signals within the language of a speech: key words and phrases, examples, anecdotes, and selections
of text that appear on a slide or handout.

2a. Highlighting With Graphics

Graphics such as charts and pictures can make a presentation more engaging by illustrating the main points. If
you support your claims with numbers, visual aids such as charts, graphs, and models will help your audience
understand the figures easier and faster. If your speech describes people, places, or objects, pictures of those
subjects will make your presentation more vivid and interesting.

2b. Highlighting With Text

Visual aids such as slides, handouts, and posters are excellent ways to highlight key phrases, definitions,
quotes, and lists. Spoken words can evaporate as soon as they leave your mouth, but written words stay in
place—they're not going anywhere.

Try to put your most important points in concrete form.

EXAMPLE A slide show that lists important definitions allows the audience to copy the definitions
exactly as they appear, refer back to them, and make mental notes of the most important terms.
When you make an outline of your speech, keep the question of visual aids in mind. You can save time with an
outline that converts easily into visual aids; remember this when you choose subject headings, definitions,
quotes, and key phrases.

2c. Highlighting With Signal Words and Phrases

Signal words and phrases are designed to command attention. These verbal road signs have many uses, one of
which is to highlight important points. Here are some examples of signal words and phrases that will alert your
audience to pay attention: important, noteworthy, crucial, vital, major, principal, primary, central, valuable,
defining, distinctive, relevant, above all, and in the end.

2d. Highlighting With Examples

Instructions, rules, and descriptions are all great, but if you want to make a concept stick, support it with an
example. Different types of examples include facts, figures, data, illustrations, anecdotes, and quotes.

As an illustration, compare the following two versions of the same point:

Version 1 Version 2

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 23
 Anne Smith is one of the forty-six million Americans
who live below the poverty line today. Last week,
Anne arrived at the emergency room of Lutheran
General Hospital unconscious and seriously injured
Many Americans struggle with debt. For this reason, after a drunk driver hit her and left her half dead.
affordable health care is an important priority for our Anne survived, thanks to the hardworking EMTs at
country. Lutheran General, but she woke up the next morning
with $120,000 in medical bills. A health care system
that cripples its patients with debt is not consistent
with a healthy economy: Americans like Anne deserve
better.
The second version combines facts, figures, and an anecdote to convey the human impact of the situation
along with its broader significance. That is the power of an example in action.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that when highlighting your main points, you should remember that people
will remember information longer when it is provided both visually and verbally. Using visual and
textual cues, such as graphics, text, signal words, and examples will help you to highlight what is most
important in your speech.

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BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Textual Cues
Signals within the language of a speech: key words and phrases, examples, anecdotes, and
selections of text that appear on a slide or handout.

Visual Cues
A signal the audience can see. Examples of visual cues include slides, handouts, charts, and also
the speaker's body language.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 24
 Ordering the Main Points
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you learn how it is important to make sure that a speech flows properly to enhance
understanding. When ordering main points, the speaker should consider the audience and find a way
to make sure that the points are arranged to help retention and clarity. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. How Many Main Points?
2. Ways to Organize the Main Points of Body

1. How Many Main Points?

Try to keep the main points down to three or four with supporting sub-points. An audience will only be able to
grasp so much information at one time, and the presenter does not want to bombard the audience with too
much information at once.

Additionally, make sure that each of your main points is supported by the same number of sub-points or
evidence. This adds balance and proportion to your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Sub-Points
A sub-point has a direct, specific relation to its major point that you can make clear by the
organizational method you choose.

2. Ways to Organize the Main Points of Body

The following are the nine different ways to organize your speech, including examples to help you understand
better.

Each of the main points, of course, would require additional support and evidence in a speech and are
identified only to aid the conceptualization of the organizational forms.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 25
 Type of
Definition Example
Organization

Explain a new project launch by

explaining the process and giving
Temporal organization is the chronological timelines from start to finish:
Temporal
approach; it is a good choice when you are telling a In the first phase…
Organization
story, explaining research, or outlining a future plan. In the second phase…
In the final phase…

Costs have been rising over the

Cause-effect organization is telling why something
last year. There are several causes
happened; cause-effect may be used for past,
Cause-Effect for this change. OR
present, or future events and processes. Cause-
Organization There are new factors causing
effect can also be reversed, from effect back to
changes in our industry. The effect
cause.
has been higher costs all around.

When using spatial patterns, be sure to proceed

systematically from one place to the next, following
a clear order. A size sequence is a variation on
Spatial Pattern spatial organization, describing different artifacts First you enter here, then you go
Organization from smallest to largest (or from largest to smallest). through there, and you end up…
This is useful when describing something, especially
a progression through a place/time or a physical
object.

Topical organization is an appropriate approach

Topical Animals: mammals, birds, fish,
when the subject matter has clear categories of
Organization reptiles, amphibians
division.

If you are reporting three problems

Patterns of importance can be used to discuss the
Importance to your senior management,
different reasons for something and then designate
Patterns organize each in order of
their importance.
importance to the company.

Define the problem and present

options to solve the problem.
Comparing and contrasting takes two or more
Compare and contrast them to
Compare/Contrast entities and draws attention to their differences
show the positives and negatives
and/or similarities.
for each. Explain why one of those
options is the best choice.

Problem-Solution Problem-solution organization involves the Problem: We need to cut our travel
identification of a problem followed by a possible costs.
solution. Solution: Hold more client

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 26
 meetings online rather than in
person.

1. Our current reliance on fossil

fuels is not sustainable in the
Stock issues are designed to organize
long term.
presentations on issues of policy in a more
2. We are paying a price with
complicated way than simple problem-solution.
increased air and water
There are generally four main components to this
pollution and global warming.
organizational scheme:
1. A description of the current system (inherency, 3. Investing in solar energy,
or the inherent flaws in the current system). hydroelectric energy, and

Stock Issues biofuels will move us in the

2. Explanation of the harms that result from the
right direction.
current system (harms).
4. If we do not change course,
3. A program to address those harms (a plan of
we could face even larger
action).
challenges in the future.
4. Reasons why the plan would be preferable to
Taking these steps now will
keeping the current system (solvency or why
slow global warming and
the plan would help the problem).
improve health for people
around the world.

Attention: Our lakes are becoming

more and more polluted.
Monroe's motivated sequence is a good Need: We are no longer able to
organizational tactic for persuasive speaking. It has fish or swim in many of our lakes.
five components: Satisfaction: Using organic
Monroe’s 1. Attention products on our lawns and
Motivated 2. Need gardens will decrease pollution
Sequence 3. Satisfaction levels and restore our lakes.

4. Visualization Visualization: We will once again

be able to fish and swim in those
5. Action
lakes.
Action: Here’s what we need to
do. Will you join me?

 TERM TO KNOW

Chronological
In order of time from the earliest to the latest.

 SUMMARY

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 27
 In this lesson, you learned that when ordering main points, the speaker should consider the audience
and find a way to make sure the points are selected and arranged to help retention and clarity. You
learned how many main points would be salient; try to limit a speech to three or four main points with
supporting sub-points to make sure the audience is not overwhelmed with too much information. Each
of the main points would require additional support and evidence in a speech and is identified only to
aid the conceptualization of the organizational forms. You also learned methods for organizing your
main points. Asking someone to listen to the speech can help make sure that the main points flow well
and are in an order that will help maximize understanding for the audience.

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Chronological
In order of time from the earliest to the latest.

Sub-Points
A sub-point has a direct, specific relation to its major point that you can make clear by the
organizational method you choose.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 28
 The Preparation Outline
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the benefits of creating an outline for your speech. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Reasons to Outline
2. Purpose
3. Organization
4. The Preparation Outline
5. Outline Approach
6. Outline Structure

1. Reasons to Outline
There are many reasons to create an outline, but in general, it may be helpful to create an outline when you
want to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering of information.

Many people find that organizing a speech or presentation in outline form helps them speak more effectively in
front of a crowd.

Below are the primary reasons for creating an outline.

 TERM TO KNOW

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

2. Purpose
An outline helps guide you as you prepare your speech as follows:

Helps you organize your ideas

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 29
 Presents your material in a logical form
Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
Constructs an ordered overview of your speech
Groups ideas into main points

When you clearly outline exactly what points you would like to convey in each section of your speech, it will be
much easier to envision.
You can ensure you do not skip anything crucial and that your speech follows a logical sequence and order of
information.

3. Organization
Your outline should consist of the three main components of your speech: the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion. Within each of these sections, you'll need to plan more specifically what you would like to say.

You can list your hook in the introduction; identify three or so main points in the body of your speech. Clearly lay
out how you will end your speech and what thoughts you will leave your audience with in your conclusion.

It is important to keep in mind that your outline is only a guide. The purpose of it is to aid you in delivering a
clear speech that flows smoothly and effectively, communicating all your ideas. An outline is not a script of your
speech with the exact text you want to say, nor is it a rigid structure that you must follow exactly when giving
your speech.

Think of your outline as a skeleton—a tool for the delivery of extemporaneous speaking. It will serve as the
backbone of your speech, providing you with a solid structure on which to build. However, it is your job to flesh
it out and enrich it. Use your creative flare to make the bare bones more appealing and accessible to your
audience.

4. The Preparation Outline

A preparation outline is a precursor to your speech outline. As its name suggests, a preparation outline helps
you prepare your speech.

Presentations that require significant research, visual aids, or other types of content outside of speech rehearsal
usually require organization and preparation in the form of an outline.

An outline is a list of items organized according to a consistent principle. Each item may be divided into
additional sub-items or sub-points. A preparation outline consists of three main sections: the introduction, the
body, and the conclusion. It also includes the title of the speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 30
 Prepare
To make ready for a specific future purpose; to set up; to assemble.

5. Outline Approach
The types of preparation outlines for speeches vary. However, it is up to you to evaluate the style most
appropriate for the speech, as well as the best form to assist you.

Common outline styles include sentence outlines, topic outlines, chronological outlines, and alphanumeric
outlines. While sentence outlines follow a hierarchical structure composed of sentences and headings around
the subject of the speech, topic outlines are comprised of topics and subtopics.

Alphanumeric outlines include a prefix in the form of a Roman numeral at the top level, uppercase letters for the
next level, Arabic numerals for the third level, and lowercase letters for the final level.

6. Outline Structure
If, for example, you have separate visual aids for the introduction, main points in the body of your speech, and
your conclusion, then using a sentence style for your preparation outline may be more appropriate.

Your preparation outline will start with the introduction and may include an agenda or preview of the main topic
and an attention-grabbing quote, statistic, or anecdote to engage your audience in your topic.

The body of your speech will contain the main points that support your key message (thesis). You should add
subtopics underneath each main topic covered in the body to provide additional supporting detail.

No matter what type of speech you are giving, every preparation outline should have a conclusion. The
conclusion allows you to restate and emphasize your main topic or argument (mentioned in the introduction) in
a summary or list of key points. Moreover, you should identify how you will end your speech for the audience.

Additional items you can add to the preparation outline include a reference list of sources you have used to
prepare your speech.

Remember, an outline is simply your guide. While there are traditional and nontraditional ways of outlining, do
not worry about "right and wrong" ways to outline. However, a standard preparation outline can serve as a
helpful aid for a well-prepared and organized presentation.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned how an outline can help you group ideas into main points and see their
logical connections. The purpose of an outline is to effectively sequence your information and ensure
you touch on all your main points. Your outline should be organized into three parts: your introduction,

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 31
 body, and conclusion.

You also learned that the types of preparation outlines for speeches vary; however, it is up to the
presenter to choose the format that best fits the content and personal style of the presentation.
Common outline approaches and structures include sentence outlines, topic outlines, chronological
outlines, and alphanumeric outlines. Similar to any traditional outlines, preparation outlines include a
speech title, introduction, body, conclusion, and supporting references or sources.

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

Prepare
To make ready for a specific future purpose; to set up; to assemble.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 32
 The Speaking and Rough Draft Outlines
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to create a guide for the presentation of your speech. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. The Speaking Outline
1a. The Role of the Speaking Outline
1b. Parts of a Speaking Outline
2. The Rough Draft Outline
2a. Benefits of Rough Draft Outlines
2b. Starting the Rough Draft Outline
2c. The Components of a Rough Draft Outline

1. The Speaking Outline

After putting together a rough draft outline (i.e., the "skeleton" of the speech), writers can then progress to the
speaking outline.

Speaking outlines fill out additional details about the speech, as well as where the speaker plans to mention
short phrases, pause, and transition to other topics. This outline may also include where the speaker would like
to ask questions or use visual aids such as flip charts and handouts.

The speaking outline acts as a guide for the speaker on how to time and pace the delivery of the speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

1a. The Role of the Speaking Outline

Unlike the rough draft outline, which includes short notes on structure, the speaking outline covers both the
main points and aids the speaker's memory on certain topics.

It offers the speaker more flexibility in tailoring the speech to the audience's needs and reactions.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 33
 Speaking outlines can be used to prepare and rehearse speeches, as well as serve as memory aids during the
presentation.

1b. Parts of a Speaking Outline

While speaking outlines include an introduction, body, and conclusion, they also note where transitions take
place and when vital key points or statistics should be mentioned during the presentation.

The structure of the speaking outline will likely vary slightly depending on the subject, timing, and audience. For
example, notes may be added on when to introduce visual aids during the presentation.

Nevertheless, a basic speaking outline generally includes the following parts:

Parts of a
Speaking Description
Outline

This includes notes on whether the speaker starts with a quote, statistics, personal story, or
Introduction humorous joke. It leads into the overview of the speech, previews the main topics, and
captures the attention of the audience.

The first transition should be as smooth as possible, and be placed after the introduction
First Transition
and before the body of the speech.

The body lists the main points, sub-points, and supporting evidence. Each sub-point in the
Body
outline should have a supporting bullet.

Second
The second transition comes after the body and before the conclusion.
Transition

This includes a bullet to signal the end of the speech, a bullet restating the objectives or
main argument, and a bullet that reviews the main topics discussed in the body. The
Conclusion
speaker may also add a note to say a memorable statement or call to action (e.g., thank the
audience, etc.).
To successfully deliver an outlined speech, presenters are usually subject matter experts or at least sufficiently
knowledgeable about the topic.

But even for experienced speakers and speech writers, a speaking outline organizes thoughts, uncovers
transitions, and reminds speakers to elaborate on key ideas.

2. The Rough Draft Outline

Rough draft outlines are part of the development process of speeches, crafting the flow and style of speakers'
presentations into a substantive and complete product.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 34
 Creating rough draft outlines (i.e., an outline that serves as a precursor to the speech's rough draft) often helps
organize and structure speakers' ideas into a cohesive and definitive topic.

 TERM TO KNOW

Draft
A preliminary sketch; rough outline.

2a. Benefits of Rough Draft Outlines

Outlines help form the skeleton of the speaker's speech. They provide a pattern from which the speaker writes
their main statement, argument, and supporting points.

The rough draft outline is particularly valuable at the prewriting stage and provides the writer flexibility for
revisions to the structure of the speech.

Ultimately, rough outlines help organize the speech writer's initial thoughts into a comprehensive process that
flows into a rough draft and eventually a final speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

2b. Starting the Rough Draft Outline

One of the most useful techniques for starting a rough draft outline is brainstorming. Similar to freewriting,
brainstorming jumpstarts the creative process by letting the speechwriter's ideas flow and connect together
around a specific topic. It also serves as a tool for overcoming writer's block.

Prior to starting the rough draft outline, some research should be completed. Ideally, the writer has also
finalized the main topics they will be discussing during the speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Writer's Block
The inability to begin or continue work on a piece of writing; normally temporary.

2c. The Components of a Rough Draft Outline

The parts that comprise a rough draft outline are similar to other types of writing outlines. They include:

An introduction: This part of the draft outline should include an intro topic sentence, as well as notes on the
argument or point of view of the speech.
A body: The body of the speech's argument should include one or more main points. Each main point is
supported by sub-points, which highlight factual evidence relating back to the main argument or dismiss
opposing arguments.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 35
 A conclusion: The speaker should note how they will restate their point of view and summarize the
argument.

Your rough draft outline is essentially a technique for organizing and jotting down ideas in a traditional outline
format.
Because this is the rough draft outline, it will ultimately change as the speechwriter conducts additional
research and continues to shape their speech topic.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the speaking outline has a specific role: It lists the main points and aids
the speaker's memory on certain topics. Speaking outlines generally include four parts: an introduction,
body, conclusion, and transitions. To successfully deliver an outlined speech, it helps for presenters to
be subject matter experts or at least sufficiently knowledgeable about the topic. You also learned about
rough draft outlines, which have distinct benefits: They help form the skeleton of the speaker's speech
and provide a pattern from which the speaker writes their main statement, argument, and supporting
points. Before starting the rough draft outline, some research should be completed. Rough draft
outlines should include the following components: notes on the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Rough draft outlines ultimately change as the speechwriter conducts additional research and continues
to shape his or her speech topic.

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Draft
A preliminary sketch; rough outline.

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or
summary of the content of a document.

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Writer's Block
The inability to begin or continue work on a piece of writing; normally temporary.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 36
 The Role of the Introduction
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about why it's important to have a strong introduction to your speech.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Role of the Introduction
2. The Road Map
3. Writing the Introduction
4. Getting Attention and Interest
5. Strategies for the Opening
6. Repetition

1. Role of the Introduction

The introduction is the best opportunity to convince your audience that you have something worthwhile to say.

An introduction can accomplish this by fulfilling five critical responsibilities:

1. Get the audience's attention.

2. Introduce the topic.
3. Explain its relevance to the audience.
4. State a thesis or purpose.
5. Outline the main points.

By the end of the introduction, the audience should know where you're headed and what your speech will
cover. If you are giving a persuasive speech, state your thesis in the introduction. If you are giving an
informative speech, explain what you will be teaching the audience.
As you write your introduction, try to answer these questions:

What is the scope of your presentation—how narrow or broad is your topic?

How does it relate to the audience?
What is at stake for the audience?
Do you have any new insights or unique perspectives to add to the existing discussion of your topic?

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 37
 Why should the audience listen to you instead of someone else?
Will you be informing the audience or making an argument?

 TERM TO KNOW

Introduction
A way to engage the audience and preview the topic.

2. The Road Map

You should provide a road map of your speech for your listener in your introduction.

By the end of the introduction, you should also provide a brief overview of your main points. This "road map"
will help the audience understand the main points in the context of your larger purpose.

Without a good map to follow, the audience is liable to get lost along the way. A good introduction is the best
way to make sure your message gets through.

In sum, the introduction should:

Hook the audience.

Describe your topic.
Explain how your topic is relevant to the audience.
Explain the stakes at hand.
Establish credibility: What authority do you have to discuss this topic?
State your innovation: What is new or special about your perspective?

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 38
 Lay out a road map of your speech.
Outline your main points.
State your thesis or purpose.

3. Writing the Introduction

If you have an anecdote, quote, question, or some other "hook" that inspires you to start writing the
introduction, go for it.

Don't take inspiration for granted! In some cases, the right story will set up a natural sequence for your main
points, launching the speech effortlessly.

Otherwise, it may be easier to begin the introduction after you write about your main points. Working through
the main points will set the destination of the speech, and it doesn't hurt to have a clear idea of where you're
going before you set out.

4. Getting Attention and Interest

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 39
 Gaining the attention of your audience is essential for an effective speech.

Public speaking is essentially the art of convincing an audience to listen to you against all odds. How can you
pry your listeners away from their day-to-day concerns? What would make you the most interesting person in
their lives—at least until you finish your speech? You need to act fast since first impressions tend to overshadow
all other impressions. The opening of your speech will determine the audience's willingness to listen. Learn how
to deliver a dynamite opening, and you can make that fact work in your favor.

5. Strategies for the Opening

Here are eight ways to open a speech with panache:

Strategy Example

Make a provocative or controversial

statement. You can back down from
The United States should control its population growth by imposing fines
an extreme position later, but
on parents who have more than one child.
controversy is an effective way to
capture the audience's attention.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 40
 State a surprising or little-known Did you know that eating blueberries can actually make you smarter by
fact. boosting neurotransmitters in your brain?

Open with a quote. If you can't

think of an attention-grabbing
Oscar Wilde once said, "Always forgive your enemies; nothing annoys
sentence yourself, get some
them so much."
outside assistance (with proper
attribution, of course).

I was driving home from work on a cold, rainy day when I saw a scrawny
cat by the side of the road. Her ribs were sticking out under her filthy,
matted fur; she was clearly starving. I made the split-second decision to
Open with a brief anecdote.
find a home for this cat, pulled over, lifted her up into the passenger
seat, and began a journey that would change my life in ways I could
never have imagined.

Genetically modified foods are filling grocery stores all over the country;
Make a case for your topic's
they are unavoidable at this point. If you've eaten something today,
relevance to the reader.
you've eaten something genetically modified today.

Take a stand against something.

Don't attack a "straw man," or a The hazing rituals of this university's fraternities and sororities are
vague, made-up antagonist—be getting worse, not better.
specific.

Corporate culture is evolving toward workspaces that encourage

collaboration, such as open floor plans and inviting communal areas. Our
Stake a position for yourself within company has resisted that trend. We still have an old-school lineup of
an ongoing debate. offices with closed doors surrounding a honeycomb of high-walled
cubicles, and guess what? The employees never mingle! I believe it is
time to give the new workplace order a chance.

State a question. When was the last time you donated money to charity?

 TERM TO KNOW

Anecdote
An account or story which supports an argument but is not supported by scientific or statistical analysis.

6. Repetition
Repetition is boring, right? Who wants to hear the same thing more than once? Actually, experienced public
speakers learn that repetition doesn't have to be redundant—there's more to it than saying the same thing
twice. In this culture of distraction, choosing an anchoring word, phrase, or idea and returning to it periodically
throughout your speech can help the audience find the connection between different points. Think about how it

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 41
 feels to listen to a good song: Each verse builds the story with new lyrics, and then the chorus comes back to
ground the song and bring it back home.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the role of the introduction is to function as a sales pitch and a useful
outline in one. Therefore, it should maintain a good balance of hype and content. The introduction has
five important responsibilities: get the audience's attention, introduce the topic, explain its relevance to
the audience, state a thesis or purpose, and outline the main points. By the end of the introduction, you
should provide a road map that outlines your main points. Sometimes you may find it easier to write the
introduction after you have written about your main points. You also learned that the opening of a
speech is the most important time to get the audience's attention and generate interest. There are
many methods to grab the audience's attention in your opening. Using repetition can also help hook
your audience.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Anecdote
An account or story which supports an argument but is not supported by scientific or statistical
analysis.

Introduction
A way to engage the audience and preview the topic.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 42
 Establishing Credibility: Topic, Thesis, and Main
Points
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn why it's important to be perceived as credible by your audience.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Establishing Credibility
2. Self-Presentation
3. Establishing Authority
4. Gaining Credibility With a Skeptical Audience

1. Establishing Credibility
In public speaking, the message is inseparable from the messenger. If audiences don't trust you, they won't
listen to you.

Unfortunately, their trust is based on superficial, silly, and irrelevant factors in addition to legitimate concerns.
First impressions are hard to overcome, and audiences will begin judging you before you even have a chance
to introduce yourself.

Preparing a good speech is not enough to gain the audience's trust and respect—you also have to prepare
yourself. Establishing credibility may seem like a daunting task. After all, different people are looking for
different things. How could you possibly please them all?

Fortunately, public speakers can rely on a set of general guidelines to establish credibility in a variety of
situations.

 TERM TO KNOW

Credibility
The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.

2. Self-Presentation

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 43
 Self-presentation includes dressing the part. These speakers are dressed professionally for a workplace speaking
engagement.

Self-presentation is a crucial factor in a public speaker's credibility. The following strategies can help speakers
convince their listeners that they deserve trust and respect:

1. Dress the part. Find out how formal the occasion is and style yourself accordingly. Keep it simple: Loud
patterns, bright colors, flashy jewelry, and revealing styles may distract the audience from your message.
When in doubt, err on the side of formal professional attire.
2. Look at the audience. Speakers who make eye contact with the audience appear more open, trustworthy,
and confident. Even if you are reading from a script or consulting cue cards, look up frequently to maintain
your connection with the audience.
3. Speak loudly, clearly, and confidently. Confidence is contagious—if you have confidence, the audience will
catch it easily.
4. State your credentials. Trust is contagious, too—audiences will trust you more readily if you can prove that
other people value your expertise. Credentials include relevant degrees, certifications, testimonials,
recommendations, work experience, volunteering experience, and informally, other types of personal
experience.
5. Reveal a personal connection to your topic. What is at stake for you? How has the subject affected your
life? If it is appropriate, share a personal anecdote that illustrates your relationship to the topic.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 44
 6. Establish common ground with your audience. What problems do you have in common? What goals do
you have in common?

3. Establishing Authority
Why should the audience listen to anything you have to say? The burden of proof is on you, so you need to
make a case for the value of your experience, training, or research.

Tell the audience how you became an authority on your topic. Don't expect anyone to simply take your word for
it, though—bring in outside sources to boost your credibility. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the
conversations that surround your topic. Mention or quote other authorities on your topic to show that you are
familiar with their contributions.

Also, show your audience that you understand how your topic fits into a larger context. Look at the history of
your issue and its treatment in other contexts or cultures. Winston Churchill's maxim, "The farther backward you
can look, the farther forward you are likely to see," is a great case for the relationship between context and
wisdom.

 BIG IDEA

State the source of your authority (experience, training, or research), refer to outside authorities, and put
your perspective in context.

4. Gaining Credibility With a Skeptical Audience

If you are speaking to a skeptical or hostile audience, begin by finding common ground. Appeal to shared
beliefs and values, and identify a goal that you can all agree on. Refer to this shared goal throughout your
speech to remind your audience that, ultimately, you want the same thing.

Show skeptics that you are motivated by a sincere desire to find the best answer and that, as a result, you have
carefully considered their perspective. You will lose credibility if you dismiss opposing views offhand. If you can
demonstrate that you understand why opposing views are attractive, you will have more credibility when you
make a case for your own position.

If you fail to address common points of contention, your audience will have a perfect excuse to resist your
argument.

In conclusion:

Find common ground.

Appeal to shared beliefs and values.
Identify a shared goal.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 45
 Return to this shared goal throughout the speech.
Demonstrate that you have considered other perspectives on the issue.
Show that you understand the appeal of opposing positions.
Make a case for your position.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that you shouldn't rely on the content of your speech to establish credibility
with the audience. Self-presentation is important, too, since the audience will start judging you before
you begin speaking. Establish your authority to speak about your topic by stating the source of your
knowledge: experience, training, or research. When you speak to a skeptical audience, begin by
finding common ground. Acknowledge the appeal of opposing perspectives before you make a strong
case for your own opinion.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Credibility
The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 46
 Introducing the Topic, Thesis, and Main Points
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to effectively introduce your topic, thesis, and main points. Public
speakers should introduce a topic and state a thesis (or purpose) as soon as possible. After the
attention-grabbing opening, there is only a small window of time in which to convince the audience that
you have something useful to say. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Introduction
1a. Introducing the Topic
1b. Introducing the Thesis
1c. Introducing the Main Points
2. Example: Topic, Thesis, and Main Points

1. Introduction
1a. Introducing the Topic
When introducing your topic to your audience, you should:

Name your topic.

Explain the topic at a level that is appropriate for your audience.
Define key concepts.
Explain how the topic relates to your listeners and remind them of their stake in the matter.

 TERM TO KNOW

Topic
Subject; theme; a category or general area of interest.

1b. Introducing the Thesis

Make your initial thesis statement (or the statement of purpose in an informative speech) short and sweet.

Remember: The thesis statement should summarize your argument in one to three sentences.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 47
  TERM TO KNOW

Thesis
A concise summary of the argument or main points, usually one to three sentences long, also referred
to as a speech’s key message or primary message.

1c. Introducing the Main Points

Before your introduction is finished, give the audience an overview of your main points.

It may help to refer to your outline, which should provide a concise list of your main points in order.

Translate that list into complete sentences, and voila! You will have a good overview.

2. Example: Topic, Thesis, and Main Points

Here is a brief example of the beginning of a speech in which the topic, thesis, and main points are introduced.

Vitamin D deficiency may be the hottest topic in nutrition today. Scientists are flooding academic
journals, fashion magazines, and talk shows with arguments about all things “D,” ranging from
sunscreen to supplements.

No one is disputing its importance: Vitamin D helps with calcium absorption, promotes bone health,
boosts immunity, and reduces inflammation. That is why recent studies estimating that 10% to 75% of
Americans are deficient in vitamin D are so scary.

Hold on—10% to 75%? That range is huge!

In order to discover the extent of the problem, we need to take a closer look at those numbers—and
that is exactly what we will do in this presentation. I have prepared a chronological overview and
analysis of methodologies for measuring vitamin D levels in the U.S. population, beginning with a
study conducted at this university.

 TRY IT

Can you identify the topic, thesis, and main points of the speech? +

The speech will introduce the topic (vitamin D) by explaining the importance of vitamin D and its
relevance to the audience. Then, the speech states the purpose of the presentation: to investigate the
improbably wide range of deficiency rate estimates from different studies. The thesis of the speech is

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 48
 that vitamin D deficiency is alarmingly common. Finally, the main points are outlined: an overview and
analysis of vitamin D levels in the U.S. population based on a research study.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that you should describe the scope of your speech when you introduce your
topic. State your thesis clearly and with an emphasis in one to three sentences. Provide an overview of
your main points before you launch into the body of the speech. You also looked at an example of a
topic, thesis, and main points in action. An analysis of this example demonstrated how the introduction
made the topic relevant to the audience.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Thesis
A concise summary of the argument or main points, usually one to three sentences long, also
referred to as a speech’s key message or primary message.

Topic
Subject; theme; a category or general area of interest.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 49
 The Role and Use of Transitions
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn further techniques for developing your speech and drawing connections
between your ideas. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Role of Transitions
2. The Importance of Transitions
3. Types of Transitions
3a. Transitional Phrases
3b. Internal Previews
3c. Internal Summaries
3d. Signposts
4. Using Transitions With Body Language
4a. Transitions Paired With Hand and Arm Gestures
4b. Transitions Paired With Walking Backwards or Forwards
4c. Transitions Paired With Other Movements

1. The Role of Transitions

Once you have established your goal and identified your target audience, you should take the following steps
to construct your presentation using transitions.

 STEP BY STEP

1. Develop a general premise: Constructing a presentation will require that you begin by developing your
goal and translating it into a general premise you will state to your audience.
2. Generate main points and organize them strategically: After you have established a premise, you will
be able to generate main points to support this claim. Be sure to coherently organize these main points
so that the audience can easily follow your flow of ideas. A maximum of two to five main points will
ensure clarity and timeliness. Keep main points separate (transitions separate ideas) and balance the
time spent on each point.
3. Create an introduction and conclusion: After you have developed your main points, you will need to
complete the introduction and conclusion. Create the introduction first—the conclusion really reiterates

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 50
 much of what was said in the introduction. The introduction opens the speech and is responsible for
getting the audience's attention, relating the topic to the audience, establishing the speaker's
credibility, and previewing the main points of the presentation.
4. Fill in transitions: Prior to delivering your presentation, your final step will be to develop transitions that
lead your audience between parts of the presentation and between distinct main ideas. Take the final
step of filling in transitions seriously. Transitions play an important role in the success of your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

2. The Importance of Transitions

How do you find your way when you are driving a car?

Imagine this scenario: You are driving, trying to get from point A to point B. At the beginning of your trip, you
see a sign telling you that you're going in the right direction. But then you drive, and you drive. The road winds.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 51
 There are detours and forks in the road, but there are no more signs pointing you toward your destination. Are
you going the right way? How did you get to this point anyway? What is happening? Where are the signs telling
you that the road has changed and you should go this way instead of that way?

In speeches, transitions serve this purpose. Take the road example from above and apply it to your speech.

Members of your audience will do their best to follow you as you speak. However, your speech may take
detours. It is bound to move from one subject to the other. Will your audience make the correct connections or
get lost? There is also the chance that members of your audience will drift off and when they tune back in, will
wonder how you moved from talking about X to talking about Y. They do not know how you got there.

Proper transitions will not only eliminate such questions but will also hopefully eliminate the situation in which
members of your audience drift off. Transitions enable the flow of a speech. A speech without transitions often
seems choppy and can even seem unorganized. Using them allows your audience to follow your presentation.
The words you use can lead them along, signal that you are moving from one point to another, or signal that
you are stressing a point.

 TERM TO KNOW

Detour
A diversion or deviation from one's original route.

3. Types of Transitions
Transitions enable the flow of a speech. A speech without transitions often seems choppy and can even seem
disorganized. Many tools for transitions allow a speaker to reiterate the central ideas they are trying to express.
This section will cover several types of transitions:

Transitional phrases
Internal previews
Internal summaries
Signposts

3a. Transitional Phrases

A transitional phrase is a word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving
on to another one.

Some options include:

However
But
Nevertheless
On the contrary

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 52
 Because
And
Lastly
Yet
On the other hand

EXAMPLE In addition to being hilarious, The Office is also very entertaining. Consequently, there have
been many people who try to imitate Dwight, but none can even come close.

3b. Internal Previews

Internal previews are more detailed than simple transitional phrases but serve a similar function. While the
preview in the introduction discloses to the audience the general points to be made in the speech, the internal
preview outlines the critical points to be made within the body of the speech.

Internal previews cue the audience to listen for the key elements within major points. Examples of internal
previews include statements such as:

There are a couple of points I would like to make here.

There is both a problem and a solution to propose.
There are several items to note in this section.

Each of these statements might be followed by more detailed, though brief, explanations of what is to come in
the speech.

EXAMPLE I will be focusing on two main points—why Jim and Pam should get married and why Michael
Scott needs to get married. Before I get started, I would like to go over the three best episodes of The
Office, which are "Diversity Day," "Beach Day," and lastly, "Casino Night."

3c. Internal Summaries

Internal summaries, in contrast to internal previews, review the key points a speaker just made. These regular
summaries help the audience to remember the key points just articulated by the speaker.

Examples of internal summaries include statements such as:

I have reviewed…
Now that I have talked about a couple of the key points...
To summarize briefly what was just discussed...

Each of these statements would be followed by more specific but still brief summaries. Internal summaries
reinforce the key issues in the speech.

EXAMPLE I hope I have made it clear that The Office is the best show ever because it is relevant to the
audience, it makes fun of so many different people but still gets away with it, and it is just plain funny.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 53
 3d. Signposts
Signposts are verbal indications of the main body points, often numerical. Many speakers utilize "first, second,
third" type numbering to indicate where they are in their speech.

Signposts allow an audience to remember the key points and follow along in the speech. They serve to clearly
distinguish the main body points from each other and also from the introduction and conclusion. Signposts can
also be used as questions.

EXAMPLE The following are examples of signposts:

First, I will discuss with you the importance of convincing everyone about the greatness of The Office.
To begin with, we must talk about how The Office came to be.
Why do you think The Office is the number one show today?

4. Using Transitions With Body Language

Transitions go a long way in improving the quality of your speech. It is easy to understand why body language
can make your transitions even more attention-grabbing.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 54
 You may be surprised to learn that only 7% of the information you transmit to others is in the language you use.

 TERM TO KNOW

Body Language
Body language is a form of mental and physical ability of human nonverbal communication. It consists
of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such
signals almost entirely subconsciously.

4a. Transitions Paired With Hand and Arm Gestures

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 55
 Pair your transitions with gestures for maximum impact.

You can probably think of many good speakers who have used hand gestures to emphasize a point. Hand or
arm movements can be useful—even positive—if they are well chosen and meaningful. An animated speaker
who punctuates every expression with hand or arm gestures can create a diversion or distraction.

Here are some examples of meaningful gestures you could use:

Count: 1,2,3—Tick off with fingers.

Up Down: Hand up or down.
Big/All or Few/Small: Hands together or apart.
You/Me: Hands toward the audience or toward self.
Even/Flat/The Same: Show a leveling gesture.

How would you use a transition with this movement? Perhaps you are explaining a strategy with similarities to
something that was implemented in the past. You want to emphasize that past errors must be avoided. To
emphasize this point, you might say, "However, we must be careful to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past."
As you say this, you may use a hand gesture such as the finger wag or the open-palmed gesture.

4b. Transitions Paired With Walking Backwards or Forwards

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 56
 Moving around strategically as you speak is a great way to show your audience where you are transitioning.

When Steve Jobs gave a presentation, people listened. The buzz created around his product announcements
and the announcements themselves had a lot to do with it, but so did his presentation style. He incorporated
movement within his style. He didn't just stand behind a podium and speak. He knew how to enhance his story
using transitions by changing his position on the stage.

You can do the same. You may be talking about the present and then want to take your audience back to the
past. In doing this, you may use the transition phrase, "let me take you back." As you say this, move slowly to the
right or left to show that you are moving into the past. Moving forward in time? Move in the opposite direction.
Moving back again? Move in the same direction in which you previously moved.

You may have been talking about something positive and now need to talk about something negative. To do
this, you might use the transition phrase, "Now I need to take you to a different place." As you say this, step
backward. Or try adding even more emphasis by stepping back and then diagonally. Both movements signal
that you are now moving into a negative aspect of your talk.

Have something positive to say? Step toward the front of the stage as you say your transitional phrase.

4c. Transitions Paired With Other Movements

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 Remember that your head and face are your key expression amplifiers. With appropriate movement and
expressions of the face, you can add emphasis where needed.

An exaggerated eyebrow lift or the removal of eyeglasses at an appropriate moment can give the appearance
of your own realization of the importance of the particular point being made. Expressing a negative point while
shaking the head from side to side or a positive point while nodding are standard devices for amplification. Use
these movements along with your transitions.

Finally, remember to alter your tone as you deliver your transitions. Think of what transition delivery methods
you can use as you write your transitions into your speech outline.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the role and importance of transitions. Adding transitions may be the
last step in building your speech, but that does not minimize their importance. A speech without
transitions often seems choppy and can even seem unorganized. You can use transitions to signal that
you are stressing a point that you have already made. There are several types of transitions.
Transitional phrases are words or phrases indicating that a speaker has finished one thought and is
moving on to another one. Internal previews cue the audience to listen for the key elements within
major points of the speech. Internal summaries review the key points a speaker just made. Signposts
are often numerical indications of the main body points. To make your transitions really come alive, you
should use transitions with body language such as hand and arm gestures, walking backward or
forwards, or other movements like facial expressions.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Body Language
Body language is a form of mental and physical ability of human nonverbal communication. It
consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and
interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously.

Detour
A diversion or deviation from one's original route.

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 58
 The Role of the Conclusion
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to sum up the main points of your speech in the conclusion.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Role of the Conclusion
2. Summarizing Ideas
3. Primary Message
4. Main Points
5. Audience Takeaway

1. The Role of the Conclusion

The role of a conclusion in a speech is to signal to the audience that the speech is coming to a close and help
them remember the most important points.

While this may sound unimportant or superfluous, if you do end your speech without indicating you are about to
do so, it can feel extremely abrupt and confusing to the audience. Make sure to give the audience closure with
your ending.

You must always tie your conclusion back to your introduction. This can most effectively be done by circling
back to your "hook," or attention grabber. The same "vehicle" or theme—for example, an anecdote about
Margaret Thatcher—is employed to conclude the speech as was used initially to introduce it. A clever closing
line is commonplace, and many strong speakers will simultaneously reference the theme discussed in the
introduction and conclusion.

The end of your speech will form your audience's lasting impression of everything you've said. This is why your
conclusion is the perfect opportunity to secure the key elements of your speech in your audience's mind. Make
sure that you reiterate the thesis statement from your introduction, highlight the most important points from
your speech, and then relate the concepts of the speech back to reality so your audience can see how it is
applicable to their world.

By reiterating your introduction, you bring the audience's mind back to the overall purpose and message of
your speech. By signaling the end of your speech, you ensure that your audience leaves with an overall positive

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 impression of your speaking and does not feel confused. By highlighting the main points, you ensure they are
fresh in your audience's memory.

Think of your conclusion as an opportunity to summarize. While your speech is undoubtedly well organized,
concise, and poignant, it is still possible for listeners' attention to wander or for them to not fully understand a
certain section of your speech. Your conclusion is the perfect place to reconcile any miscommunication with
your audience.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Applicable
Suitable for application; relevant.

Reconcile
To make things compatible or consistent.

2. Summarizing Ideas
Your conclusion is the perfect place to summarize the main points of your speech. That way, when your
audience leaves, the most important information from your speech will be fresh in their minds.

Summarizing means succinctly communicating a complex or lengthy idea. In the context of your speech, it
means concisely revisiting what you've just been speaking about in a way that is accessible for your audience.
Summaries should be lean, only including the most crucial information and ideas.

The best way to summarize ideas in your conclusion is to ask yourself the following important questions:

What is the primary message I want my speech to communicate?

What are the most important points of my speech that convey this message?
What do I want my audience to take away from my speech?

By asking yourself these three questions, you will be prepared to write and deliver a conclusion that effectively
summarizes the most important ideas from your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Concise
Brief, yet including all important information.

3. Primary Message
It is important to always keep your primary message in mind when preparing for a speech.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 60
 Throughout the entire speech, you must constantly relate your research, examples, analyses, etc., back to the
message of your speech. Your conclusion is no exception.

It is important to reiterate the focus of your speech again in your conclusion. By summarizing the primary
message of your speech, you will refocus your audience's mind back to the overall purpose of your speech and
the reasons why they should care about what you are saying.

4. Main Points
After you readdress your primary message, it is then crucial to summarize your main points.

You have just spent your entire speech speaking in depth about these points, so you'll want to be sure that you
are only summarizing them and not entirely rehashing them all over again.

Remember, a summary must be concise and lean. Clearly list your main points and connect them back to the
primary message of your speech. There is no need to elaborate on them again or use examples—this should
have been done in the body.

 TERM TO KNOW

Elaborate
To give further detail or explanation about or on.

5. Audience Takeaway
Thinking about what you want your audience to take away from your speech is necessary in order to write an
effective conclusion.

You must decide the intention of your speech: Is it meant solely for educational purposes, are you trying to
convince your audience to take a certain action (such as to give money or vote), or are you perhaps attempting
to teach them a skill?

Whatever the answer may be, it is imperative that you make your final push toward this goal in your conclusion.
You can easily summarize this idea in only a sentence or two. You can even address your audience directly
using the second person ("you") to help implant the message in their memory. Using call-to-action verbs such as
"go," "do," "vote," "sign up," etc., can also motivate audiences to engage in action.

Whatever you decide you want your audience to take away from your speech, it is important that you reiterate
this in the conclusion and that you focus on simply summarizing it and not stating your entire speech all over
again.

 SUMMARY

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 61
 In this lesson, you learned that three main areas of your speech should be summarized in your
conclusion: your primary message, your main points, and what you want your audience to take away
from your speech. A summary should concisely revisit what you've just been speaking about in a way
that is accessible for your audience. Summaries should be lean, only including the most crucial
information and ideas. Your conclusion should be an overview of your speech. There is no need to
elaborate or use examples, as this should have been done in the body of your speech.

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SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Applicable
Suitable for application; relevant.

Concise
Brief, yet including all important information.

Elaborate
To give further detail or explanation about or on.

Reconcile
To make things compatible or consistent.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 62
 The Importance of Considering Language
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn why it is important to pay attention to the language you use in your speech.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. The Importance of Considering Language
1a. Word Choice
1b. Delivery
1c. Takeaway Message
2. Ways of Thinking About Language
2a. Select the Best Wording
2b. Consider Your Audience
2c. Consider Your Venue and Occasion
2d. Think About Your Overall Goals, Objectives, and Purpose

1. The Importance of Considering Language

From the words you speak to the points and topics you articulate, language is the vehicle that helps your
audience understand and agree with your statement or argument. Here are a few things to consider.

1a. Word Choice

Carefully review each individual word in your speech:

Is it the best word you can use to convey your message or meaning?
Is your phrasing easy to understand?
Are you using descriptive language?
Do you connect similar thoughts for your audience?
Have you included points of contrast to illustrate broader points?

These are all important questions to consider as you select the words in your speech. Even more important are
the words you choose to leave out: Consider too, what you aren't saying.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 63
  TERMS TO KNOW

Meaning
The objects or concept that a word or phrase denotes, or that which a sentence says.

Language
A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with
grammar, often with a writing system.

1b. Delivery
It's not just a matter of the words you say but how you deliver them. From gesture, force, and directness to the
pitch, tone, and inflection of your voice, it's important to consider the complete package that you're delivering
to your audience.

Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and
speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress.

You should craft and practice these elements just as carefully as the words you include in your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Inflection
A change in pitch or tone of voice.

1c. Takeaway Message

At the end of the speech, ask yourself:

How do you want your audience to walk away feeling?

What do you want them to remember?
Is there a particular call to action you want them to perform?
Or, do you want a particular point to resonate with them for some time?

Thinking about the end result or takeaway message helps you choose how to word and deliver the speech for
your audience.

2. Ways of Thinking About Language

So, how do you choose the most fitting language for your speech? Here are some tips.

2a. Select the Best Wording

When writing your speech, it's imperative that each and every word is carefully selected for inclusion in your
speech. Each word should serve a purpose—to advance your logic and address your speech subject in some
way.

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 How you organize your speech, outline your thesis and supporting arguments, as well as the ways you describe
those points, are all essential to crafting the best speech you can.

Devoting yourself to the creation of multiple drafts of your speech ensures that you are honing and refining
your speech down to its most effective words and parts.

2b. Consider Your Audience

Who will be listening to and watching your speech? Why are they there, and what do they want?

You'll want to not only fully understand your audience for who they are, as this may inform you of their
experience with your subject, but you'll also want to understand what has brought them to your speech in the
first place.

In thinking very specifically about the groups and types of people attending your speech, you can more finely
tailor the language of your speech.

2c. Consider Your Venue and Occasion

Understanding your speech venue and the occasion for your speech is just as important as getting to know
your audience.

Venue and occasion can often dictate both the subject matter and formality of your speech. You want to make
sure your language has both of those elements.

 TERM TO KNOW

Venue
A place, especially the one where a given event is to happen.

2d. Think About Your Overall Goals, Objectives, and Purpose

Why are you giving a speech? Why have you, from all the other people who could speak, been selected? What
makes you the subject matter expert?

Consider each of these questions as you prepare your speech. Knowing your purpose for speaking must be
one of the guiding principles as you craft your thesis and supporting evidence and make your case to your
audience.

Thinking about what you want to achieve informs how you can establish a plan—that is, select the right
language—to achieve that goal.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the importance of considering language as you write your speech.
Your word choice matters; you should carefully select each word you include in your speech. At the
same time, consider the words that don't make the cut: What are you not saying in your speech? Your

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 65
 delivery, or how you communicate your words through phrasing, voice, gesture, and mannerism, is as
important as the words themselves. Finally, you should consider your takeaway message, which is what
you want your audience to do, think, or feel at the conclusion of your speech.

You also learned some tips for thinking about language as you write your speech. Every word in your
speech must have a purpose for being in your speech, so you should select the best wording. Don't
waste any words, and commit to writing multiple drafts to refine and hone your speech. Always
consider your audience, venue, and occasion. Considering these factors as well as your overall goals,
objectives, and purpose will help inform what language is best to use in your speech.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
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SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Inflection
A change in pitch or tone of voice.

Language
A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured
with grammar, often with a writing system.

Meaning
The objects or concept that a word or phrase denotes, or that which a sentence says.

Venue
A place, especially the one where a given event is to happen.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 66
 Variations in Directness, Abstraction, Objectivity,
and Accuracy
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how and when to effectively use directness, abstraction, objectivity, and
accuracy in your speech. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Directness
2. Abstraction
3. Objectivity
4. Subjectivity
5. Accuracy
5a. Are Your Sources "Good"?
5b. A Word About Plagiarism

1. Directness

"Omit the thunder of delivery, if you will, but put 'silent lightning' into your speech. Make your thoughts
breathe and your words burn." —J. Berg. Esenwein, The Art of Public Speaking

Directness is a state of being straight, constant, and without interruption. With regards to public speaking,
directness refers not only to how you address your audience in both style and tone but the force behind that
style and tone. A better way to think about force and directness is to consider what they are not.

Force and directness are not:

Speaking loudly (but force and directness may cause you to raise your voice).
Using wild, violent gestures (but force and directness may cause you to gesture more emphatically).

As you can see, force and directness can be both cause and effect. Essentially, directness adds emphasis to
your words, showing earnest conviction in your beliefs and arguments, thereby making your speech more
evocative and persuasive to your audience. From a stylistic perspective, force and directness add moments of
dynamic contrast to your speech.

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 Directness and force are not always appropriate in every speech and should be used with care. You don't want
to come across as overbearing, pushy, or threatening to your audience.

That said, if you are giving a speech where you must convey a persuasive argument, directness and force may
be appropriate.

Any time you are speaking about your own personal beliefs, values, or principles, you may find that force and
directness naturally occur as you speak, since you are already so deeply invested in your own beliefs, values,
and principles.

Force and directness can be controlled by four factors: ideas, your feelings about the subject, wording, and
delivery.

Factor Description

Certain ideas in your speech may lend themselves to force and directness.

Ideas
As you craft your speech, see which ideas rise to the top with regard to force and directness,
and adjust your style accordingly.

What are your gut feelings on your subject? Are you inspired, humbled, or enraged?
Your
Feelings Capitalize on your own emotional response to determine if a section of your speech could be
more forceful or direct than others.

Vivid words, phrases, and imagery are essential in crafting a forceful section of your speech.
Wording
Use evocative language, powerful imagery, and compelling anecdotes to get your point across.

Don't be shy about using force or directness with your audience. Feel the conviction of your own
Delivery
words. Be authentic, genuine, and consistent.

 TERM TO KNOW

Direct
Straight, constant, without interruption.

2. Abstraction
As we discussed in an earlier unit, abstractions are ideas that are not described in specifics. They cannot be
physically sensed (seen, heard, felt, touched, or smelled).

Abstraction lacks representational qualities. Abstract descriptions are in contrast to concrete descriptions.
Concrete descriptions cut through any vagueness or amorphous interpretation of an idea.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 68
 EXAMPLE Examples of abstract descriptions include:
A happy child
A pretty car
A beautiful night
An incredible sight

EXAMPLE Examples of concrete descriptions include:

A three-year-old boy
A white Lamborghini Aventador
A starlit summer evening
The wide, river-cut, rust-colored ravines of the Grand Canyon

 HINT

While most of the time, you want to avoid abstract descriptions in your speech, there are times when it may
be stylistically appropriate.
A quick way to test if your speech is too abstract and not specific or concrete enough is to share your draft with
another person. Ask them to summarize it back to you. If they leave out or gloss over some points, ask them if
your speech was clear enough to understand.

If they didn't understand parts, you'd know which sections to go back to and specify in more concrete detail.
Similarly, the person reviewing your speech can let you know if it's too detailed.

 TERM TO KNOW

Abstract
Difficult to understand; abstruse.

3. Objectivity
When we are subjective in our speech, we put forth our own experiences and bias into the conversation. To be
objective, then, is to remove yourself from your own experience and bias.

For the most part, when it comes to public speaking, you want to remain as objective as possible. The reason
for this is that you don't want your audience to accuse you of bias or preference as you substantiate your
argument.

It's a fine line to walk between subjectivity and objectivity, one that requires you to pay close attention to your
own personal biases. One of the easiest ways to determine objectivity is to take a look at the facts, research,
and data that you have to substantiate your case.

If your speech is largely guided by personal thoughts, opinions, and beliefs, then it is more likely that your
speech is heading into subjective territory.

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 4. Subjectivity
As we discussed in a previous unit, it’s important to balance objectivity with subjectivity. Remaining objective in
your speech means that you avoid bias and the influence of your own personal prejudice or preconceived
notions. While it is not possible to be 100% objective, it is still something that is important to consider.

By writing and speaking objectively—that is, removing yourself from the facts, examples, and scenarios—you
lend a more compelling case for your credibility as a speaker.

That said, you can also use objectivity to the point that it can actually hurt your speech. By relying solely on hard
data and research, your audience may find your speech impersonal and not connect to your material on a
personal level.

A speech without any personal anecdotes can feel robotic; on the other end of the spectrum, a speech
composed of nothing but anecdotes can feel untrustworthy.

It's your job as a speaker to strike that careful balance to use enough subjectivity to be relatable to your
audience but not so much as to erode your credibility and authority.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Objective
Being unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices.

Subjective
The state of being formed, as in opinions, based upon a person's feelings or intuition, not upon
observation or reasoning; coming more from within the observer than from observations of the external
environment.

5. Accuracy
As we discussed in the previous unit, if you are presenting yourself as a subject matter expert or authority, it's
imperative that you have your facts straight before delivering them to a waiting audience.

In the age of fact-checking, it's especially important to make sure that you have done your homework and fully
researched your topic and supporting evidence because, chances are, your audience already has.

You will only enhance your credibility and authority by making sure your information and sources are solid and
accurate.

 TERM TO KNOW

Accuracy

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 Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or standard
value.

5a. Are Your Sources "Good"?

How do you know if your sources are "good"? You'll want to make sure your sources are reliable, unbiased, and
current. To do this, seek out information from trustworthy sources. Typically, you'll turn to scholarly sources such
as academic journals, scientific research, or data. You should also understand that scholarly research comes in
primary and secondary sources.

To find academic and scholarly sources, asking your local librarian is one of the best ways to validate whether
or not a source you have found is reliable, unbiased, and current.

You can also access databases of scholarly sources online, including:

Academic Search Premier

Project MUSE
JSTOR
Entrez-PubMed
The MLA International Bibliography
PsychINFO
ProQuest

5b. A Word About Plagiarism

As we have previously discussed, you should always cite your sources whenever or however you can. You
never want to be accused of pulling information or data from an unreliable source, or worse, just making it up.

You also don't want to be accused of directly lifting, stealing, or even borrowing someone else's words. Never
take someone else's words and claim them as your own.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about directness, abstraction, objectivity, and accuracy. You should use
directness when you have particularly emphatic points to make, using your ideas, feelings, wording,
and delivery to convey your convictions; however, you should avoid being pushy, overbearing, or
intimidating.

To be abstract means to be vague and not specific. Abstract descriptions can be an advantage if your
audience already has a working knowledge of any part of your speech, but a disadvantage of
abstraction is that you may confuse your audience if you are too abstract; in that case, concrete
descriptions may be more appropriate. To determine whether your speech is clear enough, have
another person read your speech draft and summarize your main points back to you.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 71
 Objectivity is the ability to remove your personal experience, bias, or preference from your speech. An
advantage of objectivity is that it gives you credibility as an impartial, unbiased speaker and subject
matter expert. However, you should sprinkle in some subjective moments, such as personal anecdotes
or how you connect to your topic, to still remain relatable to your audience.

Finally, accuracy ensures your credibility through the use of quality sources such as journal articles,
reviews, biographies, and interviews. You can find scholarly sources collected in several online
databases. Always cite your sources so that you're never accused of plagiarism.

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Abstract
Difficult to understand; abstruse.

Accuracy
Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or
standard value.

Direct
Straight, constant, without interruption.

Objective
Being unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices.

Subjective
The state of being formed, as in opinions, based upon a person's feelings or intuition, not upon
observation or reasoning; coming more from within the observer than from observations of the
external environment.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 72
 Choosing Your Words
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to ensure that you are communicating your message clearly.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Choosing Clear Words and Phrasing
1a. How Well Do You Fully Understand Your Topic?
1b. Delimit the Question
1c. Define Key Terms
2. Choosing Vivid Words
2a. Conquer Monotony
2b. Writing Descriptively
3. Choosing Appropriate Words: Style and Tone

1. Choosing Clear Words and Phrasing

When writing your speech, it’s essential that you use clear words and phrasing with your audience. This section
includes some ideas for you to think about: whether you fully understand your topic enough, can delimit the
question, and can define key terms. When you think of your speech in this way, you have a great starting point
for how to begin selecting the clearest words and phrasing.

1a. How Well Do You Fully Understand Your Topic?

You know that you have to write a speech, and you may or may not have been given a specific topic about
which to write. Easy as pie, right?

Hold on there—take a step back for a moment and ask yourself: How well do you fully understand your topic?
It's important to take that step back and look at your speech from a distanced perspective.

Looking at your speech from a distance allows you to dissect exactly how you can begin to tackle the specific
wording of your speech. You want to make sure that your speech is easy to understand and follow, so it's
imperative to choose clear words and phrasing.

 TERM TO KNOW

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 Dissect
To analyze an idea in detail by separating it into its parts.

1b. Delimit the Question

What question does your speech address? You might be thinking, "Wait a minute. My speech isn't even
answering a question. I'm just supposed to talk about a business plan I've made for a fake company for an
assignment in my entrepreneurship class."

Here's the thing: Your speech actually is answering a question, that question being, "Why should you invest in
my business?"—however fake that business may be.

The importance of identifying the broader question to which your speech will speak not only helps your
audience understand your point, but it pinpoints exactly how you need to tailor your speech to your audience.
Essentially, when you take steps to delimit your question (your speech's purpose), you help to outline exactly
how your audience can follow your line of reasoning.

When you delimit the question, first think about the purpose of your speech. This will usually point you in the
direction of the broader question. From there, list step by step how you plan to address that question. Set the
parameters for your rhetoric for your audience.

 TERM TO KNOW

Delimit
To mark or fix the limits of.

1c. Define Key Terms

Even though your speech could be about something that is otherwise common knowledge to your audience, it
is helpful to also define key terms for them as you go along in your speech.

Even though you may have outlined your plan of attack by delimiting the question, it also helps to explain
exactly what you're talking about to your audience. When you establish your key terms by defining them for
your audience, you set a baseline standard of understanding for your audience, thus eliminating any confusion.

When you delimited your question, were there any key words used in that question? Define those terms as
necessary. You'll want to source your definitions appropriately by looking up those key terms from reliable
sources. In doing so, you indicate to your audience that you not only fully understand how to approach your
argument, but also your topic.

Do be careful: You don't want to "dumb down" your speech by defining every single key term throughout your
speech. Make sure you only highlight and define those words that are necessary for establishing a foundation
of your speech topic.

 TERM TO KNOW

Baseline
Information used as the basis for calculation or for comparison.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 74
 2. Choosing Vivid Words
In addition to writing clearly and succinctly, you should also try to paint a vivid picture for your audience. In this
section, you will learn how and why to use vivid language in your speech.

2a. Conquer Monotony

"The monotonous speaker not only drones along in the same volume and pitch of tone but uses
always the same emphasis, the same speed, the same thoughts—or dispenses with thought
altogether. Monotony: the cardinal and most common sin of the public speaker."
—J. Berg Esenwein, The Art of Public Speaking

The quickest way to lose your audience is to be boring. Avoid the "sin of monotony," as Esenwein puts it, by
using vivid language and imagery to build interest in your speech.

 TERM TO KNOW

Monotony
Tedium as a result of repetition or a lack of variety.

2b. Writing Descriptively

Think of your favorite food or meal, or perhaps your favorite place to visit. What does it smell like? Look like?
Taste like? What are the characteristics of your favorite vacation spot?

When you use vivid, descriptive language in your speech, you immerse your audience in a sensory experience
that transports them from their seats and into the experience you craft with your words.

Writing descriptively is more than just using "pretty" language to dress up your speech; in fact, you want to be
careful that your speech doesn't come across as poetry. Using descriptive language can actually help get your
points across more pointedly to your audience than by simply presenting hard facts and data. Descriptive
language engages your audience's imagination, which holds their attention and adds both interest and
complexity to your speech.

Here are some easy ways to include descriptive language in your speech:

Simile and metaphor. Two of the easiest techniques to add descriptive wording to your speech are simile
and metaphor. They essentially achieve the same goal: comparing one thing to another in likeness. In a
simile, the comparison is made by using the words "like" or "as." Metaphors, on the other hand, usually
compare things directly by using the verb "to be." These comparisons help to paint a picture in the minds of
your audience. For speechwriters, metaphor and simile are like the brushstrokes of an artist, the notes of a
melody, or the choreography of a dance—they demonstrate artistry with language. These comparisons may

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 be alike or dissimilar. The use of opposing ideas and imagery can illustrate bolder points, while similar
comparisons bolster the strength of an idea or image.
Process words. Process words tell someone how to process a set of information. In a speech, it's important
to vary your vocabulary so that you don't end up repeating yourself. There are several process words
below that get at the basic six ways of processing information. By using synonyms of these words as you
craft your speech, you not only tell your audience how to process the information you're presenting, but
you also build interest by using a varied vocabulary.
Comparing
Criticizing
Describing
Discussing
Evaluating
Explaining

 TERM TO KNOW

Simile
A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another; in the case of English, generally using the
words "like" or "as."

Metaphor
The use of a word or phrase to refer to something that it isn't, invoking a direct similarity between the
word or phrase used and the thing described, but without the words "like" or "as," which would imply a
simile.

3. Choosing Appropriate Words: Style and Tone

Consider for a few minutes exactly where, when, and how you will be giving your speech. Consider the tone
and style of your speech. From there, think about how you will structure your speech given these various
contexts.

Thinking about the following parameters can give you an idea of the most appropriate language to use in the
wording of your speech.

Sectioning your speech. As you outline your argument, you will want to break your speech into sections. A
speech consists, broadly, of an introduction, body, and conclusion. However, as you begin to highlight your
thesis and specific supporting points and examples, you will create additional sections to your speech. This
is particularly helpful if you have a long speech because sectioning makes the information easier for your
audience to process. Each section of your speech should have a specific purpose or focus. As you move
from one section to the next, you will want to make sure you transition smoothly between each section.

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 Here are some useful phrases for transitions and sectioning your ideas:

Purpose Examples

Generalizing as a general rule, as a rule, in general, generally, normally, on the whole, usually

Explaining in other words, that is, this means that

it is certain that, there is no doubt that, I am confident that, certainly, definitely, clearly,
Expressing
undoubtedly, presumably, will, is, should, it is probable that, it is likely that, probably,
likelihood
can, may, it is possible that, could, might, might possibly, possibly, perhaps

it is doubtful that, maybe, is improbable, is unlikely, it is uncertain, impossible, cannot,

Expressing doubt
can't, will not, is not

it is worth noting that, it should be emphasized that, it should be highlighted that, it

Drawing should be underlined that, in particular, especially, mainly, chiefly, mostly, it should be
attention pointed out that, it should be noted that, it should be remembered that, it is worth
stressing that, is vital, is crucial

however, but, in spite of, despite, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that,
nevertheless, nonetheless, instead, conversely, on the contrary, by contrast, whereas,
while, whilst, although, even though, on the one hand, on the other hand, in contrast,
Contrasting two in comparison with, but, yet, alternatively, the former, the latter, respectively, all the
points same, there are two possibilities, alternatively, the one, the other, either, or, neither, nor,
in addition, not only, but also, worse still, better still, equally, likewise, similarly,
correspondingly, in the same way, another possibility, in a similar vein, as well as,
furthermore, moreover, also, although, again, what is more, besides, too, as well as

for example, for instance, to name an example, to give an example, is well illustrated
Giving examples by, a case point is, such as, such, one of which, illustrates, is an example of this, is
or introducing shown by, is exemplified by, is illustrated by, (something) is, means, describes, is
illustrations defined as, is used, is concerned with, deals with, relates to, involves, signifies,
consists of

so, therefore, as a consequence, as a result, now, consequently, because of, thus, for
this reason, then, this is why, accordingly, hence, given this, with reference to, given,
Stating
on this basis, is caused by, causes, due to, has the effect, affects, the reason for,
consequences
because of this, if, then, results in, leads to, produces, owing to, through, as, since,
because

to sum up, in summary, to summarize, in brief, altogether, overall, I conclude, I

Summarizing therefore conclude, reached the conclusion that, it is concluded, therefore, for this
reason, then, thus, in conclusion, to bring it all together

Qualifying never, rarely, sometimes, usually, often, always, generally, on the whole, frequently,
frequency occasionally, hardly ever, seldom

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 under no circumstances, mainly, generally, predominantly, usually, the majority, most
Qualifying results
of, almost all, a number of, may be, some, a few, a little, fairly, very, quite, rather, almost

no, minimal, slight, small, slow, gradual, steady, marked, large, dramatic, complete,
Qualifying
steep, sharp, rapid, sudden (rise, increase, fluctuation, decrease, decline, reduction,
change
fall, drop, upward trend, downward trend, peak, plateau, level off)

Avoiding weasel phrases. Weasel phrases make a lot of promises but do not follow through on the
delivery. These trigger phrases often precede statements that lack much substantive quality. These terms
are critical to avoid so as not to invalidate the credibility of your argument. Here is a list of common weasel
phrases:
Allegedly
Arguably
As opposed to most
Considered by many
Contrary to many
Critics/critics say that
It could be argued that
It has been suggested/stated/said/noticed
It is widely believed/generally claimed
Many people say
Many scientists argue that
Research has shown
Researchers argue that
Serious scholars say that
Social science says/believes that
Some historians argue
The scientific community
This is widely considered to be/regarded as

 TERM TO KNOW

Weasel Phrases
Phrases that often precede statements and that lack substantive quality.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the importance of selecting your words carefully as you write your
speech. Choosing clear words and phrasing includes fully understanding your topic so that you can
communicate with nuance. You should be able to delimit the question, or fully parse out exactly what

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 78
 question you are answering with your speech, and define key terms accurately for your audience. In
addition, it’s important to choose vivid words and phrases that combat monotony for your audience.
Writing descriptively includes the use of simile, metaphor, and process words. Finally, you should pay
attention to your style and tone when you speak. Section your speech into parts arranged in a logical
order, with each section having a specific focus or purpose. Transition between sections with phrases
and words that connect your ideas. Avoid weasel phrases in order to keep your speech credible and
authoritative.

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SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Baseline
Information used as the basis for calculation or for comparison.

Delimit
To mark or fix the limits of.

Dissect
To analyze an idea in detail by separating it into its parts.

Metaphor
The use of a word or phrase to refer to something that it isn't, invoking a direct similarity between
the word or phrase used and the thing described, but without the words "like" or "as," which would
imply a simile.

Monotony
Tedium as a result of repetition or a lack of variety.

Simile
A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another; in the case of English, generally
using "like" or "as."

Weasel Phrases
Phrases that often precede statements and that lack substantive quality.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 79
 Matching Personal Style
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how defining and developing your own unique voice can benefit you as a
public speaker. When writing a speech, it's important to consider the complete context in which you
plan to speak. From audience and formality to topic and venue, all of these elements factor in how you
deliver your speech. Your words, phrases, and lines of reasoning, as well as the gestures and
mannerisms you might use, will influence your personal speaking style. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Defining Your Voice
2. Developing Your Voice

1. Defining Your Voice

As you craft your speech, you will naturally begin to adopt a tone and style as you write. Your personal style and
tone are what's known as your voice. Your voice is what makes your writing and speeches unique from those of
others.

Developing your voice—in particular, honing what works for you and what you like—is something that develops
over time. That said, there are other factors that shape your voice. Your voice should adapt to your speech as
much as your speech is guided by your voice.

2. Developing Your Voice

Here are six factors you must consider as you develop your voice in your speech.

1. Audience. Who will be present at your speech? Who will be listening to what you have to say? As you
consider your audience, think of what their needs, goals, and expectations are of your speech. Adapt your
tone appropriately to your audience.
2. Formality. Are you presenting at an academic conference? Or are you giving the first toast speech at your
best friend's wedding? Consider the specific occasion, venue, and formality of your speech to make sure
you're using the most appropriate phrasing, language, and wording. Formality will also dictate how you
need to dress and appear before your audience.

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 3. Your role in relation to your audience. Why are you there? What makes you the subject matter expert? As
much as you're analyzing your audience, the audience is doing the same to you. Your audience will have
expectations and assumptions about you, so it's helpful to consider them before you ever step foot on
stage so that you can adapt and tailor your style accordingly.
4. Attitude. It's not just what you say, but how you say it. Your attitude will speak volumes to your audience,
not only informing them about you as a person, but either bolstering or eroding your credibility as a
speaker. Also, be aware that nonverbal cues, such as hand gestures, body stance, and posture, can
subconsciously betray your real attitude to your audience members, so always be mindful of your physical
presence when speaking. You don't need to be chipper and cheerful for every speech, but your attitude
should reflect the other factors influencing your speech.
5. Cultural context. Just as when you were analyzing your audience, consider the cultural context of where
and to whom you're speaking. Use your commonalities with the cultural context of your speech venue and
audience to build bridges of understanding with your audience. However, don't fall victim to pandering,
where you merely say things that reflect the overall needs and expectations of your audience without
actually believing in them. Be authentic.
6. Your own creativity. At its heart, your voice is a reflection of you as a person. Let your creativity and the
authenticity of your own words and experiences be the vehicle of your voice, guided by your gut. Over
time, you'll know what sounds good and what works well in your speeches. Incorporate these best
practices into your speeches so that they become second nature. It is also helpful to find volunteer readers
for your drafts. Having a second reader or mock audience can help you identify areas that can be improved
or emphasized, further honing your skills and personal style as a speech writer.

 TERM TO KNOW

Pandering
The act of expressing one's views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is attempting to
appeal. The term is most notably associated with politics. In pandering, the views one is verbally
expressing are merely for the purpose of drawing support and votes and do not necessarily reflect
one's personal values.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that your voice is ultimately a reflection of who you are as a person; it
influences how your audience both perceives and receives you as a speaker. Defining and developing
your voice can be a complex but necessary process. You should adapt your voice to the needs, goals,
and expectations of your audience. Additionally, consider your role in relation to the audience. Think
about the formality and venue of your speech, as well as any relevant cultural contexts that may come
into play. Your attitude speaks volumes to your audience. Make sure your attitude is appropriate to all
the factors of your speech: topic, audience, and venue. Be aware that subconscious nonverbal cues
can betray how you really feel. Don't be afraid to get creative and let your speech reflect your unique
personality.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 81
 Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pandering
The act of expressing one's views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is
attempting to appeal. The term is most notably associated with politics. In pandering, the views one
is verbally expressing are merely for the purpose of drawing support and votes and do not
necessarily reflect one's personal values.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 82
 Definition and Goals of Persuasive Speeches
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the definition and goals of a persuasive speech. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Definition of a Persuasive Speech
2. The Sales Pitch
3. Components of a Persuasive Speech
4. How to Succeed
5. The Goals of a Persuasive Speech
5a. Convincing
5b. Actuation
5c. Stimulation
6. Persuasive vs. Informative Speaking

1. Definition of a Persuasive Speech

A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has the goal of convincing the audience
to accept their point of view.

The speech is arranged in such a way as to hopefully cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed
view. Though the overarching goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept a perspective,
not all audiences can be convinced by a single speech, and not all perspectives can persuade the audience.

The success of a persuasive speech is often measured by the audience's willingness to consider the speaker's
argument.

 TERM TO KNOW

Persuasion
The process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior.

2. The Sales Pitch

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 83
 An example of a persuasive speech is a sales pitch. During a sales pitch, the speaker is trying to convince the
audience to buy his or her product or service. If the salesperson is successful, the audience (the person being
sold to) will choose to purchase the product or service.

However, salespeople understand that just because someone does not make a purchase after the first sales
pitch does not mean the pitch failed. Persuasion is often a process. People may need multiple persuasive
pitches and a lot of outside information before they are ready to accept a new view.

3. Components of a Persuasive Speech

In a previous unit, you learned about ethos, pathos, and logos—the rhetorical components of a persuasive
speech.

While ethos is an essential part of a persuasive speech, pathos and logos are usually combined to form the best
possible argument.

While a speaker can attempt to establish ethos, or credibility, with an audience, it is ultimately assigned to them
based on the audience's perception. If the audience does not perceive the speaker as a credible source on the
topic about which they are speaking, they will ultimately have a hard time considering the speaker's argument.

The use of logos in a speech, or logical appeals, are arguments that present a set of information and show why
a conclusion must rationally be true. For example, arguments heard in court are logical arguments.

Pathos, or emotional appeals, are appeals that seek to make the audience feel a certain way so that they will
accept a conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate emotional appeals by juxtaposing an
opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Ethos
Credibility of the speaker, assigned to them by the audience.

Logos
Logical appeals to the audience; does the speaker's argument make sense?

Pathos
Emotional appeals to the audience.

4. How to Succeed
Using an attention-grabbing device is a powerful way to begin a persuasive speech. If can you tell an anecdote
that makes your audience laugh or think about a personal experience, they will be more likely to listen to the
details of your argument. Additionally, keeping a speech within 6–8 minutes makes the audience less likely to
let their mind wander away from what you are saying.

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 The effectiveness of a persuasive speech also depends on factors beyond the words of the speech. The
willingness of the audience to accept a new view, the body language of the speaker, and the environment in
which the speech is given can all affect the success of a persuasive speech.

A successful speaker will do their best to establish strong ethos with their audience, and combine pathos and
logos to form the best possible argument. Audience analysis is an important factor when giving a persuasive
speech.

EXAMPLE If a speaker is trying to convince the audience not to tell their children about Santa Claus,
using arguments that relate and resonate with them, such as encouraging them to remember how they felt
when they discovered he wasn't real, will be more successful than if the speaker shared a negative
personal experience of their own.

 TERM TO KNOW

Audience Analysis
The speaker's understanding of the audience's knowledge, personal experience, and proximity to a
topic.

5. The Goals of a Persuasive Speech

The overall goal of a persuasive speech is for the audience to accept your viewpoint as the speaker. However,
this is not a nuanced enough definition to capture the actual goals of different persuasive speeches. Persuasive
speeches can be designed to convince, actuate, or stimulate the audience.

5a. Convincing
A convincing speech is designed to cause the audience to internalize and believe a viewpoint that they did not
previously hold. In a sense, a convincing argument changes the audience's mind.

EXAMPLE Suppose you are giving a persuasive speech claiming that Coke is better than Pepsi. Your
goal is not just for the audience to hear that you enjoy Coke more, but for Pepsi lovers to change their
minds.

 TERM TO KNOW

Convince
To make someone believe or feel sure about something, especially by using logic, argument, or
evidence.

5b. Actuation
An actuation speech has a slightly different goal. An actuation speech is designed to cause the audience to do
something or to take some action. This type of speech is particularly useful if the audience already shares some
or all of your views.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 85
 EXAMPLE At the end of presidential campaigns, candidates begin to focus on convincing their
supporters to actually vote. They are seeking to actuate the action of voting through their speeches.

 TERM TO KNOW

Actuate
To incite to action; to motivate.

5c. Stimulation
Persuasive speeches can also be used to enhance how fervently the audience believes in an idea. In this
instance, the speaker understands that the audience already believes in the viewpoint, but not to the degree
that they would like.

As a result, the speaker tries to stimulate the audience, making them more enthusiastic about the view.

EXAMPLE Religious services often utilize stimulation. They are not trying to convince those of another
religion to switch religions necessarily; there is an understanding that the congregation already accepts part
or all of the religion. Instead, they are trying to enhance the degree of belief.

 TERM TO KNOW

Stimulation
An activity causing excitement or pleasure.

6. Persuasive vs. Informative Speaking

Informative (or informational) and persuasive speaking are related but distinct types of speeches. The
difference between the two lies in the speaker's end goal and what the speaker wants the audience to leave
with.

Informative speeches are probably the most prevalent variety of speech. The goal is always to supply
information and facts to the audience. This information can come from statistics, facts, or other forms of
evidence. Informational speeches do not tell people what to do with the information; their goal is for the
audience to have and understand the information. Academic lectures are often informational speeches because
the professor is attempting to present facts so the students can understand them.

Informational speeches may have a tendency to become overdrawn and boring. Their goal is not to excite the
audience members but rather to provide them with knowledge they did not have before the speech.

Like informational speeches, persuasive speeches use information. However, persuasive speeches are
designed for the audience to not only hear and understand the information but to use it to be convinced of a
viewpoint. The end goal of a persuasive speech is not for the audience to have information but rather for them
to have a certain view. Persuasive speeches may use some of the same techniques as informational speeches
but can also use emotions to convince the audience. A sales pitch is one example of a persuasive speech.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 86
 A common cry against certain persuasive speeches is that they rely too much on emotion and not enough on
facts. A persuasive speech that succeeds in convincing the audience to accept a view but is based on faulty or
misleading information is unethical.

 TERM TO KNOW

Informative
Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that persuasive speeches can come in many forms, such as sales pitches,
debates, and legal proceedings. The components of a persuasive speech typically involve three
modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos. To deliver a successful persuasive speech, audience
analysis is essential, as the audience will be convinced for their own reasons, not for the speaker's
reasons. You also learned about the goals of a persuasive speech. Convincing speeches aim to get the
audience to change their mind to accept the view put forth in the speech. Actuating speeches seek to
incite a certain action in the audience. Stimulating speeches are designed to get an audience to
believe more enthusiastically in a view. Finally, you learned that persuasive speeches are designed to
convince the audience that a certain viewpoint is correct. In doing so, the speaker may utilize
information. Informative and persuasive speeches are exemplified by academic lectures and sales
pitches, respectively.

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BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Actuate
To incite to action; to motivate.

Audience Analysis
The speaker's understanding of the audience's knowledge, personal experience, and proximity to a
topic.

Convince
To make someone believe or feel sure about something, especially by using logic, argument, or
evidence.

Ethos
Credibility of the speaker, assigned to them by the audience.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 87
 Informative
Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.

Logos
Logical appeals to the audience; does the speaker's argument make sense?

Pathos
Emotional appeals to the audience.

Persuasion
The process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior.

Stimulation
An activity causing excitement or pleasure.

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 The Psychology and Ethics of Persuasion
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the psychology and ethics of persuasion. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. The Psychology of Persuasion
1a. Weapons of Influence
1b. Relationship-Based Persuasion
2. The Ethics of Persuasion
2a. TARES Test
2b. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier Test

1. The Psychology of Persuasion

There is no single key to a successful persuasive speech. Some people take longer than others to be
persuaded, and some respond to different persuasion techniques. Therefore, persuasive speakers should be
cognizant of audience characteristics to customize the pitch.

1a. Weapons of Influence

The psychology of persuasion is best exemplified by two theories that try to explain how people are influenced.
Robert Cialdini, in his book Influence, New and Expanded: The Psychology of Persuasion, defined six “weapons
of influence,” which are outlined in the following graphic.

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 The six weapons of influence were developed by Robert Cialdini.

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 1. Reciprocity: With reciprocity, people tend to return a favor. In Cialdini's conferences, he often uses the
example of Ethiopia providing thousands of dollars in humanitarian aid to Mexico just after the 1985
earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia had been
reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1937.
2. Commitment and consistency: Once people commit to what they think is right, they are more likely to
honor that commitment even if the original motivation is subsequently removed. For example, in car sales,
suddenly raising the price at the last moment works because buyers have already decided to buy.
3. Social proof: People will do things they see other people are doing, also known as social proof. In one
experiment, if one or more people looked up into the sky, bystanders would then look up to see what they
could see. This experiment was aborted, as so many people looked up that they stopped traffic.
4. Authority: People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts.
Cialdini cites incidents like the Milgram experiments in the early 1960s and the My Lai massacre in 1968.
5. Liking: People are easily persuaded by other people whom they like. Cialdini cites the marketing of
Tupperware, wherein people were more likely to buy from others they liked. Some of the biases favoring
more attractive people are discussed, but generally, more aesthetically pleasing people tend to use this
influence over others.
6. Scarcity: Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying that offers are available for a
"limited time only" encourages sales.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Reciprocity
The responses of individuals to the actions of others.

Social Proof
People tend to do things that they see others are doing.

1b. Relationship-Based Persuasion

The second theory is called relationship-based persuasion. The overall theory is that persuasion is the art of
winning over others.

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 Relationship-based persuasion was developed by Richard Shell and Mario Moussa.

1. Survey your situation: This step includes an analysis of the persuader's situation, goals, and challenges.
2. Confront the five barriers: Five obstacles pose the greatest risks to a successful influence encounter—
relationships, credibility, communication mismatches, belief systems, and interest and needs.

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 3. Make your pitch: People need a solid reason to justify a decision, yet at the same time, many decisions are
made on the basis of intuition. This step also deals with presentation skills.
4. Secure your commitments: In order to safeguard the longtime success of a persuasive decision, it is vital to
deal with politics at both the individual and organizational levels.

2. The Ethics of Persuasion

Not all persuasion is ethical. Persuasion is widely considered unethical if it is for the purpose of personal gain at
the expense of others or for personal gain without the knowledge of the audience.

Furthermore, some methods of persuasion are wholly written off as unethical.

EXAMPLE Coercion, brainwashing, and torture are never considered ethical.

Barring any of the persuasive methods that are easily distinguished as unethical (such as torture), the line
between ethical and unethical persuasion is less clearly demarcated. Ethical persuasion has a series of
common characteristics that are missing in unethical persuasion.

Ethical persuasion seeks to achieve the following three goals:

Explore the other person's viewpoint.

Explain your viewpoint.
Create resolutions.

Notably, this approach involves input from the audience and an honest explanation of your viewpoint. If you
have questions about the ethics of a persuasive attempt, there are a number of tests that can be done.

 TERM TO KNOW

Coercion
Use of physical or moral force to compel a person to do something or to abstain from doing something,
thereby depriving that person of the exercise of free will.

2a. TARES Test

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 Sherry Baker and David Martinson proposed a five-part TARES test to help guide the public relations practitioner to

define ethical persuasion.

According to the TARES test, ethical persuasive speech must have all of the following components:

Truthfulness of the message

Authenticity of the persuader
Respect for the audience
Equity of the persuasive appeal
Social responsibility

2b. Fitzpatrick and Gauthier Test

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 94
 Fitzpatrick and Gauthier developed a series of questions that must be honestly answered to determine how ethical a
pitch is.

This test includes the following considerations:

For what purpose is persuasion being employed?

Toward what choices and with what consequences for individual lives is persuasion being used?
Does the persuasion in this case contribute to or interfere with the decision-making process for its target
audience?

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that each person is unique, so there is no single psychological key to
persuasion. Cialdini proposed six persuasive psychological techniques, or weapons of influence:
reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. The relationship-
based persuasion technique has four steps: Survey the situation, confront the five barriers to a
successful influence encounter, make the pitch, and secure the commitments.

Some types of persuasion, such as torture, coercion, and brainwashing, are always unethical. Ethical

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 95
 persuasion has three components: the exploration of the other person's viewpoint, the explanation of
your viewpoint, and the creation of resolutions. Tests such as the TARES test and the Fitzpatrick and
Gauthier test are used to determine if a persuasion attempt is ethical.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Coercion
Use of physical or moral force to compel a person to do something or to abstain from doing
something, thereby depriving that person of the exercise of free will.

Reciprocity
The responses of individuals to the actions of others.

Social Proof
People tend to do things that they see others are doing.

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 96
 Types of Persuasive Speeches
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the types of persuasive speeches. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Persuasive Speeches
1a. Types
1b. Analysis
2. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact
2a. Questions of Fact
2b. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Fact
3. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value
3a. Examples of Value-Based Persuasive Speeches
3b. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Value
4. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

1. Persuasive Speeches
1a. Types
There are three types of persuasive speeches:

Persuasive speeches of fact

Persuasive speeches of value
Persuasive speeches of policy

1b. Analysis
How do you know what type of persuasive speech you are listening to or interested in writing?

You can analyze a persuasive speech to determine what its goals and methods are, and your analysis will help
you determine whether the speech is regarding fact, value, or policy.

When analyzing any type of persuasive speech, you should ask yourself the following questions:

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 What is the speaker's goal?
What are the main points?
How does the structure of the speech help the speaker to make the argument?
How does the speaker try to make you care?
How does the speaker use evidence?
What kinds of sources does the speaker use?

2. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact

Questions of fact are one focus of persuasive speaking. They propose that something is a fact. Questions of
fact (which are also called propositions of fact) basically state that something is, something exists, or something
doesn't exist.

Questions of fact contrast with questions of policy, which state that something should be, and questions of
value, which state that something is good, bad, beautiful, or worthwhile.

In a persuasive speech, the speaker answers a question by proposing an answer and attempting to convince
the audience that the answer is true and that they can believe the speaker. In essence, the speaker wants the
audience to accept their view as cold, hard facts.

2a. Questions of Fact

The following are three basic types of questions of fact that can be addressed with a persuasive speech:

1. Historical controversy: Knowledge that an event did happen in the past or that an object actually did exist.
2. Questions of current existence: Knowledge that something is happening now in the present (such as
global warming).
3. Predictions: Forecasting what will happen in the future. Based on past events, the speaker identifies a
pattern and attempts to convince the audience that the event will happen again.

EXAMPLE If someone observes that gasoline prices drop right before national elections, they could
attempt to convince others that they will drop again before the next election.

2b. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Fact

When creating a persuasive speech based around questions of fact, consider the following:

1. Thesis: When developing a persuasive speech, begin with a thesis that states that something is true,
meaning that it happened or did not happen, exists or does not exist.
2. Organization and evidence: In general, the evidence should be presented in topical order. It is important to
consider the evidence carefully. The speaker must ask if it is possible that the observations actually
occurred or could have occurred. Are the sources of the evidence reliable, and were they in a position to

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 actually observe what they reported? Is there reason to believe that a source may be biased, either
personally or by the thinking prevalent at the time in history?
3. Reasoning: The speaker will usually be dealing with inductive reasoning, in which they ask the audience to
agree with a conclusion after presenting all of the evidence. The speaker proves the position by presenting
compelling evidence to support the thesis.
4. Ethics: As a speaker, you have an ethical responsibility to provide reliable, valid evidence to the audience
and be aware of and avoid your own bias in the selection of the evidence that you use.

 REFLECT

What facts do you know that could make a good persuasive speech?

 TERM TO KNOW

Evidence
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

3. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value

Persuasive speeches of value argue that something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or worse than
another thing. The appeals are made on value judgments.

Persuasive speeches on questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to action.

3a. Examples of Value-Based Persuasive Speeches

The following are some examples of persuasive speeches that address values:

Speeches that attempt to persuade the audience that it is wrong to drive over the speed limit
Speeches that attempt to persuade that Pepsi is better than Coke
Speeches that attempt to persuade that it is better to live together before marriage
Speeches that attempt to persuade that swimming is the best form of exercise
Speeches that attempt to persuade that bikes are the best form of transportation to get around town

 REFLECT

What opinions about values or morality do you hold that could make a good persuasive speech?

3b. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Value

How should you go about creating such a speech?

1. Introduce appeals, information, and criteria.

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 2. Provide evidence that makes your audience arrive at your conclusion. (Your claims should agree with the
current beliefs and feelings of your audience.)
3. Use facts to justify your claims.
4. Consider your audience's feelings and values.

4. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

One focus of persuasive speaking is questions of policy, which advocate a change from the status quo, or the
way things are today. There is a "should," or at least an implied "should," in the thesis statement. The speaker
wants the plan proposed by the speech to become policy.

Questions of policy contrast with questions of fact, which state that something is, exists or does not exist, and
questions of value, which state that something is good, bad, beautiful, or perhaps worthwhile.

 TERM TO KNOW

Status Quo
The state of things; the way things are, as opposed to the way they could be.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the types of persuasive speeches: persuasive speeches on questions
of fact, value, and policy. You also learned some questions you can ask yourself to analyze a
persuasive speech.

When giving a persuasive speech on questions of fact, the speaker presents competing evidence,
uses logic, and asserts a particular point of view as the truth. When creating a persuasive speech on
questions of fact, the speaker has an ethical responsibility to provide reliable, valid evidence to the
audience and to be aware of and avoid bias in the selection of the evidence. Persuasive speeches on
questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to action. Persuasive speeches of value
depend on a judgment that something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or worse than
another thing. You reviewed some examples of persuasive speeches on questions of value and
learned how to create a persuasive speech based on your own opinions. Finally, you explored what is
included in a persuasive speech on questions of policy, which advocate for a change from the status
quo.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Evidence
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

Status Quo
The state of things; the way things are, as opposed to the way they could be.

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 Managing Speech Expectations
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to manage your expectations of public speaking. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Managing Speech Expectations
2. Don't Expect Too Much

1. Managing Speech Expectations

The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to individuals'
tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory information. This
theory suggests that people tend to select specific aspects of information based on their perspectives, beliefs,
attitudes, and decisions. People can determine what information they get, so they select favorable evidence
while ignoring the unfavorable.

Thus, selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs rather than exposing individuals to a diverse array of
viewpoints. When people stray away from new information because it conflicts with their own beliefs, it cripples
their ability to evaluate different ideas and learn new concepts and skills.

Modern social media allows us to choose where we get our information, and it uses algorithms that feed us
information with which we already agree. Examples include contradictory views on vaccines, polarizing views
about the legitimacy of the 2020 U.S. presidential election, and contrasting views on climate change.

Selective exposure can affect the decisions people make because people may not be willing to change their
views and beliefs. Changing beliefs about oneself, other people, and the world are all challenges that cause
people to fear new information.

Selective exposure is prevalent in both groups of people and individually.

EXAMPLE A study conducted during the 2004 presidential election compared how voters from
different parties responded to information from a left-leaning channel (CNN) versus a right-leaning channel
(Fox News).

The study showed that Republicans were 1.5 times more likely to watch Fox News, while Democrats were
1.5 times more likely to watch CNN. The Republicans who only tuned in to Fox News were more polarized

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 than Republicans who consumed media from various viewpoints. The same effect was present for
Democrats who only watched CNN. This suggests that selective exposure can drive polarization not just
between people from different parties. It can also drive polarization between people from the same party.

 REFLECT

Consider what preconceived ideas your audience may hold about the information you’re presenting. Those
who find new information often draw their attention to areas where they hold some personal attachment.
This is in keeping with the selective exposure theory. Here are some tips to follow:
Be prepared. Like it or not, you are going to face selective exposure from your audience as you try to
persuade them to accept your stance.
Counteract selective exposure. When preparing your speech, remember that the perceived usefulness
of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity regarding valuable information can counteract
selective exposure.

 TERM TO KNOW

Selective Exposure
The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to
individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory
information.

2. Don't Expect Too Much

Persuasion is the influence of beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors to convince an audience of
something. A persuasive speech should move the audience further along the pathway to believing that the
espoused point of view is correct, but not all views can be explained in one speech, and not every audience
can be swayed at once.

The expectations of each persuasive speech should be tailored to the context of the speech. Factors such as
the speech itself, the audience, the venue, the time allotted, and the speaker's experience all need to be
considered.

EXAMPLE If you are not a doctor but are asked to give a five-minute speech to the American Heart
Association about why fast food is the best food for heart health, your chances of persuading everyone is
pretty low. Even if you are the expert in the room, not everyone will be persuaded because each person
requires different processes to be convinced.
The purpose of the persuasive speech is to get the audience to think about your point of view and to accept
some of the vital points, not necessarily to make them buy everything you're selling.

Similarly, the expectations for the delivery of the speech should not be set too high. For a novice speaker to
expect that they will never mispronounce a word, get nervous, or skip a paragraph is unreasonable. Every
speaker goes through the process of making mistakes, and few, if any, speakers ever deliver a perfect speech.

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 The expected quality of the delivery of the speech depends on each individual speaker's experience and
comfort level, though even the most gifted orators make mistakes.

Some of the anxiousness that often accompanies preparing for a speech is derived from the idea that the
audience expects perfection. However, the surprising truth is that, in most cases, the audience is a sympathetic
friend. Whether or not the audience knows who you are, human nature dictates that they are very sympathetic
to you and what you have to say.

Most people appreciate the difficulty of your role, understand that you have something to say, and want the
time they spend listening to you to be worthwhile. In other words, before you start speaking, most audiences
have a vested interest in wanting you to succeed, and that translates into an attentive, supportive group.

 TERM TO KNOW

Persuasion
The process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that you should manage your expectations of your speech. The expected
effectiveness of each speech depends on a number of factors, such as the audience, venue, time
allotted, and the speaker's experience. The expected quality of the delivery depends on the speaker's
experience and comfort. Even the most gifted speakers make mistakes, so expecting perfection from a
novice is unreasonable. You also learned that you shouldn’t expect too much. Selective exposure
theory is a concept that refers to individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting
views while avoiding contradictory information. Selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs
rather than exposing individuals to a diverse array of viewpoints. An important tip for speakers is to
remember that the perceived usefulness of information, the perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity
regarding valuable information can counteract selective exposure.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Persuasion
The process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior.

Selective Exposure

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 The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to
individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding
contradictory information.

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 Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Pathos
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the use of emotional appeals, or pathos, in a persuasive speech.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Emotional Appeals (Pathos)
2. The Purpose of an Emotional Appeal
3. Using Emotional Appeals Appropriately
4. Examples of Emotional Appeals
5. Producing an Emotional Appeal
6. The Emotional Appeals in "I Have a Dream"

1. Emotional Appeals (Pathos)

Pathos is an appeal to the audience's emotions. Pathos is a communication technique used most often in
rhetoric (where it is considered one of the three modes of persuasion, alongside ethos and logos), and in
literature, film, and other narrative art.

Emotional appeals can be accomplished in a multitude of ways:

By a metaphor or storytelling, common as a hook

By a general passion in the delivery
By an overall emotion
By the sympathies of the speech or writing as determined by the audience

The pathos of a speech or writing is only ultimately determined by the audience.

Appealing to the empathy and sensitivity of the audience is broadly termed an emotional appeal. Emotional
appeals can be a powerful rhetorical element of a persuasive speech. They are an attempt to make the
audience feel something, and in the process, be persuaded by the speech. A crowd that is feeling something is
much more likely to be engaged, give consideration to your arguments, and remember the speech.

Emotional appeals can manifest in a number of ways. Metaphors, stories, and passionate delivery are all
emotional appeals because their effectiveness lies not only in the words but in the emotions they evoke in the
audience.

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 Appeals to empathy and sensitivity can create a sense of connection and trust between you and the audience.
Since trust and connection are vital elements of being able to persuade an audience, emotional appeals can be
incredibly useful.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pathos
An appeal to the audience's emotions.

Emotional Appeal
An attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will be more likely to be engaged
by the speech. Also known as pathos.

2. The Purpose of an Emotional Appeal

An emotional appeal is directed to sway an audience member's emotions and uses the manipulation of the
recipient's emotions rather than valid logic to win an argument.

An emotional appeal uses emotions as the basis of an argument's position without factual evidence that
logically supports the major ideas endorsed by the presenter. In an emotional appeal, persuasive language is
used to develop the foundation of an appeal to emotion-based arguments instead of facts. Therefore, the
validity of the premises that establish such an argument does not prove to be verifiable.

Emotional appeal is a logical fallacy whereby a debater attempts to win an argument by trying to get an
emotional reaction from the opponent and audience. It is generally characterized by the use of loaded
language and concepts (God, country, and apple pie being good concepts; drugs and crime being bad ones).

In debating terms, emotional appeals are often effective as a rhetorical device but are generally considered
naive or dishonest as a logical argument since they often appeal to the prejudices of listeners rather than offer
a sober assessment of a situation.

3. Using Emotional Appeals Appropriately

Emotional appeals can also backfire if misused. If taken too far, an appeal to emotion can seem to be forced.
Audiences can tell the difference between an honest emotional appeal and an attempt to manipulate how they
feel. Audiences loathe feeling manipulated, so an audience that senses inauthentic motives will strongly reject
both the appeal and the speaker.

When the emotional appeal is both authentic and appropriately used, you can develop a much stronger
connection to your audience than by using logic alone. However, to misuse an emotional appeal is to
completely alienate your audience and even foster negative feelings.

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 Ultimately, the effectiveness of an emotional appeal is determined only by the audience. If the audience does
not feel the intended emotions, by definition, the appeal has failed.

4. Examples of Emotional Appeals

Children are more often than not toddled out as an appeal to emotion. From pictures of starving children to
motivate people to give to charity to using them as an excuse to ban things that children shouldn't even be
aware of (e.g., guns), they are repeatedly paraded in front of audiences to appeal to their emotional protective
instincts, often overriding anyone's sense of rationality.

For example, "for the children" or "think of the children" as emotional appeals have been used with success in
passing political motions such as Proposition Hate in California.

As with children, cute animals override most people's logic. Even if the pictures of animal testing put out by
PETA are 50 years out of date, they still provoke an emotional response rather than a reasoned one when
trying to assess cruelty in animal testing.

5. Producing an Emotional Appeal

Producing an emotional appeal requires an understanding of your audience and what may strike their emotions
the most.

EXAMPLE If you are giving a speech at an event to raise money for a children's hospital, it would be
appropriate to use an appeal to emotions relating to children. For instance, the speaker could use an
emotionally charged anecdote about a child who was sick and subsequently cured at this hospital. This
story stresses the value that the hospital had on improving the child's health.
In general, an effective way to create an emotional appeal is to use words that have a lot of pathos associated
with them. Pathos is an emotional appeal used in rhetoric that depicts certain emotional states.

Some examples of pathos-charged words include: strong, powerful, tragic, equality, freedom, and liberty. These
words can be used in a speech to intensify an emotional appeal to an audience.

6. The Emotional Appeals in "I Have a Dream"

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 Dr. Martin Luther King

An example of a speech that is particularly effective at producing an emotional response with its listeners is
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.

The speech uses rhetoric to convey the point of equal opportunity for all people. It is considered by many as a
prime example of successful rhetoric and emotional appeal.

In the speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. weaves current events into the fabric of American history, underscoring
the tragedy with biblical rhetoric. King hinges his call for change on three refrains or repeated phrases. He
frames his vision for the future with the famous phrase, "I have a dream."

As his speech draws to a close, he wills his vision to become a reality across the country, moving on to the
refrain, "Let freedom ring!" He closes his speech with the repeated line, "Free at last!" King articulates cruel

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 injustices, leads us to imagine a world without those injustices, and then appeals to his audience's emotions
through these phrases and the idea of a world with equal opportunity.

Here is an excerpt from a transcript of the famous speech. You can read the entire transcript here.

So even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream
deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out
the true meaning of its creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.

I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of
former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice,
sweltering with the heat of oppression will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by
the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.

I have a dream that one day down in Alabama with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips
dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, one day right down in Alabama little Black
boys and Black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and
brothers. I have a dream today.

I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low,
the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the
Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.

This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith, we will be able to hew
out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling
discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work
together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together,
knowing that we will be free one day.

This will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: My country, 'tis of
thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrims' pride, from
every mountainside, let freedom ring.

And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. And so let freedom ring from the
prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let
freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the
snowcapped Rockies of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not
only that, let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain

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 of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside,
let freedom ring.

And when this happens, and when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and
every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's
children, Black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join
hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last. Free at last. Thank God almighty,
we are free at last.

 REFLECT

What examples of emotional appeals do you notice in the excerpt of King’s speech? How do you think his
audience may have reacted to these appeals?

 TERM TO KNOW

Rhetoric
The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about emotional appeals (pathos). The purpose of an emotional appeal is to
use the manipulation of emotions rather than valid logic to win an argument. Pictures of children and
animals are common examples of emotional appeals. It’s important to use emotional appeals
appropriately and ethically. You reviewed examples of emotional appeals and learned that producing
an emotional appeal requires an understanding of your audience and what may strike their emotions
the most. Finally, you considered an example of a speech that is particularly effective at producing an
emotional response with its listeners: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech. The
speech uses rhetoric to convey the point of equal opportunity for all people.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
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SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Emotional Appeal
An attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will be more likely to be
engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Pathos

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 An appeal to the audience's emotions.

Rhetoric
The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade.

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 Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Ethos
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the use of credibility appeals, or ethos, in a persuasive speech.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Credibility (Ethos)
1a. Subjective Credibility: Self-Presentation
1b. Objective Credibility: Expertise
1c. Types of Credibility
1d. Building Credibility
1e. Credibility, Character, and Caring
1f. Ethical Usage of Credibility Appeals

1. Credibility (Ethos)
Credibility is defined as the objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.
Credibility is both objective, or based on facts and evidence, and subjective, based on opinions and feelings.

This quality encompasses everything from your college degree or professional certification to the immediate
"gut feeling" people get when they walk into the room. You employ your credibility when you make an appeal
using ethos.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Credibility
The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.

Objective
Not influenced by irrational emotions or prejudices; based on facts or evidence.

Subjective
Formed, as in opinions, based upon a person's feelings or intuition, not upon observation or reasoning;
coming more from within the observer than from observations of the external environment.

1a. Subjective Credibility: Self-Presentation

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 The subjective aspect of a public speaker's credibility is based on the speaker's self-presentation. Here are
some tips for earning credibility on a subjective level:

1. Dress the part. Show the audience that you take the speaking engagement seriously and hope to earn
their respect. If you're not sure how to dress, professional attire is always a safe bet.
2. Look at the audience. Establishing eye contact will make you seem open and trustworthy.
3. Speak loudly, clearly, and confidently. If you have confidence in yourself, the audience will too.

1b. Objective Credibility: Expertise

Mark Twain once said that an expert is just "an ordinary fellow from another town." If only it were that easy! In
reality, if you want to convince the audience that you are an expert, you will have to show some credentials.

Here are three ways to establish objective credibility:

1. State your credentials. Audiences will trust you more readily if you can prove that other people value your
expertise. Credentials include relevant degrees, certifications, testimonials, recommendations, work
experience, volunteer experience, and informally, other types of personal experience.
2. Reveal a personal connection to your topic. Your input will have more weight if you can demonstrate that
the topic means something to you.
3. Establish common ground with your audience. If you can explain that, ultimately, you all want the same
thing, the audience will be much more likely to trust you and accept your message.

1c. Types of Credibility

The following are the types and elements of credibility that will matter to your audience.

Credibility from experience. Imagine this scenario: You, a veteran mountain climber, are slated to give a
speech about climbing safety to a group of mountaineers that is about to set off on a dangerous expedition.
What would be the best source of credibility in that situation? Experience! The mountaineers would
probably not be very impressed to hear that you read a book about climbing safety once or that some of
your best friends are mountaineers. However, if you bring in stories, photographs, and examples from your
own climbing experience, you will assure them that you really know what you're talking about. Drawing
from your work experience, volunteering experience, hobbies, and informally, other types of personal
experience can do a lot to boost your credibility as a speaker.
Credibility from training. Do you have any formal or informal training that relates to your topic? If so,
mention it during your speech to build your credibility. Relevant training programs and credentials include
academic degrees, professional certifications, classes, conferences, and personal research. Even if your
training isn't directly related to your topic, there may be an indirect connection. Don't feel obligated to
stretch your story if it really doesn't fit, but also, don't rule out training experiences that are out of your
current field.
Credibility by association. Machiavelli's maxim teaches a valuable lesson: People will not only judge you on
your own merits alone but also on the merits of your associates. This rule isn't only for rulers; it applies to
public speakers too. If you want to be seen as a credible person, align yourself with other credible people.

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 You can do this by citing testimonials from respected figures or mentioning personal recommendations that
validate your expertise. Another approach is to quote prominent figures in your field, demonstrating an
awareness of the issues and conversations that are current trends in that field.

The first method for estimating the intelligence of a ruler is to look at the men he has around him.
—Niccolo Machiavelli

1d. Building Credibility

Greek philosopher Heraclitus's famous maxim, "Character is destiny," has echoed through the ages: If you want
to win the audience's trust, you must demonstrate that you are a person of character.

Aristotle argues that establishing good character is one of the most important means of persuasion. Roman
orator Quintilian defines persuasive rhetoric as essentially "the good man speaking well."

British historian James A. Froude takes the colloquial idea of building character one step further, leading us to
imagine a laborious undertaking in a blacksmith's forge, shaping character with a hammer.

The literature surrounding public speaking emphasizes the importance of establishing good character but also
admits that it is not easy.

1e. Credibility, Character, and Caring

Personal character is an important addition to the elements of credibility we discussed in the last segment.
However, it is important to note that, for a public speaker, character is not as simple as being a nice person or a
law-abiding citizen.

Public speakers are responsible for communicating something of value to a large group of people. A public
speaker of character should listen to the needs of the audience, entertain potential objections, walk the
audience through opposing viewpoints, and respond to questions. Show your listeners that you're looking out
for them. After all, why should they trust you if you don't care about them?

 STEP BY STEP

To bring the audience's needs and interests to the forefront of your speech, follow these steps:
1. Find common ground with your audience.
2. Appeal to shared beliefs and values.
3. Identify a shared goal.
4. Return to this shared goal throughout the speech.
5. Demonstrate that you have considered other perspectives on the issue.
6. Show that you understand the appeal of opposing positions.
7. Make a case for your own position.

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  TERM TO KNOW

Character
Moral strength; consistency of values and principles.

1f. Ethical Usage of Credibility Appeals

Speeches grounded in the principles of rhetoric focus on three types of rhetorical appeals: logos, pathos, and
ethos.

While logos and pathos appeal to reason and emotion, respectively, ethos takes on a decidedly different
approach entirely. Speakers using ethos seek to persuade their audience by demonstrating their own credibility
and authority.

To elaborate, the construction of authority is reflected in how a speaker presents themselves, what diction they
use, how they phrase their ideas, what other authorities they refer to, how they compose themselves under
stress, their experience within the context of their message, and their personal or academic background.

Obviously, if you elucidate a persuasive portrait of your personal credibility and authority, you make a more
persuasive case for the credibility and authority of your words. However, when building a persuasive case using
ethos, it may be tempting to stray into territory that borders on the unethical.

IN CONTEXT

You might not realize it at first, but interviewing for a job is an abbreviated form of persuasive
speaking. You're trying to persuade an employer to offer you a job. This method of persuasion relies
heavily on the use of ethos, as you're trying to make your case as to why you're the best person for
the job.

When you submit your résumé and cover letter, you provide your potential employer with an overview
of your skills, experiences, and background, and how they best fit with the position and company with
whom you seek employment.

While many employers complete extensive background reviews and reference checks, they may not
follow up with every single bullet point on your résumé. While it might be tempting to beef up your list
of achievements by stretching the truth: naming yourself a college club president as opposed to a
member, listing an award you may have been nominated for but not won (without clarifying that fact)—
these are all unethical ways of padding your résumé, and thus, unethically using ethos to persuade
your potential employer to hire you for the job.

This same example holds true in more formal scenarios of persuasive public speaking. It is unethical to lie to
your audience about who you are and what you bring to the table in terms of experience, credibility, and
authority. It is equally unethical to even bend the truth on the slightest detail about what makes you a credible
or authoritative speaker on your given subject.

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  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about a type of appeal used in persuasive speeches: ethos, or an appeal to
credibility. There are two types of credibility: Subjective credibility is based on the speaker’s
presentation, while objective credibility is based on the speaker’s qualifications. You learned about the
types of credibility you can establish using your experience, your training, or your associations.
Building credibility is a matter of building trust with your audience, and your credibility is more than just
your character or your ability to care. It’s essential to use ethos ethically and not misrepresent your
credibility to your audience.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-
SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Character
Moral strength; consistency of values and principles.

Credibility
The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.

Objective
Not influenced by irrational emotions or prejudices; based on facts or evidence.

Subjective
Formed, as in opinions, based upon a person's feelings or intuition, not upon observation or
reasoning; coming more from within the observer than from observations of the external
environment.

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 Using Appeals in Persuasive Speeches: Logos
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the use of logical appeals, or logos, in a persuasive speech.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Evidence or Logic (Logos)
2. Strategies for Deploying Evidence Effectively
3. Ethical Usage: Considering Other Viewpoints
4. Different Lines of Reasoning
4a. Inductive Reasoning and Associative Reasoning
4b. Deductive Reasoning
5. Deploying a Rational Appeal
6. Logical Fallacies
6a. Formal Fallacies
6b. Informal Fallacies

1. Evidence or Logic (Logos)

Evidential appeals are formed by defining the evidence and then explaining how the evidence must logically
prove that a certain conclusion must be true. They are the only type of persuasive speech allowed in a court of
law; the evidence must prove that the defendant has committed the crime in order for that person to be found
guilty. Evidential appeals are also the basis for scientific research. A scientist must be able to show the
connection between evidence and a conclusion in order for their work to be accepted.

In persuasive speaking, the speaker must first explain the evidence in a way that is comprehensible to the
audience, yet complete. Then, the scientist must explain how that evidence logically leads to a consequence
that supports their proposal.

In the context of persuasive speaking, evidence can be evaluated for its persuasive ability in the following three
ways:

1. Accuracy: The evidence must be truthfully constructed and defined. For example, if an argument hinges on
the premise that grass is purple, no rhetorical technique will be able to persuade the audience. Evidence
must be accurate to be credible, as its credibility rests on its accuracy.

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 2. Audience understanding: Evidence must be presented completely but in a manner that the audience can
comprehend. For example, an evidential appeal that uses rising carbon dioxide levels as evidence for
stricter pollution regulation will not be effective if the audience does not know what carbon dioxide is or
why it is bad for the environment. The audience must be able to understand the evidence before it is used
in an appeal.
3. Relevant context: The evidence must be defined within the context of the appeal. A textbook definition of
the different types of bonds between the atoms of carbon dioxide is not relevant information for why the
tax rate should be lowered.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Evidential Appeal
An attempt to show the logical connection between a set of evidence and a consequence. Also known
as logical appeal or logos.

Evidence
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

2. Strategies for Deploying Evidence Effectively

When using evidential appeals in your persuasive speech, make sure to deploy evidence strategically in order
to argue your point. As you craft your persuasive speech, ask yourself the following questions:

1. Is my evidence accurate? Make sure that your evidence, be it facts, statistics, personal testimony, or other
pieces of information, comes from credible sources. Credible sources are well-known, respected leaders or
sources of information in a given field. Make sure the source is impartial and unbiased. It's also helpful to
anticipate any questions your audience may have about your evidence, including any challenges they may
make to its credibility or accuracy.
2. Is my evidence relevant? How well does your evidence actually back up your argument? Just because it
might be believable to you does not mean it will be as compelling to another. That disconnect might occur
when your evidence is not actually relevant to your argument. Make sure your evidence is directly related
to the points you are trying to make. Likewise, your audience may have evidence of their own to contradict
your line of reasoning; anticipate these contradictions and argue your point with evidence to counter their
disagreements.
3. Is my evidence thorough? Sometimes your case may not be compelling simply because you haven't fully
supported your thesis. Your evidence may only skim the surface. It's a fine balance between thoroughly
explaining and defining your evidence to your audience and overwhelming them in the process. In this
regard, it's important to have a comprehensive understanding of the knowledge base of your audience. Let
the lowest level of understanding in your audience dictate how thorough you need to be; at the same time,
don't overexplain or get into so much depth that you lose more of your audience than you win over.

 TERMS TO KNOW

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 Accuracy
Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or standard
value.

Thorough
Painstaking and careful not to miss or omit any detail.

3. Ethical Usage: Considering Other Viewpoints

The honest consideration of other viewpoints is an ethical duty if you are a persuasive speaker seeking to
convince the audience of something you believe to be true.

You may be making the wrong conclusion based on the evidence, or your evidence may be flawed, both of
which can be shown by examining other views. Perhaps you and your opponent are using the same evidence
but come to different conclusions. If you are able to consider other viewpoints and still believe in your original
view, then you are ethically able to attempt to persuade others.

As a persuasive speaker, there is always an incentive to invent or even just fudge evidence so as to strengthen
your appeal and weaken opposing viewpoints. However, this is akin to lying and clearly unethical.

Furthermore, the evidence you provide must generally be accepted only after intense scrutiny. Statistics, and
many types of evidence, do not fall neatly into the category of "true" or "false." While there are some undeniable
truths, such as the fact that the earth is round, there are many more that fall into a gray area. This is due to the
fact that evidence comes from a process that may be flawed. When the process is flawed, there may be a
statistical fallacy.

EXAMPLE If a survey asks skewed questions, the results may not reflect the truth. Though many
researchers, scientists, pollsters, and investigators do their best to avoid fallacies, the possibility always
exists that one may be proven.

 TERM TO KNOW

Fallacy
An error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption; used in informal discourse to
mean an argument that is problematic for any reason.

4. Different Lines of Reasoning

Reasoning is the means by which rational beings understand cause and effect, truth and falsehood, validity, and
what is good or bad. The result is a reason that could then be used to explain or justify some event,
phenomenon, or behavior.

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 As you develop arguments for your persuasive speech, you are likely to engage in two different lines of
reasoning: inductive and deductive.

4a. Inductive Reasoning and Associative Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a kind of reasoning that constructs general propositions that are derived from specific
examples based on previous observations. One important aspect of inductive reasoning is associative
reasoning: seeing or noticing similarities among the different events or objects that you observe.

EXAMPLE Here is a statistical syllogism to illustrate inductive reasoning:

1. Ninety percent of humans are right-handed.

2. Joe is a human.
3. Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is 90%. If you were required to guess, you would
choose "right-handed" in the absence of any other evidence.

EXAMPLE Here is another stronger example:

One hundred percent of life forms that we know of depend on liquid water to exist. Therefore, if you
discover a new life form, it will probably depend on liquid water to exist.

This argument could have been made every time a new life form was found and would have been correct
every time. While it is possible that in the future, a life form that does not require water will be discovered, in
the absence of other factors, the conclusion is probably correct, as it has been in the past.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Inductive Reasoning
A kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific
examples. Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific examples are
derived from general propositions.

Syllogism
An inference in which one proposition (the conclusion) follows necessarily from two other propositions,
known as the premises.

4b. Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements, laws, or principles
regarding what is known, in order to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning involves using
given, true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true. If you accept or know the general principle as true,
then you can apply it to the specific case to conclude that it is also true.

EXAMPLE Consider the general principle of the law of gravity: What goes up must come down. Now,
when you throw the ball in the air, you conclude that it will fall down based on your knowledge of the
general law of gravity.

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 Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning in that a specific conclusion is arrived at from the
general principle when reasoning deductively. If the rules and logic of deduction are followed, this procedure
ensures an accurate conclusion.

EXAMPLE Here is a classic example of a deductive argument:

1. All men are mortal.
2. John is a man.
3. Therefore, John is mortal.

The first premise states that all objects classified as "men" have the attribute "mortal." The second premise
states that "John" is classified as a "man"—a member of the class or group of "men." The conclusion then
states that "John" must be "mortal" because he inherits this attribute from his classification as a "man." If
both premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the
conclusion of the argument follows by logical necessity.

 TERM TO KNOW

Deductive Reasoning
The process of reasoning that uses given true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true.
Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning.

5. Deploying a Rational Appeal

A rational appeal uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade individuals that whatever thesis you
are supporting is viable and likely to result in the obtainment of goals. The burden of proof is on you as the
speaker as you develop your appeals to the audience.

Prior to your speech, it is important to consider the soundness of your evidence and reasoning.

Deductive reasoning: If you are engaging in deductive reasoning, you will want to consider whether or not
the audience is likely to accept the general premise as valid and true before you attempt to deduce other
ideas or courses of action based on the general premise. If you are quoting an authority and drawing
conclusions from the authority, it is important to ask if the audience will accept or believe the authority.
Remember to quote or use sources that the audience is familiar with and will believe; using other
authorities or sources will likely not be productive.
Inductive reasoning: If you are engaging in inductive reasoning, you will want to consider whether you
have observed or collected enough evidence to draw a highly probable conclusion. Or did you draw a
hasty conclusion based on too few examples or observations? If you are using statistical evidence as part
of your inductive reasoning, it is important to consider how the data was collected and whether it is truly
valid. If you do not have valid statistical data, then the inductions will not be valid.
Associative reasoning (analogy): When engaging in associative reasoning, you will want to make sure that
the ideas are indeed similar and that there are no obvious or outstanding differences that would negate the

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 association in the mind of your audience.

6. Logical Fallacies
A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning. There are two basic categories of fallacies:

Formal
Informal

6a. Formal Fallacies

Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument. "Formal" refers to
the form of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy will always be invalid.

EXAMPLE Consider an example with a visualization of faulty reasoning involving categorical deduction:
1. All flowers are animals.
2. All animals can jump.
3. Therefore, all flowers can jump.

Even though it is quite obvious that the first premise is not true and further that the conclusion is not true,
the whole syllogism is still valid. By applying formal logic to the syllogism in the example, the conclusion is
still valid.

6b. Informal Fallacies

An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the content, rather than mere
structure, of the argument. In informal logic and rhetoric, a fallacy is usually an error in reasoning, often due to a
misconception or a presumption. Some of the more frequent common logical fallacies are listed in the following
table:

Common Logical
Description Example Fallacy Explanation
Fallacy

Converse fallacy of Argues from limited Every person I've met has Those who have been met
accidental or hasty examples or a special case ten fingers; therefore, all are not a representative
generalization to a general rule. people have ten fingers. subset of the entire set.

Making the
What do you know about Personal argument against an
argument personal Attacking or discrediting
the U.S.? You aren't even a opponent, instead of against
(argumentum ad the opposition's character.
citizen. the opponent's argument.
hominem)

Popular sentiment or An appeal to the majority; Everyone is doing it. Concludes a proposition to be
bandwagon appeal appeal to loyalty. true because many or most
people believe it.

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 (argumentum ad
populum)

I think that we should

make the academic
Here, the second sentence,
requirements stricter for
Intentionally or though used to support the
students. I recommend
Red herring unintentionally misleading first, does not address the
that you support this
(ignoratio elenchi) or distracting from the topic of the first sentence,
because we are in a
actual issue. instead switching the focus to
budget crisis, and we do
a different topic.
not want our salaries
affected.

Incorrectly assumes one

I hear the rain falling
thing is the cause of The conclusion is false
Fallacy of false outside my window;
another. Non sequitur is because the sun can shine
cause (non sequitur) therefore, the sun is not
Latin for "It does not while it is raining.
shining.
follow."

If it comes before, it
Believing that temporal It rained just before the car
is the cause (post There may be no connection
succession implies a causal died. The rain caused the
hoc ergo propter between the two events.
relation. car to break down.
hoc)

No premise suggests that ice

More cows die in the
cream consumption is
summer. More ice cream is
Two events co- causing the deaths. The
consumed in the summer
occurring is not Believing that correlation deaths and consumption
months. Therefore, the
causation (cum hoc implies a causal relation. could be unrelated, or
consumption of ice cream
ergo propter hoc) something else could be
in the summer is killing
causing both, such as summer
cows.
heat.

Fallacy of many
Groups more than one Either a yes or no answer is
questions or loaded Have you stopped beating
question in the form of a an admission of guilt to
question (plurium your wife?
single question. beating your wife.
interrogationum)

Creates the illusion of B has misrepresented A's

Person A: Sunny days are
having refuted a claim by falsely suggesting
good.
proposition by replacing it that A claimed that only sunny
Person B: If all days were
with a superficially similar days are good, and then B
Straw man sunny, we'd never have
proposition (the "straw refuted the misrepresented
rain, and without rain, we'd
man"), and refuting it, version of the claim rather
have famine and death.
without ever actually than refuting A's original
Therefore, you are wrong.
refuting the original. assertion.

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 The listener is forced to The presentation of a false
The false dilemma, make a choice between If you are not with us, you choice often reflects a
or either-or fallacy two things which are not are against us. deliberate attempt to
really related or relevant. eliminate any middle ground.

Deliberate action is taken

to bias an argument by Learn new skills, become a Only the positive benefits of
Card stacking, or
selective use of facts with leader, and see the world military service are used to
cherry picking
opposing evidence being by joining the military. recruit, and not the hazards.
buried or discredited.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Red Herring
A clue or information that is intentionally or unintentionally misleading, that diverts attention from a
question; often thought to relate to using smelly fish to train dogs to recognize the real scent of
something they were supposed to be tracking.

Straw Man
An insubstantial concept, idea, endeavor, or argument, particularly one deliberately set up to be weakly
supported, so that it can be easily knocked down, especially to impugn the strength of any related thing
or idea.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that using ethos, or logical appeals, involves focusing on reasoning,
evidence, and invention. The burden of proof is on you as the speaker to develop the right appeals for
the particular audience. Strategies for deploying evidence effectively include asking whether your
evidence is accurate, relevant, and thorough. It’s important to consider other viewpoints and anticipate
your audience’s possible reactions to your argument. You also learned that there are three different
types of reasoning: inductive and deductive. When using deductive reasoning, consider whether or
not the audience is likely to accept the general premise as valid and true before you attempt to deduce
other ideas or courses of action based on the general premise. When using inductive reasoning,
consider if you have observed or collected enough evidence to draw a highly probable conclusion.
When using associative reasoning, you will want to make sure that the ideas are indeed similar and
that there are no obvious or outstanding differences which would negate the association you propose.
As you write your persuasive speech, you should consider how to best deploy the specific type of
reasoning you are using. It’s also important to address potential resistance from your audience and
avoid the use of logical fallacies, both formal and informal.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM "BOUNDLESS COMMUNICATIONS" PROVIDED BY
BOUNDLESS.COM. ACCESS FOR FREE AT oer commons. LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-

© 2025 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 125
 SHAREALIKE 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Accuracy
Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or
standard value.

Deductive Reasoning
The process of reasoning that uses given true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true.
Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning.

Evidence
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

Evidential Appeal
An attempt to show the logical connection between a set of evidence and a consequence. Also
known as logical appeal or logos.

Fallacy
An error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption; used in informal discourse to
mean an argument that is problematic for any reason.

Inductive Reasoning
A kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific
examples. Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific examples are
derived from general propositions.

Red Herring
A clue or information that is intentionally or unintentionally misleading, that diverts attention from a
question; often thought to relate to using smelly fish to train dogs to recognize the real scent of
something they were supposed to be tracking.

Straw Man
An insubstantial concept, idea, endeavor, or argument, particularly one deliberately set up to be
weakly supported, so that it can be easily knocked down, especially to impugn the strength of any
related thing or idea.

Syllogism
An inference in which one proposition (the conclusion) follows necessarily from two other
propositions, known as the premises.

Thorough
Painstaking and careful not to miss or omit any detail.

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 Sample Persuasive Speech
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will examine an example of a persuasive speech. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Sample Persuasive Speech: President Eisenhower

1. Sample Persuasive Speech: President

Eisenhower
The main purpose of persuasive speaking is to change, reinforce, or influence the attitudes, beliefs, and values
of the audience. There are no formal rules on what topics, formats, or viewpoints qualify as persuasion.

However, most persuasive speeches are based on policies that require the acknowledgment and support of
governments, public bodies, organizations, and constituents.

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 President Eisenhower attempted to change prevailing attitudes on the cost of an arms race in his speech 'Chance for

Peace.'

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 Just three months into his presidency, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivered the speech entitled
"Chance for Peace" on April 16th, 1953. The speech was given shortly after the death of Soviet dictator Joseph
Stalin. In his speech, Eisenhower likened arms spending to stealing from the people using figurative language
and spoke against increased military spending in spite of continued tensions and rivalry with the Soviet Union.

The following is an excerpt from Eisenhower's address:

In this spring of 1953, the free world weighs one question above all others: the chance for a just peace
for all peoples. To weigh this chance is to summon instantly to mind another recent moment of great
decision. It came with that yet more hopeful spring of 1945, bright with the promise of victory and of
freedom. The hope of all just men in that moment too was a just and lasting peace.

In that spring of victory, the soldiers of the Western Allies met the soldiers of Russia in the center of
Europe. They were triumphant comrades in arms. Their peoples shared the joyous prospect of
building, in honor of their dead, the only fitting monument: an age of just peace. All these war-weary
peoples shared this concrete, decent purpose: to guard vigilantly against the domination ever again of
any part of the world by a single, unbridled aggressive power. This common purpose lasted an instant
and perished. The nations of the world divided to follow two distinct roads. The leaders of the Soviet
Union chose another.

The way chosen by the United States was plainly marked by a few clear precepts, which govern its
conduct in world affairs.

First, no people on earth can be held, as a people, to be an enemy, for all humanity shares the
common hunger for peace and fellowship and justice.

Second, no nation’s security and well-being can be lastingly achieved in isolation but only in effective
cooperation with fellow nations.

Third, any nation’s right to a form of government and an economic system of its own choosing is
inalienable.

Fourth, any nation’s attempt to dictate to other nations their form of government is indefensible.

And fifth, a nation’s hope of lasting peace cannot be firmly based upon any race in armaments but
rather upon just relations and honest understanding with all other nations.

In the light of these principles the citizens of the United States defined the way they proposed to
follow, through the aftermath of war, toward true peace. This way was faithful to the spirit that inspired
the United Nations: to prohibit strife, to relieve tensions, to banish fears. This way was to control and
to reduce armaments. This way was to allow all nations to devote their energies and resources to the
great and good tasks of healing the war’s wounds, of clothing and feeding and housing the needy, of

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 perfecting a just political life, of enjoying the fruits of their own free toil.

The Soviet government held a vastly different vision of the future. In the world of its design, security
was to be found, not in mutual trust and mutual aid but in force: huge armies, subversion, rule of
neighbor nations. The goal was power superiority at all cost. Security was to be sought by denying it
to all others. The result has been tragic for the world and, for the Soviet Union, it has also been ironic.

The free nations, most solemnly and repeatedly, have assured the Soviet Union that their firm
association has never had any aggressive purpose whatsoever. Soviet leaders, however, have
seemed to persuade themselves, or tried to persuade their people, otherwise. And so it has come to
pass that the Soviet Union itself has shared and suffered the very fears it has fostered in the rest of
the world.

This has been the way of life forged by eight years of fear and force. What can the world, or any nation
in it, hope for if no turning is found on this dread road?

The worst to be feared and the best to be expected can be simply stated. The worst is atomic war.
The best would be this: a life of perpetual fear and tension; a burden of arms draining the wealth and
the labor of all peoples; a wasting of strength that defies the American system or the Soviet system or
any system to achieve true abundance and happiness for the peoples of this earth.

Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final sense, a theft
from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed.

This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of
its scientists, the hopes of its children. The cost of one modern heavy bomber is this: a modern brick
school in more than 30 cities. It is two electric power plants, each serving a town of 60,000
population. It is two fine, fully equipped hospitals. It is some 50 miles of concrete highway. We pay for
a single fighter plane with a half million bushels of wheat. We pay for a single destroyer with new
homes that could have housed more than 8,000 people.

This, I repeat, is the best way of life to be found on the road the world has been taking. This is not a
way of life at all, in any true sense. Under the cloud of threatening war, it is humanity hanging from a
cross of iron. These plain and cruel truths define the peril and point the hope that comes with this
spring of 1953.

This idea of a just and peaceful world is not new or strange to us. It inspired the people of the United
States to initiate the European Recovery Program in 1947. That program was prepared to treat, with
equal concern, the needs of Eastern and Western Europe.

We are prepared to reaffirm, with the most concrete evidence, our readiness to help build a world in
which all peoples can be productive and prosperous. This government is ready to ask its people to

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 join with all nations in devoting a substantial percentage of any savings achieved by real disarmament
to a fund for world aid and reconstruction. The purposes of this great work would be to help other
peoples to develop the undeveloped areas of the world, to stimulate profitable and fair world trade, to
assist all peoples to know the blessings of productive freedom.

The monuments to this new kind of war would be these: roads and schools, hospitals and homes, food
and health.

We are ready, in short, to dedicate our strength to serving the needs, rather than the fears, of the
world. I know of nothing I can add to make plainer the sincere purpose of the United States. I know of
no course, other than that marked by these and similar actions, that can be called the highway of
peace. I know of only one question upon which progress waits. It is this: What is the Soviet Union
ready to do?

Whatever the answer be, let it be plainly spoken.

Eisenhower attempted to sway his audience by describing what was at stake—exorbitant spending, wasted
worker talent, unsafe borders—if the United States pursued an arms race. Although his speech is often
described as one of the greatest persuasive speeches of modern times, the large peacetime military budgets
established during his administration have continued for half a century.

You can listen to the full audio of Eisenhower's speech using this link.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Think about the following questions in relation to Eisenhower’s speech:

Do you think Eisenhower’s speech would have been effectively persuasive to his audience?
Would certain types of people be more likely to be persuaded than others?
How does Eisenhower get his audience’s attention in his speech?
What methods does Eisenhower use to sustain his audience’s interest?
Can you identify the simile Eisenhower uses in this excerpt? What do you think its purpose was?
Does Eisenhower rely on ethos, pathos, logos, or some combination of the three rhetorical appeals?

 TERMS TO KNOW

Constituent
A resident of a place represented by an elected official.

Figurative Language
The use of creative, descriptive wording to build imagery that deepens the audience's understanding
and helps provide different emotional, visual and sensory connections.

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  SUMMARY

In this lesson, you looked at a sample of persuasive speaking in action. Most persuasive speeches are
based on policies that require the acknowledgement and support of governments, public bodies, and
constituents. President Eisenhower takes a clear stance against increased military spending and
attempts to change the audience's attitudes and beliefs by drawing comparisons. Ending with a strong
conclusion that restates the argument and main points, or proposing a call-to-action as Eisenhower
does in "Chance for Peace," is another tool used in persuasive speaking.

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 TERMS TO KNOW

Constituent
A resident of a place represented by an elected official.

Figurative Language
The use of creative, descriptive wording to build imagery that deepens the audience's
understanding and helps provide different emotional, visual and sensory connections.

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 Terms to Know
Abstract
Difficult to understand; abstruse.

Accuracy
Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or
standard value.

Actuate
To incite to action; to motivate.

Anecdote
An account or story which supports an argument but is not supported by scientific or
statistical analysis.

Applicable
Suitable for application; relevant.

Audience Analysis
The speaker's understanding of the audience's knowledge, personal experience, and
proximity to a topic.

Baseline
Information used as the basis for calculation or for comparison.

Body Language
Body language is a form of mental and physical ability of human nonverbal communication. It
consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send
and interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously.

Character
Moral strength; consistency of values and principles.

Chronological
In order of time from the earliest to the latest.

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 Coercion
Use of physical or moral force to compel a person to do something or to abstain from doing
something, thereby depriving that person of the exercise of free will.

Concise
Brief, yet including all important information.

Constituent
A resident of a place represented by an elected official.

Convince
To make someone believe or feel sure about something, especially by using logic, argument,
or evidence.

Credibility
The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.

Deductive Reasoning
The process of reasoning that uses given true premises to reach a conclusion that is also
true. Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning.

Delimit
To mark or fix the limits of.

Detour
A diversion or deviation from one's original route.

Direct
Straight, constant, without interruption.

Dissect
To analyze an idea in detail by separating it into its parts.

Draft
A preliminary sketch; rough outline.

Elaborate

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 To give further detail or explanation about or on.

Emotional Appeal
An attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will be more likely to be
engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Ethos
Credibility of the speaker, assigned to them by the audience.

Evidence
The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or
valid.

Evidential Appeal
An attempt to show the logical connection between a set of evidence and a consequence.
Also known as logical appeal or logos.

Fallacy
An error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption; used in informal
discourse to mean an argument that is problematic for any reason.

Figurative Language
The use of creative, descriptive wording to build imagery that deepens the audience's
understanding and helps provide different emotional, visual and sensory connections.

Heterogeneous
Diverse in kind or nature; composed of diverse parts.

Homogeneous
Having the same composition throughout; of uniform makeup.

Inductive Reasoning
A kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from
specific examples. Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific
examples are derived from general propositions.

Inflection

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 A change in pitch or tone of voice.

Informative
Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.

Introduction
The first part of your speech, also known as the opening.

Language
A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and
structured with grammar, often with a writing system.

Logos
Logical appeals to the audience; does the speaker's argument make sense?

Meaning
The objects or concept that a word or phrase denotes, or that which a sentence says.

Metaphor
The use of a word or phrase to refer to something that it isn't, invoking a direct similarity
between the word or phrase used and the thing described, but without the words "like" or
"as," which would imply a simile.

Monotony
Tedium as a result of repetition or a lack of variety.

Objective
Being unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices.

Outline
A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft
or summary of the content of a document.

Pandering
The act of expressing one's views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is
attempting to appeal. The term is most notably associated with politics. In pandering, the

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 views one is verbally expressing are merely for the purpose of drawing support and votes
and do not necessarily reflect one's personal values.

Pathos
Emotional appeals to the audience.

Persuasion
The process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior.

Prepare
To make ready for a specific future purpose; to set up; to assemble.

Rebut
To deny the truth of something, especially by presenting arguments that disprove it.

Reciprocity
The responses of individuals to the actions of others.

Reconcile
To make things compatible or consistent.

Red Herring
A clue or information that is intentionally or unintentionally misleading, that diverts attention
from a question; often thought to relate to using smelly fish to train dogs to recognize the real
scent of something they were supposed to be tracking.

Rhetoric
The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade.

Segue
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Selective Exposure
The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers
to individuals' tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding
contradictory information.

Sentence Outline

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 A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences.

Simile
A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another; in the case of English,
generally using "like" or "as."

Social Proof
People tend to do things that they see others are doing.

Status Quo
The state of things; the way things are, as opposed to the way they could be.

Stimulation
An activity causing excitement or pleasure.

Straw Man
An insubstantial concept, idea, endeavor, or argument, particularly one deliberately set up to
be weakly supported, so that it can be easily knocked down, especially to impugn the
strength of any related thing or idea.

Sub-Points
A sub-point has a direct, specific relation to its major point that you can make clear by the
organizational method you choose.

Subjective
The state of being formed, as in opinions, based upon a person's feelings or intuition, not
upon observation or reasoning; coming more from within the observer than from
observations of the external environment.

Summarize
To give a recapitulation of the salient facts; to recapitulate or review.

Syllogism
An inference in which one proposition (the conclusion) follows necessarily from two other
propositions, known as the premises.

Textual Cues

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 Signals within the language of a speech: key words and phrases, examples, anecdotes, and
selections of text that appear on a slide or handout.

Thesis
A concise summary of the argument or main points, usually one to three sentences long, also
referred to as a speech’s key message or primary message.

Thorough
Painstaking and careful not to miss or omit any detail.

Topic
Subject; theme; a category or general area of interest.

Topic Outline
A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech's main points. Topic outlines use keywords
and short phrases rather than complete sentences.

Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Venue
A place, especially the one where a given event is to happen.

Visual Cues
A signal the audience can see. Examples of visual cues include slides, handouts, charts, and
also the speaker's body language.

Weasel Phrases
Phrases that often precede statements and that lack substantive quality.

Writer's Block
The inability to begin or continue work on a piece of writing; normally temporary.

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