Defects Types

Fault, Malfunction, Failure

• System Defect:
• Have symptoms
• Easy Analysis & Detect

• Material Defect:
• May not have any symptoms
• Vey complicated
 Defects
Classifications
• Intervention Defect:
• Result of human activity on the
aircraft or component
• Non-Intervention Defect:
• Occurs due to the Engineer/Tech
not interfering in time to stop the
trouble
Surface
Material
Defects
 Corrosion
• May take many shape & forms
• Usually visible
• If covered by paint may show as
paint blisters
• May be classified as negligible
damage
• Heavily corroded areas must be
repaired or replaced
 Scratches, Dents,
Nicks, Abrasions,
Pitting, Erosion
• Classified as negligible depending
on surface area and depth
• Must be treated as per the SRM
• The first four may be intervention
defects
 Pillowing
• Sort of quilting effect on extruded
metal.
• Usually aluminum alloy.
• Associated with exfoliation/filiform
corrosion.
• Usually serious and requires
repair/replacement
 Scuff Marks
• Sign of more serious damage.
• Found on composite materials.
• Further investigation will be
necessary.
• Scuffing/wear on rubber pipelines,
seals etc. may necessitate
replacement.
Staining-discoloration
• Found on composite materials.
• Indicates the presence of
moisture.
• Sometimes indicates
delamination.
 Crazing
• Associated with transparent
plastic windscreens and windows.
• Large number of very fine, very
short, cracks within the polymer
structure.
• May be caused by stress or
solvents.
 Contamination
• Such as fuels, solvents and oils on
windscreens, cables, rubber an
plastic components.

• Cause rapid deterioration which

will required component
replacement.
 Casting Defects.
Porosity
• Rare defects.
• An NDT check would be required
to ascertain the extend of the
depth.
• Usually the affected part is
replaced.
Sub-Surface
Mateial
Defects
 Cracks
• Not detectable, unless close to the
surface.
• Detected by the aid of specialist
test equipment.
• Will normally require component
replacement.
 Corrosion
• Can be very serious.

• Occurs as Intercrystalline
Corrosion in alloys.

• Detection is the same as for

cracks.
 Delamination &
Debonding
• Occur in composite structures.
• Detected by the aid of specialist
test equipment.
• Show up as bulging and possible
discoloration.
• Indicated by sound change when
tapping across the area.
 Moisture Ingress
• Occurs to composite structures.
• Show up as bulging and possible
discoloration.

• Can be checked visually or by

using specialist test equipment.
 System Defects
• Will normally show a symptom.
• Will usually be traced using one or
more of the following methods:
• Visual examination
• Using Built In Test equipment (BITE) fitted
to components
• By reference to on-board fault computers
• By the use of test equipment - specialized
or otherwise
• Using manufacturer's manuals
• Using ground maintenance computers
 NDT-NDI
Nondestructive Testing (NDT/NDI)
Defined as comprising those test
methods used to examine an object,
material or system without impairing
its future usefulness.
The use of intensive techniques to
determine the integrity of a material,
component or structure of an object.
 NDT Advantages
• Access to hidden items – “see through”
• Better investigations with NDT
• Can be performed at remote sites
• Generally less expensive than destructive
testing
• Minimize interruption of aircraft services
• Evaluation and quality assurance
 NDT Dis-advantages
• More than one test method may be required
• Environmental conditions may effect or
distort results
• Design details & components may effect
results
• Some conditions cannot be determined with
a reasonable degree of accuracy without
destructive testing
 Uses of NDT Methods
There are NDT application at almost any stage in the
production or life cycle of a component.

 To assist in product development

 To screen or sort incoming materials
 To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
 To verify proper processing such as heat treating
 To verify proper assembly
 To inspect for in-service damage
 NDT Methods
1. Visual Inspection
2. Liquid penetrant method
3. Ultrasonic Inspection
4. Radiography methods
X-ray radiography & fluoroscopy
γ- ray radiography

5. Eddy current testing

6. Magnetic particle testing
7. Thermography
Visual
Inspection
 Visual Inspection
In many ways the simple process of 'having
a look' is by far the most successful method
of non-destructive testing.
The Purpose
• To locate/assess defects in materials
and assemblies
• To check dimensions , thickness,
coating, hardness
 Visual Inspection
• Most basic and common inspection
method.

• Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes,

magnifying glasses and mirrors.

• Robotic crawlers permit observation

in hazardous or tight areas, such as
air ducts, reactors, pipelines.
Basic Principles
The Human Eye
Light enters the eye through the pupil and
an image is projected on the retina.
Muscles move the eyeball in the orbits and
allow you to focus the image on the
central retina or fovea.
 Contrast Sensitivity

It should be noted,
however, that larger
objects are not always
easier to see than
smaller objects as
contrast is reduced.

If object visibility was dictated solely by image contrast,

the alternating bright and dark bars should appear to
have equal height everywhere in the image. However, the
bars seem to be taller in the middle of the image.
 Light Directionality
• For some applications,
flat, even lighting
works well.
• For other applications,
directional lighting is
better because it
produces shadows that
are larger than the
actual flaw and easier
to detect.
 Perspective
The eye/brain need visual
clues to determine
perspective.

Is the book facing

towards or away from
you?
 Optical Illusions
Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing
visual information.

Are the horizontal lines How many black

parallel or do they slope? dots do you see?
 Vision
When evaluations are
made by an inspector, eye
examinations must be
done at regular intervals to
assure accuracy and
sensitivity. These
examinations may consist
of the following:
Near Vision
Far Vision
Color Differentiation
When using machine
vision, different but similar
performance checks must
be performed.
 Direct & Remote
Visual Inspection
• Many codes refer to direct visual
examination as a visual inspection which
requires that access to the area is
sufficient to place the eye within 24 inches
of the surface to be examined and at an
angle of not less than 30º to that surface.
• If these requirements cannot be met, then
remote visual inspection may be used.
• Remote visual inspection may be
accomplished with the use of a number of
optical aids such as, mirrors, magnifiers,
and rigid or flexible borescopes.
 Optical Aids
Mirrors are valuable aids in visual
inspection, they allow the
inspection of threaded and bored
holes, inside surfaces of pipes
and fittings, as well as many
others.
Magnifiers assist the visual
inspector by enlarging the size of
the object being examined.
Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability. The
comparator has interchangeable
reticles which provide
measurements for threads,
angles, linear measurement,
diameters and radii.
 Optical Aids
• Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of
internal surface areas.
• They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
• Borescopes are available in many different diameters
and lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.
Visual Inspection With A Borescope

Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

 Advantages of Visual
Inspection
• Readily used on almost all materials.
• Simple to perform.
• Low in cost, (application dependent).
• Relatively quick.
• Results may be permanently recorded.
• Can be automated.
 Limitations of Visual
Inspection

• Direct inspections are limited to surfaces

only.
• Indirect inspections require greater
inspector knowledge and training.
• Inspector dependent, knowledge of
materials and processing, eye sight.
• Standards (workmanship) may be difficult
to obtain.
 Conclusion
For best results, the inspector or machine
vision operator must have:
A basic knowledge of material
processing, forming, machining and
joining processes.
A general understanding of design
features, application and service
requirements.
Specific instructions on what to look
for and specific accept/reject criteria.
 Dye
Penetrant
 Introduction
• Penetrant Testing, is a NDT method
that builds on the principle of Visual
Inspection.
• Penetrant Testing increases the
“seeability” of small discontinuities
that the human eye might not be able
to detect alone.
 The Method
•Every step of the penetrant process is done
to promote capillary action.
•This is the phenomenon of a liquid rising or
climbing when confined to small openings
due to surface wetting properties of the
liquid.
•Some examples:
Plants and trees draw water up from the
ground to their branches and leaves to supply
their nourishment.
The human body has miles of capillaries that
carry life sustaining blood to our entire body.
 The Method
1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer
2) Apply Penetrant

5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess

6) Post Clean Component

 Dye Penetrant Chemicals
• Wide range of Dye Penetrant Chemicals are used
in various industries for various purposes.
• Fluorescent Penetrant Chemicals, which indicate
defects as brilliant yellow green lines under UV
Black Light are available, These Fluorescent Dye
Penetrants are widely appreciated because of their
water and solvent washable capabilities.
Penetrant Inspection Systems
Penetrant systems can be highly portable or
stationary.

Stationary Penetrant System

Portable Penetrant System Stationary Penetrant System

 Dye Penetrant Advantages
• Relative ease of use.
• Can be used on a wide range of material types.
• Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials
can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometries are routinely
inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on surface of
the part providing a visual image of the
discontinuity.
• Initial equipment investment is low.
• Aerosol spray cans can make equipment very
portable.
 Dye Penetrant Limitations
• Only detects surface breaking defects.
• Requires relatively smooth nonporous material.
• Pre-cleaning is critical. Contaminants can mask
defects.
• Requires multiple operations under controlled
conditions.
• Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity,
fire, waste).
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding and
other operations inhibits detection. Materials may
need to be etched prior to inspection.
• Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.
Magnetic
Particle
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Magnetic particle inspection is a method
that can be used to find surface and near
surface flaws in ferromagnetic materials
such as steel and iron.

Surface irregularities and scratches can

give misleading indications. Therefore it is
necessary to ensure careful preparation of
the surface before magnetic particle testing
is undertaken
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Based on the principle of flux leakage
around defects on ferromagnetic
materials.
• Can be performed only on
ferromagnetic materials.
• Defects must be presented at an angle
to the magnetic lines of force.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Electro-magnet
(yolk) DC

Crack like
indication
Prods DC

Crack like
indication
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated
with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These
particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and
will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under
proper lighting conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack
Indications
Magnetic Particle Advantages
• It does not need very powerful pre-cleaning
operation.
• Best method for the detection of fine, shallow
surface cracks in ferromagnetic material.
• Relatively simple NDT method.
• Generally inexpensive.
• Will work through thin coating.
• Only few limitations regarding the size/shape
of test specimens.
• Highly portable NDT method.
• It is quicker.
 Magnetic Particle Limitations
• Can be performed only on ferromagnetic
materials.
• Can detect defect that are open or just below
the surface.
• Magnetic flux must cross the defect being
sought.
• Can not be done at higher temperatures
because ferromagnetic material lose their
magnetic property at elevated temperatures
(above their Curie temperature)
INFRA-RED
Thermography
 Thermography Testing
• Developed by Airbus Industry for the
detection of water ingress in composite
sandwich structures.
• Based on the principle that an object emits
electro magnetic radiation the intensity of
which is related to its temperature.
• The infra-red camera converts the thermal
radiation into an electronic signal which is
displayed on a colour monitor.
 Thermographic Principle

• Heat flow in a material is altered by

the presence of some types of
abnormalities.
• These changes in heat flow cause
localized temperature differences in
the material.
• Slow heating of part reveals these
abnormalities.
Thermographic Principle
Thermographic Principle
 THE
WOODPECKER
Based on
 The Woodpecker

• Designed for use on composites.

• It is an electronic hammer.
• When checking for suspect
delamination/debonding a 'tap test'
can be used.
• The unit can be connected to other
electronic equipment such as a
colour monitor.
ULTRASONIC
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Used mainly for detecting below-surface
flaws.
• Can be used on all (solid) materials -
metals and non metals.
• High frequency sound waves, when
transmitted through solid material, are
reflected by any discontinuity such as
the opposite surface or an internal flaw.
• This reflection is converted into a signal
on a cathode ray tube (CRT).
 Ultrasonic Inspection
• High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material
and they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
• Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic
 Ultrasonic Applications
• Quality control & material inspection.
• Detection of failure of rail rolling stock
axes, pressure columns, earthmoving
equipment, mill rolls, mixing equipment,
etc.
• Measurement of metal section thickness.
• Thickness measurements – refinery &
chemical processing equipments,
submarine hulls, aircraft sections,
pressure vessels, etc.
• Inspect pipe & plate welds.
• Inspect pins, bolts & shafts for cracks.
• Detect internal corrosion.
 Ultrasonic Advantages
Sensitive to surface & subsurface
discontinuities.
Superior depth of penetration for flaw
detection.
High accuracy – position, size & shape of
defect.
Minimal part preparation.
Instantaneous result.
Automated detailed images.
Non hazardous.
Portable .
 Ultrasonic Limitations
• Surface accessibility for ultrasonic
transmission.
• Highly skilled & trained manpower.
• Irregular, rough, coarse grained or non
homogenous parts, linear defects oriented
parallel to the beam cannot be inspected
– low transmission & high noise.
• Coupling medium required.
• Reference standards – equipment
calibration & flaw characterization.
 Eddy
Current
 Eddy Current Test
 Electrically conducting material generates
eddy currents mostly on the surface or
extending to a shallow depth when interacts
with a electrically excited coil.
 Used for detecting defects, sorting metals
on the basis of their chemical analysis or
their metallurgical structure.
 Used extensively in aircraft industry to
detect corrosion and the breakdown of
bonding in laminated materials.
 Steps
 Place the article within the coil.
 Pass current (frequency 50Hz to 500Hz)
 Eddy
currents which generate their own
magnetic field.

 Detect/measure eddy current using

primary or secondary coil.
Eddy Current
 Eddy Current Limitations
• Geometric effects - changes in
thickness due to presence of stringers,
etc.

• Poor sensitivity at junctions of dissimilar

metals.

• Corrosion detection poor on thicker

metals.
 Eddy Current Testing
• This technique generates eddy currents up to a few
millimeters below the surface of a conductive material
through an induced alternating magnetic field.
• Material defects will disturb the flow of eddy currents
and generate a traceable signal.
Eddy Current Testing
RADIOGRAPHY
X-Ray & Gamma
 Radiography Testing
• X-rays are produced by high voltage x-
ray machines whereas gamma rays are
produced from radioactive isotopes
such as Iridium 192 .
• The x-ray or gamma rays are placed
close to the material to be inspected and
they pass through the material and are
then captured on film.
• This film is then processed and the
image is obtained as a series of gray
shades between black and white.
 X-Ray Testing
• Generated in an electron tube - needs
250,000V.
• Gives good picture quality.
• Tube relatively large, which can limit
access.
• Needs a power supply
 Gamma-Ray Testing
• Self-generated by radioactive elements
(isotopes) which are very small.
• Easy access, inside shafts, etc.
• Poorer picture quality than with X rays.
• Portable needing no power supply.
• Isotopes difficult to
handle in safety.
Radiographic Images
 Digital Radiography
• One of the newest forms of radiographic
imaging is “Digital Radiography”.
• Requiring no film, digital radiographic images
are captured using either special phosphor
screens or flat panels containing micro-
electronic sensors.
• No darkrooms are needed to process film, and
captured images can be digitally enhanced for
increased detail.

• Images are also easily archived (stored) when

in digital form.
 Radiographic Advantages
• Material suitability
• Used on castings and weldings
• Time consumption is less
• Technique is not limited by material type or
density.
• Can inspect assembled components.
• Minimum surface preparation required.
• Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion,
voids, cracks, and material density changes.
• Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
• Provides a permanent record of the
inspection.
Radiographic Dis-advantages
• Expensive initial equipment cost.
• Development time consumption large.
• Skilled & trained personnel required, many hours
of technician training prior to use.
• Tissue damage due to radiations.
• Many safety precautions for the use of high
intensity radiation.
• Access to both sides of sample required.
• Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
• Determining flaw depth is impossible without
additional angled exposures.
 Radioactive Safety

Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring

devices that keep track of their total absorption, and alert
them when they are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

 Radioactive Safety
There are three means of protection to
help reduce exposure to radiation:
 Selecting the most
appropriate NDT technique
A large variety of NDT methods are available
for the condition assessment of gas turbine
components.
Selecting the most appropriate one depends upon:
 The type of component
 The type of defect
 The specific situation, such as the accessibility
or cleanliness of the part
Corrosion
Control
 Controlling of Corrosion
The Airworthiness Assurance Working Group or
AAWG established guidelines to ensure corrosion
control commonality throughout the industry.
These guidelines are:
• All aircraft zones are to be inspected.
• Programs are to be based on calendar intervals.
• There are to be initial and repetitive inspection times.
• Corrosion found will be classified into three levels.
• All corrosion findings of Level 2 and 3 are to be
reported to the manufacturer .
 Controlling of Corrosion
• Program implementation is to be based on the
age of the aircraft.
• The minimum rate of accomplishment for each
operator is the equivalence of one aircraft per
year.
• The program is to be mandatory.
• There will be provision for alternate means of
compliance.
• The program is to be reviewed annually.
 Corrosion Levels
• Level 1 corrosion must be corrected when found but
its presence in an aircraft does not mean a deficient
corrosion control program.
• Level 2 corrosion indicates a need for a corrosion
program review and adjustment at the operator level.
• Level 3 corrosion indicates a potential maintenance
program failure that may mean that the operator will
need to check the entire fleet to ensure that there
are no additional aircraft being operated with this
level corrosion.
 Controlling of Corrosion
Aircraft Maintenance Engineer can help by:
Cleanliness: Removal of surface dirt and grime from
the airframe and its components.
Care of Protective Films: Avoidance of damage to
anti-corrosive films, paint surfaces.
Care with Fluids: Some can be corrosive.
Tidiness: Rags left in A/C can hold moisture. Tools left
in A/C can start galvanic corrosion.
Vigilance: Early detection and repair of corroded
parts/areas will save money and could save lives.
 Removal of Corrosion
• Reference should be made to the Structure
Repair Manual (SRM) before attempting to
remove corrosion.
• Corrosion on some components/structure
may require the replacement of the
component.
• In other cases treatment may be carried out
within specified limits.
 Structural Repair Manual
• The (SRM) is prepared IAW ATA 100
Specification and includes descriptive
information and specific instructions and data
relative to the field repair of the aircraft
structure. The manual contains:
• Structure material identification.
• Allowable structural damage criteria, repair designs
applicable to structural components of the A/C that
are most likely to be damaged.
• Procedures performed during structural repair.
 Corrosion Removal Steps

• Mechanical Cleaning - may entail the use of a

fine emery cloth with water as a lubricant - or air
blasting using a suitable abrasive – or aluminum
wool on non clad aluminum alloys.
• Chemical Cleaning - Remember that many of
these agents are dangerous to handle. Wear
protective clothing. Work in a well ventilated
area. If splashed wash affected part immediately
and seek medical advice.
 Corrosion Removal Steps
Mechanical Cleaning –
Mechanical methods of corrosion removal are:-
• Grinding using abrasive wheels mounted in a
power drill.
• Manual abrasion with scrapers, metal wool
and abrasive pads or papers.
• Abrasive blasting using a Vacu-blast, a
compressed air powered, abrasive blasting
machine.
 Corrosion Removal Steps
Chemical Cleaning –
• Degrease the area and Remove paint
• Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible by
mechanical methods. Feather the edges of surrounding paint.
• Apply a coat of the specified thickened phosphoric acid
(Deoxidine) by brush to the corroded area.
• Allow 5 to 20 minutes for the solution to act; agitate with a stiff
bristle brush where heavy corrosion is present; wipe off, and
wash the area with clean water.
• Dry all surfaces thoroughly.
• Apply the Alocrom 1200 process and allow to dry for a
minimum of two hours, then apply a primer and paint finish
scheme within 48 hours.
Corrosion Removal Tools
 Corrosion Removal Steps
Degreasing:
• There are a number of solvents and solvent cleaning
processes used in A/C and component maintenance.
• Some of these solvents and processes may have a
denigrating effect on aircraft materials, or pose a
threat to health.
• The use of solvents and processes such as
immersion, spraying and vapour bath cleaning etc.,
should be carried out strictly IAW the procedure
stated in the AMM or Maintenance Process
Specification.
 Corrosion Removal Steps
PAINT REMOVAL:
• Approved non-flammable paint strippers should be
used to remove paints.
• The surrounding areas should be masked off or
covered with suitable protective material e.g.,
polyurethane sheet.
• The strippers should be brushed over the paint, left
on the surface for a few minutes and the softened
paint then removed using a non-metallic scraper.
• After the paint has been removed all traces of the
stripper must also be removed.
 Reprotection
There are many different types of anti-corrosive
treatment and for each, many different types of repair.
The following is an example of some of them:
• Ferrous Metals - Brush on phosphate treatment
followed by paint treatment.
• Aluminum Alloys - Brush on Deoxidine treatment
followed by paint treatment. OR Brush on Alocrom
treatment.
• Magnesium Alloys - Selenious Acid treatment
brushed on.
Mercury
Spillage
 Mercury Spillage
• If spill on metals it can cause rapid corrosion
and embrittlement. The mercury will "run" on
the surface like a ball bearing and quickly run
into crevices, and joints.

• The rate of corrosion can be so quick as to be

apparent in just a few minutes and is more
serious than battery acid corrosion.
 Safety Precautions
1. Wear protective clothing, particularly gloves.
2. Do not swallow mercury or inhale the fumes, report
to the medical centre immediately if this happens.
3. Work in a well ventilated area.
4. Discard all contaminated clothing and materials.
Dispose of in accordance with the local regulations.
5. Wash hands, tools, and other equipment
contaminated with mercury.
6. Do not smoke, eat or drink, while working with
mercury.
 Detection Methods
• Visually: When spill, mercury will form into ball
bearing like globules. These will "roll" along
surfaces, into crevices, and into joints.

• X-rays: If unsure of the exact location of

mercury it can be seen clearly on X-rays.

• "Sniffer Gun“: A sniffer gun will pick up mercury

vapours and give an aural and visual warning.
 Tackling Mercury Spillage
• Take action immediately. Corrosion rates can be
very quick so the sooner action is taken the
better.
• Do not move aircraft. as the movement can
cause the globules to "run“ into other parts of
the structure.
• Isolate the area. Place rag or paper towels
around the spillage area . Prevent people
walking through area (if on aircraft floor) to
prevent spread of mercury on footwear.
 Tackling Mercury Spillage
• Remove source of contamination (broken
instrument etc.) - carefully.
• Remove globules by:
1. Suction,
2. A special pick up brush,
3. Foam pad,
4. Adhesive tape,
5. Chemical application.
 Tackling Mercury Spillage
• X-ray the area to check that all mercury has been
removed.
• Remove panels, de-rivet structure as necessary.
Any contaminated drills should be disposed off
as contaminated products.
• Apply a thin film of oil to area provided corrosion
has not started. This will help prevent the onset of
corrosion but cannot be guaranteed to stop it.
• Where mercury attack has started a patch repair
will be required.
 Tackling Mercury Spillage
• Record and sign for the work in the log book.
• Call up for a further inspection to be carried out
in the Tech log - say, 3 to 4 days later.
• When disposing of mercury and mercury
products it is important to follow local
regulations.
• The mercury should be kept in clearly marked
glass or ceramic containers - sealed and
annotated as contaminated.
• Contaminated clothing should be stored (dry) in
plastic bags – also labelled.
 TROUBLE
SHOOTING
TECHNIQUES
TROUBLE SHOOTING TECHNIQUES
• The important thing in deciding how to trace a
fault is to FIND the fault and RECTIFY it in the
SHORTEST possible time.

• In general the fault will be indicated by a

symptom.

• There could, of course, be more than one fault -

they all have to be found and rectified.
TROUBLE SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

• Fault finding methods are divided into the

following techniques:
* Probability technique.
* Visual technique.
* Functional structure technique and
Theoretical structure technique.
 Probability Technique

• This method requires previous experience

on the equipment and involves the
systematic rectification/changing of those
parts in the system that are most likely to
be at fault.
• This technique is more applicable to the
experienced engineer.
 Visual Technique

• The most powerful tool that the engineer

has.
• It might be assisted by a magnifying
glass; torch; remote viewing equipment;
visual crack detection methods; just a
look around the aircraft, etc.
 Functional Technique
• This involves checking the system out in
a logical sequence, and requires a
knowledge of the system under
investigation as well as any associated
systems.
• The Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM)
will be required and any inbuilt self test
systems would be used (BIT, BITE).
 Functional Technique

• Many electrical/electronic systems (and

computers) go through a self test
program automatically when switched on.
 The Aircraft Manuals
• Fault location almost always requires the
use of the aircraft manual (AMM) and the
Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) and possibly
other manuals as well.
• The FIM is laid out in ATA 100 chapter
numbers so the system/s can be quickly
located.
• The appropriate rectification is stated
together with drawings, test details etc.
 On-board Computers
• These allow the aircraft engineer to
extract status information on most of the
aircraft's systems.
• They also allow for the testing of the
systems once fault rectification has been
completed.
 On-board Computers
The flight-deck system may consists of:
 CRTs for the display of system faults.
 Control units to control the data on the
screens.
 Printer to provide hard copy data.
 Data loading units - using floppy disc.
 Maintenance access units to allow testing
of systems from the flight deck.
Abnormal
Events
 Abnormal Events
The abnormal events would include:
 Heavy landing.
 Overweight landing.
 Lightning strikes.
 Flight through turbulent air.
 Runway skid causing damage.
 Aircraft ran onto soft ground.
 A/C landed with one or more blown tyres.
Heavy Landing/Overweight Landing
OVERWEIGHT LANDING
 If, just after take-off, the aircraft has to
land and it lands heavier than its
maximum permitted landing weight.

HEAVY LANDING
 If an aircraft lands within its maximum
permitted weight but lands heavily.
Heavy Landing/Overweight Landing
Heavy landing/overweight landing inspections will include
looking for conditions such as:
• Cracks, Structures pulled apart.
• Flaking paint.
• Distortion (twisting of parts), Bowing, Bent parts.
• Wrinkles or buckling of the structure.
• Loose fasteners or missing fasteners.
• Delaminations.
• Mis-alignment of parts.
• Interference of moving parts (lack of clearance).
• Discoloration (heat damage).
• Leaks from fuel and hydraulic systems.
 Flight Through Turbulent Air

This would be similar to the checks

outlined above.

There would be little emphasize on

wheels, tyres and shock absorbers.
 Lightning Strikes

Lightning is a discharge of electricity

between clouds, or clouds and ground, or
clouds and aircraft.
Aircraft are bonded to ensure that the
airframe and its components are at the
same electrical potential.
 Lightning Strikes
Indications:
Aircraft may show signs of a strike or
discharge or systems mal-function.
Damage may show up as small holes over
a small or large area at the point of entry
and at the point of discharge.
Signs of burning or discoloration.
Blisters, discoloured paint, cracking and
delamination.
 Lightning Strikes
Inspection:
1. Refer to the AMM.
2. Check flying control surfaces for signs of damage and
their bearings for tracking. Replace if damaged.
3. Check leading and trailing edges.
4. Check static wick dischargers for signs of burning.
Check bonding strips for burning (Bonding tester).
5. Check engine oil and chip detectors for signs of
contamination. Depending on the amount found, change
oil, change filter, change engine.
6. Check engine bearings for signs of tracking.
 Lightning Strikes

Functional Checks:
1. Radio and radar equipment.
2. Instrument systems.
3. Computer systems.
4. Carry out a compass swing. If the aircraft has become
magnetized it must be de-magnetized using de-Gaussing
coils.
5. Electrical circuits.
6. Electronic systems/computers.
7. Flying control systems/fly-by-wire control systems.
 ADDITIONAL SPECIAL EVENTS

1. Overspeed landings.
2. Engine nacelle grounded on landing (low wing mounted
engines).
3. High speed aborted take-off.
4. Brake seizure.
5. Bird strike.
6. Titanium contaminated with hot hydraulic fluid (skydrol).
7. Mercury spillage.
8. Volcanic ash (jet engines).
9. Tail drag (nose wheel aircraft).
Dis-assembly
&
Re-assembly
Techniques
 DISMANTLE & REASSEMBLE
Whether working on a system or a
component the job may be split into 3
areas:

1. Preparation
2. Safety
3. The task in hand
 PREPARATION
1. The person doing the job should have the
appropriate skills/training/qualifications. And,
for some tasks, the correct number of qualified
people should be available.
2. The appropriate manuals/instruction
sheets/work sheets should be available.
3. The correct hangarage/workshop/bench
facilities should be available.
4. The correct equipment should be available. It
may include slings; hoists; special tools;
special test sets/test rigs; a standard tool kit.
 SAFETY
All systems/components should be made safe
before work commences. This will include:

 Electrical equipment
 Batteries/battery circuits.
 Capacitive type equipment.
 Pressurized systems/components.
 Items containing liquids, which may be harmful
chemicals etc.
 Heavy items.
 THE TASK IN HAND
• Any items removed should be correctly labelled and
placed on its support trolley or racks.
• Any small parts removed (nuts, bolts, washers etc)
should be placed in a bag and attached to the main
component.
• All blanks should be fitted to system connections both
on the aircraft and on the component. Blanks should
have warning tags attached.
• Place all parts in order, bag and label if necessary.
Protect from dust and the possibility of
corrosion/deterioration.
• Carry out any inspection/modification/tests as
necessary.
• Replace any items that fail any inspections/tests.
 TESTING
After assembly the component is always tested. This can
include any one, or more, of the following depending on
the component and, of course, the manual:
• Bonding, continuity, insulation tests – electrical,
electronic equipment.
• BIT tests - various components.
• Capacity test - batteries.
• Leakage tests - hydraulic components, pneumatic
components, batteries.
• Functional tests to include correct displays, correct
inputs and outputs, movement (range, sense, speed -
rpm cm/min - etc), sound, vision (speakers/CRT
screens).
• Balance - for balanced rotating components etc.
Finally
 Modern NDT Techniques
Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)
Ellipsometry
Guided wave testing (GWT)
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Laser testing
 Profilometry
 Shearography
Optical microscopy
 Structure Inspection - Aim

Ensure safety and airworthiness.

Detecting manufacturing or service-
induced damage.
To achieve this goal, a structure
inspection program should be
developed.
 Structural Deterioration

Corrosion
Fatigue (cyclic loading)
Fabrication defects
Operation and Maintenance
Unforeseen loading (overloads)
Result into Failure or Fracture
Critical Areas – Where to look?

“Periodic inspection should be a

systematic and complete
examination of the entire structure
with particular attention given to the
critical locations”
 Airframe Loading : Critical
Locations

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is needed in order to ensure the integrity of

the airframe.
 Conclusions

NDT plays key role in safe operation and

especially in damage tolerant design /
operations of aircraft structures.

Furthermore NDT is “enabler” for reliable

introduction of new materials, technologies
and design concepts.

We have to realize that adopting new NDT

techniques and more focus on training can
improve flight safety
Thank
You