Unit 1

Introduction to English, characteristics of language, formation of words, root words,

antonyms-synonyms, One word, Idioms, homophones, pronunciation

Introduction to English Language and Vocabulary

English is a very rich language and its journey started somewhere around 5 Century AD. It
travelled a long way to become a rich language this day by adding new words and coinages.
Portmanteau, back-formation, clipping, derivations, new inventions and discoveries are
different ways in which the language kept adding words. Some people like Shakespeare also
added a robust number of words and phrases into the language. But the most important
contribution for enriching the English language is loan words or borrowing. English almost
borrowed from all well-known languages and today boasts of around 171,476 words in
Oxford dictionary.

The Germanic tribes arrived in Britain and invaded the country during the 5th century AD.
Britain was populated by various Celtic tribes before the invasion by Germanic tribes.
Though the Celtic tribes were united by customs, religion and common speech they lacked
political unity and that made them susceptible to invasions from neighbouring tribes. In the
first century, Britain was conquered and ruled by the Romans and finally got freedom from
them in 410 AD. This made Britain vulnerable to attacks from different invasions from the
North as the Romans took back with them their strong and able army. Many tribes migrated
to Britain but the Saxons, the Angles, the Jutes, the Franks and the Frisians were some of the
few who made their undeniable presence marked in this country. These invaders were from
Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.
The original inhabitants, who spoke Celtic language were driven to the west and the north
by the invaders. They mainly migrated to present day Wales, Scotland and Cornwall. The
Saxons called the native Britons, ‘wealas’ and wealas meant foreigner or slave and this is the
origin of the word Welsh. Initially, these different tribes fought with each other over
ownership and other issues but gradually came together to be called Anglo-Saxons or
English. The language they spoke is now known to us as Old English. The word England, a
popular and well-known country now originated from the words Engla-land (the land of
Anglo-Saxons) or Englisc. (the language)
The Germanic tribes were constantly fighting to overpower. But as time passed the different
Germanic cultures gradually became similar to each other until they eventually stopped
seeing themselves as their individual origin but collectively as either Anglo-Saxon or the
words England and English are derived from Engla-land (“land of the Angles”) and englisc
(the language the Angles spoke).
EVOLUTION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The evolution of the English language can be divided into three periods- 1) Old English 2)
Middle English 3) Modern English.

Old English (450-1100 AD)

Old English is very different from what we know or see today and so very difficult to
understand it. Several words now that we use in Modern English originated from the Old
English period. Some of the words that were coined in Old English time but are also used
today and are part of our day to day language can be- father, god, hare, king, lord, queen,
sing, ship, foot, fish. Night, stone, tongue, us, we, where, white, widow, wolf etc. Many
words used today have a different spelling as compared to their Old English versions and
some have different meanings. For example-wif was a woman and now the spelling has
changed to wife and the dictionary meaning to a married woman in relation to her spouse.
The Old English deor now has changed to deer and the meaning from a wild animal (broader
meaning any wild animal) has changed to a specific wild animal the dictionary meaning to
hoofed grazing or browsing animal. Some other words like light, knight can also be traced
back to the Old English period where the silent letters g and k were pronounced.
Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 AD William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, a part of France, invaded and
conquered England. The Normans spoke a dialect of Old French that is known as Anglo-
Norman. This became the language of the Royal Court, the ruling classes and business
classes. The languages of these times were divided according to classes. French was spoken
by upper classes and English was spoken by lower class. In 1204 AD King John lost the
province of Normandy to the King of France and French slowly started losing its sheen in
England. The labour classes started getting more prominence as English lost almost one- third
of its population due to black death. And gradually English became more important language
than French and Anglo-Norman, and the nobility also started using a finer version of English.
By 1362 the divide between the upper classes and lower classes over the languages ended and
both spoke a common language English. Many French words were added to the English
language during this time and this period was named as the Middle English period. It was the
period when the great poet Chaucer made his presence felt with his works. Though the
Middle English language was easier than Old English still it would be difficult to understand
by people who speak modern day English. This period ended around 1500 AD.

FIG 1-Chaucer’s English

Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great
Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter. From the 16th century the
British had contact with many peoples from around the world. These major factors created a
marked difference between Middle and Old English. Modern English shifted into something
that was more understandable for modern English-speaking people.
One of the most important factors that brought changes to English was that slowly Britain
stated coming in contact with the outer world and due to Renaissance, several new words and
phrases were added to the languages. These words from other languages especially from
Latin and Greek made the English language-rich.
The invention of the printing press in 1476 by William Caxton affected the English language
very significantly. Now, the English language started getting prominence in books and
pamphlets and gradually was standardized. Rules for grammar and spelling came into being
and the first English dictionary by Samuel Johnson was published in 1604. This was the
period in which the greatest playwrights of all the times to come, Shakespeare was born who
contributed many phrases and words to the English language.
Modern English (1800-Present)
Although early modern English and modern English periods are almost the same, the
difference in modern English period is the extended vocabulary. Technology and the
Industrial revolution combined added several words to the language. The Industrial
revolution created a need for more words and the need was fulfilled by coining more words
especially from Greek and Latin root words. For example, words like protein, nuclear,
oxygen and vaccine did not exist before, but they were made with Greek and Latin
influences. Not all the new words were created from classical roots though, English words
that already existed were also combined for terms like typewriter, airplane and horsepower.
During this time most of the countries on earth belonged to the British Empire, and that’s
why the English language took over foreign words from many different countries. Another
influence on word coinage was from the words related to maritime. As England ruled many
countries, the people from this country travelled to other countries on ships as it was for some
time the only available and convenient mode of transport. Thus, many words related to sea
travel and maritime were added into the English language. Then came a time the British
military started to play a significant role in people’s lives because of its invasions and many
military words became a part and parcel of English language. For example- blockbuster,
spearhead, camouflage, nosedive etc.
This period consists of renaissance which brought about the technology printing press and
many more inventions. This period starts around the 15 th century and lasts till 1650. It was
during this period when the continents Africa, America and Asia. This period was also the
time when many scientific discoveries and Protestant Reformation took place. This had a
great impact on English vocabulary and many authors and writers started borrowing words
from classic languages as the translators could not find equivalent words in English and used
the Greek and Latin words directly especially in law, theology and medicine. Words also
made way from the new continents Africa, America and Asia, sometimes directly and a few
times indirectly through European languages.
Formation of Words:
Different ways of coining words -
The number of words the English language contains is if not impossible but very difficult to
count. To answer this question the Head words from a dictionary can be counted and Oxford
dictionary claims to have 500,000 words. But this data does not make any sense as the list
includes both ancient and modern words and many of the ancient words are either obsolete or
not active words now. English language over the past centuries has enriched itself by adding
numerous words in its repertoire.
There are as many as ten different ways how words are coined in English. They may be by
blending, inheritance, by creative imagination, joining initial phrases, compounding,
shortening, derivations, conversions and by some rare echoic processes.
INHERITANCE
Most of the vocabulary that was used from centuries is passed down with only a few minor
changes. Most of the common words like the prepositions-in, to, by, for and the conjunctions
like and, or, but are the basic words of the English language and we learn it as soon as we
start using the language. These words were there in the language since the beginning of the
language and are passed down to us.
BLENDING
The words created by blending are called portmanteau words as famously coined by Lewis
Carroll. He created many words like slithy that has lithe and slimy fused into one and chortle
from chuckle and snort and these words he named as portmanteau words. Other famous and
often used portmanteau words are-smog(smoke+fog), Brunch (breakfast+ lunch),
Heliport( Helicopter+airport) etc. Sometimes we lose track of the components of some blend
words. E.g Vaseline (wasser(water)+ elaion (oil)). It is difficult to guess or identify the two
components of the above word though it is famous as a lubricant. Now-a-days new technical
terms are created by blending. It’s creative and serves the purpose right. In sciences
especially in Chemistry, many new inventions were made and all of them needed names. E.g.
acetal( Acetic+alchohal),phospham(phosphorous+ammonia).
INITIALISMS & ACRONYMS
Initialism is when the letters that make up an acronym are pronounced individually. There
were rare in ancient times like the only words that come to mind are okay and GOP. The
world war produced few acronyms but it is during II World War and the time of Roosevelt
that many initialisms stated to gain popularity and were in use. GI (for General Issue), GP
(General Purpose Vehicle), UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) etc. were common initialisms
and were used in active vocabulary. In more recent times words related to computers,
diseases, technology are used as initialisms. E.g CPU (Central Processing Unit), HTTP
(HyperText Transfer protocol), FYI (For Your Information), PFA (Please Find Attachment)
etc.
The word acronym is formed from the Greek roots acr-, meaning height, summit, or tip and -
onym, meaning name. This word has originated in German, with attestations for the German
form Akronym from as early as 1921. Acronyms are abbreviations that also use initials, but
those initials are pronounced as a word rather than saying the individual initials. For example,
“National Aeronautical and Space Administration” becomes NASA and is pronounced “nah-
sah.” More examples of this can be AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), JPG
(Joint Photographic Experts Group), GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) etc.
An interesting phenomenon in recent times is reverse acronyms which means first the
acronym is made than the creators think what each letter would mean. E.g CORE -first the
creators made the word core and then thought what each letter in this would mean. CORE
stands for Congress of Racial Equality. NOW is the acronym for National organization of
Women and PUSH meaning People United to Serve Humanity and AID means Agency for
International Development.
SHORTENING
Shortening is a process which takes a part or a syllable of a word and deletes the rest. It is
also called clipping. Many long words that are difficult to pronounce or take a long time to
pronounce are clipped and shortened. E.g. Influenza-Flu, advertisement-ad, gasoline-gas,
Mathematics-Maths, examination- exam etc. There are many instances where people do not
remember the actual word from which a word is formed. WI-FI is an apt example where
everyone uses and knows wi-fi but a very few know that it comes from a word called wireless
fidelity.
BACK-FORMATIONS
This is another means by which new words have come into being called back-formations.
Most back formations are the result of a misunderstanding. E.g. Edit from editor where ‘er’ is
wrongly perceived as the suffix and is shortened to make the word edit. To burgle from
burglar is formed in the same way. The verb to sidle is a back formation from the adverb
sidling, and the nouns beggar, hawker, by back –formation gave rise to verbs to beg, to hawk.
Most agent nouns are formed from the verb adding –er or –or (worker, singer, gambler etc)
but here the process has worked in the opposite direction. Back- formations are no longer
transparent.

WORDS DERIVED FROM PROPER NOUNS

A good number of words entered English language, which is derived from Personal Names.
An interesting example could be boycott which came from the name Charles Boycott, the
land agent who went to towns to collect taxes but people were against paying and stood with
big banners ‘Boycott no entry’ and slowly the word boycott evolved to mean no entry or
oppose. The same way the word Sandwich was coined from the Earl of Sandwich who
because of his addiction to playing dice invented a new way of eating putting the curry or
meat in between the bread to eat faster. The word utopian comes from Thomas Moore’s
utopia and the word Lilliputian comes from Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. Many garments have
taken their names of those who first used them or introduced to the public. The word teddy
bear from the American president Theodore Roosevelt.

SYNCOPATION
This is a particular form of shortening or abbreviation. Example: pram. Its original form was
perambulator. It was syncopated to perambulator and then abbreviated to pram. In
syncopation, a vowel is removed from a word and the consonants on either side are then run
together. As a result, one syllable is lost. Born, Worn and Forlorn are syncopated forms. At
one time they had the terminal ending –en.

TELESCOPING
This process is similar to syncopation, but here two words are combined into one.
Example: to don was originally to do on. to doff was originally to do off. More recent
examples are- pinafore from pin+ afore. Overall, from over + all

BIBLE & SHAKESPEARE

Other than the influx of words from foreign languages two other important influences on the
English vocabulary during the Renaissance was the greatest playwright William Shakespeare
and the Bible written in 1611. Though Shakespeare’s influenced literature, theatre and many
other aspects but his greatest influence was on vocabulary. Phrases like seen better days,
strange bedfellows, a sorry sight, and full circle are used very actively these days too. Many
words like assassination, bedazzled, inaudible, majestic, cold-blooded, blood-stained etc.
King James’ Bible was written to be read in churches and had many Old English words that
were more difficult than the language of Shakespeare. But slowly many idioms from the
Bible became a part of everyday language. Some idioms were -A fly in the ointment, let there
be light, my brother’s keeper, a wolf in sheep’s clothing, if the blind lead the blind etc.
According to David Crystal in his book Beget there were 257 idioms in James Bibles that
made into everyday language.
BORROWING:
The purists criticised influx of words from other languages and did their best to revive the
obscure words from English to make them everyday words. One among them was Thomas
Elyot who did his best to enrich the language and make it a language that could be used by
the people on street as well as a library language. However, the efforts of the purists like
Elyot were not enough and words from foreign countries kept flowing into the English
language. In fact, the borrowing words from other languages was the most significant feature
of the Renaissance period. (Crystal 60).

An etymological dictionary of any major language contains the dozens of sources for its
vocabulary. Close contact over centuries in Europe and other areas resulted in extensive
borrowing and re-borrowing. The radio, television, internet and other such sources of
transmission of news and knowledge helped in the spread of language and communication.
The globalization also helped in spreading the foreign language and the vocabulary in most of
the countries. E.g. Hakuna Matata was spread by the movie Lion King that means no worries
or no problem. The faster means of travel too helped in the spread or borrowing of some
words into other languages.
Borrowing is the process of importing linguistic items from one linguistic system into
another, a process that occurs any time two cultures are in contact over a period of time.
Words are generally loaned when two countries come into close contact with each other and
there is an exchange of culture, traditions, trade war or colonisation. Colonization was the
reason why English came into close contact with other countries and during exchange of
trade and wars many words of other languages entered into the English language. Often the
words loaned are nouns. New culture, objects, food items and day to day words are needed
during colonisation and the colonizers usually adopt the words of the colonized in their
original form or at times some changes are made. In the same way, the colonized also borrow
or adapt some words from the colonizer’s language according to the need. The borrowing of
words starts when the people who are bilingual use the foreign words while speaking their
native language. The people who hear these foreign words slowly get used to the foreign
words spoken by these bi linguists and they too slowly adopt them in their native language. In
this way foreign words become a part and parcel of the native language as many speakers
start using these words and then is called a borrowed word and the process is called
borrowing or loan word. Sometimes the foreign words fall out of use and do not become
borrowed or loan words.
In short loan words are those words that are imported from one language to another language.
They are also called borrowed words. In the past 1500 years, English adopted words from
more than 300 languages.
TYPES OF BORROWINGS
The borrowed words comprising the new vocabulary in the given language are not
homogeneous by structure; they can be subdivided into three subcategories:
a) Borrowing a word - the most frequent and typical case of borrowing
b) Borrowing a phoneme- the most rarest and particular case, depending on the degree of
contact between the two languages
c) Borrowing a morpheme - usually, the morpheme is selected on the basis of a verbal series
consisting of words with a common lexical meaning, characterized by the repetition of a
structural element, for example, a businessman, a barman, an athlete, etc.
d) Syntactical or structural borrowing - the word is borrowed syntactically, when the
construction of phrases in a language is influenced by foreign syntactic constructions-for
example, the influence of English newspaper clichés, mainly headlines, on the headlines of
the modern press.
e) Semantic borrowings - a process of borrowing semantic meaning (rather than lexical
items) from another language. The complete word in the borrowing language already exists;
the change is that its meaning is extended to include another meaning its existing translation
has in the lending language. Semantic loans often occur when two languages are in close
contact, and takes various forms. E.g. the English word pioneer (explorer) under the influence
of the new meaning of the correlated Russian word (пионер) developed one more meaning: a
member of a young pioneer organization; brigade (an army unit) under the influence of the
new meaning developed one more meaning – active social workers; norm=standard – norm
developed one more meaning – “an amount of work”
Borrowings share a hierarchical relationship with each other. Lexical borrowing is the first
stage of foreign language influence and the word is borrowed "not entirely, as a complete,
finished, grammatically formed word, but only, as a more or less formless piece of a lexical
material, receiving a new form only in the system and by means of another Language (V.
Akulenko, 1973). A borrowed word acquires certain grammatical characteristics inherent to
the given language, and in this case, the word is subordinated to one or another grammatical
category; for example, in Russian, there is a gender-related correlation of words depending
on their formal appearance (words ending with consonants, as a rule, refer to the masculine
gender, words ending with -o, -e, to the nouns of the neutral gender, etc.).
THE REASONS FOR BORROWING
The causes or reasons for borrowing words from other languages can be divided into external
and internal causes that directly or indirectly contribute to the process.
EXTERNAL CAUSES
Political, social, economic, cultural and industrial ties between different groups of native
speakers of both countries can be the external cause for borrowing words from foreign
languages. The vocabulary of a language is affected the most due to the changes in the
political, cultural, economic and industrial changes. Whatever changes occur in these fields
the vocabulary also absorbs these changes and adopt or borrow the foreign vocabulary as
most of the times the native vocabulary might not have the equivalents. Hence both the
languages loan and borrow the words necessary for daily communication exchanges. During
borrowing or loaning of words, it is not always necessary that there is an equivalent exchange
of vocabulary in both the languages. It might so happen that one language might borrow more
words from the other language. It happened in the case of Russian and Armenian. Armenian
borrowed more Russian words into its native language. The cultures or countries that are
constantly discovering, inventing or innovating new objects, technologies or discovering
newer phenomena might become enriched in vocabulary and other countries loan these new
words from them. America as a powerful country in terms of new innovations and inventions
loan words to other countries all the time. This phenomenon is termed as ‘Americanism’.
Some common examples of this would include- Gasoline, bi-weekly(fortnightly), pocketbook
(handbag), going Dutch (everyone pays for the meal), zonked (exhausted), I-Pad (new
invention), e-mail(technology) etc. In this type of borrowings, the lexical forms along with
the other features or phenomenon of the vocabulary. In this case, the semantic and stylistic
differentiation occurs through creation of synonymous pairs.
Internal Causes
Loaning of a word occurs also due to simplify the semantic structure and eliminate the
polysemy (the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or a phrase) of the original
word. The borrowing can also occur to explain certain semantic nuances. The word borrowed
from the other language along with the existing word in the native language serves different
semantic purposes. Thus, the word loaned and the original word together form a class of
words that are structurally similar and belong to the same lexical unit. The Russian language
borrowed many words from French, German in truncated forms like taxicab(taxi),
metropolitan(metro), automobile(auto) etc. Several times the loan words are retained in the
language and turned into a lexical series which becomes an interesting trend to observe. E.g.
Russian language borrowed the word man from English and later added a series of words like
gentleman, sportsman, congressman etc. Thus, by loaning words from a foreign language
helps to replace a long or two words into a single word. e.g. Sprint for running long distances,
motel for a hotel for campers.

Fig 2 English Language Tree

WORLD CONTRIBUTION TO ENGLISH VOCABUALRY
As discussed earlier English language borrowed words from almost all known world
languages. The reason for this was England ruled almost every country and region of the
world at some point of time or the other. Hence came in close contact with the culture and
traditions of those countries. In this process, it borrowed many words from those countries
and extended its vocabulary. Here, we will now discuss the contribution of foreign languages
to the growth of English vocabulary.
This pie chart given below shows the distribution of the origins of English words. 29 per cent
of the words in English come from French. 29% come from Latin, but it is unclear whether
some of these words come directly from Latin or from Latin through French. Words that
come from Latin are generally relatively rare (many of them are scientific or legal words).
Similarly, 26% from German, the largest part of the very most common words in English
(such as "the", "a", "do", "he"...) come from Germanic languages, not from Latin or French.
The 6% of the loanwords come from Greek, another 6% from other languages, and the
remaining 4% words derived from Proper Names. The following are some of the words given
with their origin for understanding:
There was no cultural connection between the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons and hence the
number of words that came into Old English from the Celtic language were very less. Rock,
bin, deep valley, Bin were some such words.
ANGLO-SAXON WORDS-
The words that entered English in form of Germanic words are the Anglo-Saxon words.
These words still make the lexicon of English. These words are grammatical as well as
lexical words. Some of the grammatical words are-be, in and that and the lexical words are
love, father, apple, bury, daughter, brother etc. Anglo-Saxon words are concrete and short
Some other examples are: -
Landscap Body Parts Animals Adjectives Calendar Verbs
e
Land Arm Goat White Day Eat
Hill Bone Swine Wide Month Go
Meadow Chest Goat Long Moon Fly
Ledge Year Fish Good Year Live

NORMAN INFLUENCE

In 1066, the Normans had an eclectic mix of languages: a Frankish influenced northern
French dialect; Old Norse from their Viking roots; Flemish from the army supporting
William I’s wife, Matilda of Flanders; and the Brythonic based language of the mercenary
Bretons. The Normans kept the basic structure of the English language, but during the Middle
English period, they introduced around 10,000 words of their own into the English tongue.
Many words were related to officialdom and are evident in the vocabulary surrounding the
administration, parliament, government, the legal profession and the crown. Many more
words filtered down into everyday matters including food production, such as beef; pork;
herb; juice and poultry. They introduced words beginning with ‘con’, ‘de’, ‘dis’ and ‘en’,
such as: conceal; continue; demand; encounter; disengage and engage. They also included
words ending in ‘age’ and ‘ence’ as in: advantage; courage; language and commence.

THE FRENCH INFLUENCE

The French influence can be divided into two phases the first phase from 1150-1250 and the
second phase from 1250-1500. From 1150 to 1250 there were less French words adopted into
English (about 900) than in the second phase. The loan words were mostly from the areas of
the nobility (e.g. servant, messenger), literature (e.g. story, rime) and the church. The French
influence on the English vocabulary had its greatest expansion in the period of Middle
English (1150 – 1500). During this time over 10,000 French words were adopted into the
English language and about 75 per cent of these are still in use.

Although these extensive changes were important for the improvement of the English
language, there were also disadvantages to it. The loss of native words, the different Middle
English dialects, the need of a Standard English are only some examples for this.

Since the Norman Conquest in 1066 the French language became more and more important.
The Normans (North-man) were descendants of the Danes and spoke French influenced by a
Germanic dialect. They inhabited some parts in the north of France and adapted not only to
the language but also to the French culture. They had a talent for building churches,
cathedrals, castles and proved the English their rank of military

The English culture was not inferior to the French. The Anglo-Saxons were excellent
writers, artists and craftsmen. They did not lack in civilization. “French became the language
of the upper classes in England simply because it was the language of the conquerors, not
because of any cultural superiority on their part.” (CharlesBarber,135)

By this time, the French and English language existed side by side and French took over to
be the language of the court and “royalty of England throughout the twelfth, thirteenth and
(diminishingly) fourteenth centuries” (Charles Barber). The kings of England spoke French,
took French wives and lived mostly in France. The Normans became the new upper class.
They dominated all high positions like the church, education, aristocracy, administration etc.
So, many other people, particularly among the gentry whose native language was English had
to acquire French, if they “wanted to get on in the world.

Although there were more common people holding on to their mother tongue than noblemen
speaking French, English was on a decline, as the French language had its prestige in the
most important ranks.

In the first phase from 1150 to 1250, there were less French words adopted into the English
(about 900) than in the second phase. The borrowings show characteristics of the Anglo-
Norman phonology and were mostly from the areas of the nobility (e.g. servant, messenger),
literature (e.g. story, rime) and the church.

In the second stage (1250-1500) there was a rapid change in the prestige of the French
language with a climax at the end of the 14th century. The Norman- French developed its
peculiarities to the so-called Anglo- Norman dialect, but it was more and more regarded as
old-fashioned and rustic compared to the Central French spoken in Paris

The decline of French as a vernacular was a slow process starting with the loss of Normandy
to the French crown in 1204. At that time many noblemen had properties in England and
Normandy and had to decide whether to become English or to go back to France. Many
Norman landholders chose to stay and the coming up of national thinking in England must
have increased the importance of the English language. The final success of English over the
French was observable in the 14th century where those who spoke French as their mother-
tongue were turning to the use of English.

The following are some of the words borrowed from French into English:
 Clothing Armed arm army
Government govern crown gown cape Forces battle guard
&Administra government embroidery soldier
tive empire royal pearl diamond ambush
majesty treaty Lace buckle combat peace
parliament tax button fur spy
statute garment robe
Law justice judge Food Feast beef
Ecclesiastical religion virgin petition bacon cream
faith clergy arrest accuse salad spice
confession evidence sue sugar raisin
heresy devout estate
preach property
slander accuse

GREEK INFLUENCE

The language of Ancient Greece had almost as important an impact on English as Latin. This
is because the Ancient Greeks were the foremost European thinkers before Latin was spread
across the continent by the Romans. Words from their language entered English not only
directly as names for modern ideas and inventions, but also via Latin since the Romans
themselves used many Ancient Greek words in their learned writings (e.g. Philosophia, the
Greek word for philosophy).

Greek is one of the oldest Indo- European languages. It is usually divided into Ancient
Greek (often thought of as a dead language) and Modern Greek. According to Peter T.
Daniels, the Ancient Greeks were the first to use a 'true' alphabet, that is, one representing
both vowels and consonants. Indeed, the word 'alphabet' is formed of the first two letters of
the Greek alphabet, 'alpha' and 'beta'. The English language is indebted to Greek not only for
its alphabet but also for a major portion of its vocabulary. If it were not for the ancient
Greeks, the English language would not be the 26 letters that are used today. All the religious
expression used in English when Christianity began was Greek. The New Testament of the
Bible was written in Greek. The New Testament, used by the converted Anglo-Saxons,
greatly influenced the developing of the English language, which at this time had no alphabet
and was only spoken, not written. To express religious ideas previously unknown to the
Anglo-Saxons, they imported many words directly from the original New Testament such as
"church" from Greek Kyriako, "about the Lord", "ecclesiastical" from Greek ekklesia,
originally an Athenian assembly, and also "apostle," "monk," "prophet" etc. Many words that
have been borrowed from French were borrowed from Greek by the French. For example,
English angel, derived from Latin Angelus, was first derived from Greek Angelos, meaning
"messenger."
 The next major influence of Greek upon the English language occurred during the
Renaissance, which had its greatest force in England during 1500–1625. During this period,
the study of classics was stressed. The classicists of that time intentionally tried to enrich the
English language by borrowing from such classic languages as Greek and Latin. When one
examines the English literature from the Renaissance era, the results of the classicists' efforts
can be seen. For example, about 19 per cent of Hamlet's soliloquy (Hamlet, Act III, Scene I)
by William Shakespeare is from the classical languages Latin and Greek. In general, the
classical content of Shakespeare's plays was 21 per cent. The ancient Greeks have supplied
many facets of the first-world governments of the modern world. In fact, the entire
government of The United States of America hinges on the ideas of these ancient people. It is
only expected that many terms of government in the English language come from Greek.
When one talks of monarchies and democracies, he is using words derived from Greek.
"Treasurer," "chambers," and "parliament" are from Greek. Even the word "government"
itself is from Greek
Modern science has also failed to escape Greek influences in its vocabulary. Not only do its
different fields exhibit signs of a Greek influence in the histories of their respective
vocabularies, but science as a whole often uses Greek when forming words to express new
ideas. Many medical terms, occupations, and college courses are directly derived from the
Greek language. A Paediatrician, a doctor who works with children, owes his occupational
name to the Greek paidos, child. A hypodermic needle is so-called because it goes under
(Greek hypo) the skin (Greek derma). Even the title of a doctor of female ills, gynaecology, is
from Greek gyne means woman. Chemistry is also greatly influenced by Greek. You only
have to consider the periodic table, around half are Greek in origin: some common examples
include arsenic, calcium, copper, helium, hydrogen, iodine, magnesium etc. It has influenced
English language to the extent that the very term "grammar" was devised by the Greeks,
which means, in their language, "that which pertains to writing." Greek philosophers are
credited with the creation of such grammatical terms and concepts as "article," "noun,"
"pronoun," "adjective," "verb," "adverb," "preposition," "conjunction," and "interjection."
Many English words are formed of parts of words (morphemes) that originate from the Greek
language, including the following examples:
 phobia (fear of), as in arachnophobia – the fear of spiders
 micro (small), as in microscopic – so small it's hard to see
 demos (people) as in democracy – government by the people

If you look closer, there are several phrases derived from Greek. To have an ‘Achilles Heel’
means to have a weakness or vulnerable point. Achilles was a Greek hero and central
character in Homer's epic poem, The Iliad. He was only vulnerable at his heel. The 'Midas
touch' is another common expression deriving from Greek mythology. Describing a near-
magical ability to succeed at anything one undertakes, the expression originates from a
story of King Midas, who is remembered for his ability to turn everything he touched into
gold. An idiom which has its roots in Greek antiquity as ‘crocodile tears’. The phrase is
thought to come from the popular ancient belief that crocodiles weep while eating their
victims.
Some more words that have been taken from Greek into English are as follows_

Athlete Catastrophe therapy enthusiasm devil atom

nymph phone criterion orchestra church diphthong
Toxic Dropsy Academy Ecstasy Harmony Pseudo
 theory theatre phobia micro gigantic zone

INDIAN INFLUENCE
Britain’s relationship with India goes back as far as the early 17th century when the East
India Company (EIC), an English and later British joint-stock company, made its first voyage
to India in 1601 to trade in the East Indies. After trading with mainly Qing China, the EIC
later seized control of large companies within the Indian subcontinent from 1757 until 1858
where a rule was then passed to the Crown until India’s independence in 1947.
With such a prolonged presence in the region, it’s no wonder India adopted English as its
official language post-independence, while at the same time, making a direct impact on the
English language. India has a vast amount of languages, including 22 official languages, 122
major and around 1599 recorded languages and dialects, according to the 2001 Census of
India.
India’s influence has seen words from Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam and Tamil all make
their way into the English Language once the EIC arrived in India and traded with local and
surrounding territories. The word ‘shampoo’, derived from the Hindi word chāmpo meaning
‘massage into the head/hair’, dates back to 1762, where Indian natives historically used
extracts from a variety of herbs and dried berries to clean their hair. The word can also be
traced back to the Sanskrit root chapayati, which means ‘to press, knead, soothe’.
Words synonymous with criminality such as ‘mugger’ and ‘thug’ have its roots firmly in the
Indian subcontinent. You wouldn’t associate a street robber with a crocodile, but ‘mugger’,
the Hindi word for crocodile, relates to the aquatic reptile’s master of ambush. Similarly, the
word ‘thug’ was used by Indian natives to describe organised robbers or assassins who were
infamously known for their skill and stealth. Cashmere is commonly known as a luxurious
wool in the West but has its origins from the Kashmir region where the wool is produced by
Kashmir goats. It’s also synonymous with the words ‘shawl’, originally from Persian before
making its way to India via Urdu and Hindi, and ‘patchouli’ which both enter the English
language in the 18th and 19th-century.
Britain firmly established its rule over modern-day India by the mid-19th-century which
gave way to some peculiar words (and subsequently cultural practices) penetrating the
English language. For example, ‘pyjamas’, is derived from the Hindi word paijamap,
meaning ‘leg garment’ – the loose cotton or silk trousers worn by Indian men and women. By
1854, visitors to British India advised Europeans to wear pyjamas during afternoon naps. It
wasn’t until 1870 when pyjamas swiftly replaced the traditional nightdress for male sleeping
attire in England and Europe.
Veranda and bungalow are both unique to India and its climate. While common in India,
especially with British and Portuguese settlers, these structures would never have been
practical in Britain’s cold climates. However, these Indian structural concepts were adopted
in Britain as London began to expand throughout the 19th century.
Although the East India Company first made contact with the Indian subcontinent in the
early 17th Century, India was still a huge hub for trade and commerce before Britain made
first contact with Indian natives. So much so that the Indo-Greek trade and business
relationships between India and Portugal had promoted the use of Indian words in other
European languages. Pepper, indigo and ginger were first used in Latin and Greek before
entering into English vocabulary. Ginger can be traced back to Malayalam where the Greeks
imported the plant. From there, it would travel across the Caribbean and to Africa – providing
a global presence for the word as early as the 15th century.
 It’s fair to say that India’s influence on British culture and the English language goes far
beyond the culinary likes of curry and Indian fast food restaurants. After all, India’s only
been free from British rule since 1947 and English is still one of India’s official languages.
Some other popular words from India are
Hindi Dharma Khaki Jungle Avatar
Malayalam Teak Popadum Coir Mango
Telugu Mongoose Bandicoot Pitta Boy
Tamil Pandal Clay Mulligatawny Culvert

The Renaissance

The English Renaissance saw thousands of Greek and Latin-based words enter the language.
This occurred via the Italian Renaissance and was greatly helped by English poets, authors
and playwrights, especially Elizabethan-era playwright William Shakespeare who wrote
many plays centred in Italy including Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of Venice, Julius
Caesar and Two Gentlemen of Verona.

These wordsmiths also made up and created many thousands of new words, leading to a
debate known as the ‘Inkhorn Controversy’. ‘Inkhorn’ was the term for an inkwell made out
of a small horn and became a nickname for the new words being created by playwrights and
poets.

One advocate for inkhorn words was Thomas Elyot, a prolific writer during the English
Renaissance. He was well studied in both Latin and Greek, and as such, was able to introduce
many new concocted words into the English vocabulary. Those academics and scholars
totally against inkhorn words included Thomas Wilson who was not only an academic and
scholar but also as an author, diplomat, judge, privy councillor and Dean of Durham. He was
against the flowery extravagant speech and inkhorns of the English Renaissance and
advocated a simpler way of writing, using words derived from Old English rather than from
Latin and Greek.

OVERSEAS IMPORTS

Elizabethan exploration, privateering and piracy was another source for English vocabulary.
These came mainly from the Spanish and Portuguese, including many Caribbean and Native
American words explorers from the nations had adopted, such as ‘tobacco’ and ‘potato’.

Stuart colonialism on the eastern shores of America saw a great number of words from
Native Americans being adopted and entering the English language direct, including ‘canoe’,
and ‘hammock’. The Pilgrim Fathers and subsequent English settlements adopted even more.

Britain’s share in world trade saw a steady rise during the Tudor and Stuarts’ exploration
policies through to the Victorian Empire building. This increase in trade would see another
wave of new words entering the English vocabulary from foreign climes, including words
from the Netherlands such as- landscape; scone; booze; schooner; skipper; avast; knapsack;
easel; sketch – and a great deal more.
 The British Empire at its height encompassed one- quarter of the Earth’s landmass and ruled
over hundreds of millions of different peoples throughout the world. The English language
evolved alongside this empire, with words being adopted into the vocabulary. Numerous
words from India alone have become common in English today, such as- pyjamas; khaki;
bungalow; jodhpurs; juggernaut; curry; chutney; shampoo and thug – to name but a few.

THE AMERICAN INFLUENCE

American influence on English has been profound. American literature became more
popular in England, as did films with the advent of the movies and Hollywood, along with
songs, music and dance and many American programmes on television. The USA were also
allies of Britain in two world wars and still use British-based USAF airfields. All these
factors together with the age of the computer mean that even more Americanisms and phrases
have been adopted into the English vocabulary.

One example is the phrase ‘stiff upper lip’. It’s believed that this originated as the
Americans saw the English aristocracy speaking with a strict ‘standard English’, which
necessitated an immobile upper lip to pronounce it, no matter what the circumstances.

Other examples of American-influenced phrases include no axe to grind; sitting on the

fence; poker face; stake a claim – and words such as: bedrock; smooch; raincoat; skyscraper;
joyride; showdown; cocktail and cookie.

The English language has never had an official standard. It has evolved through the
centuries and adopted many thousands of words through overseas exploration, international
trade, and the building of an empire. It has progressed from very humble beginnings as a
dialect of Germanic settlers in the 5th century, to a global language in the 21st century. It is a
rich language with tens of thousands more words in its vocabulary than any other language
and as Maria Legg writes in her foreword to ‘In a Manner of Speaking’: “Indeed, a history of
the language must necessarily be a history of its people too.”

References

1. Baugh A.C. & Cable T. A (1978), History of the English Language, Routledge, Francis&
Taylor Group.
2. Papanis. Alexandros(1995), The Greek Thesaurus in English ,University of Nottingham
Press.
3. Durkin P. (2014), Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford University
Press
4. Richard Hogg (1992), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge
University Press.
5. Pyles T. & Alego J. (1964), The Origins and Development of the English Language 1964,
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
6. Dean L.F. & Wilson K.G. (1963), Essays on Language and Usage, Oxford University Press.
7. Brook G. L. (1958), A History of the English, London, Little, Brown & Company.
8. Jespersen O. (1985) Growth and Structure of English Language, Basil Blackwell.
9. Rastorgueva H. (1993), A History of the English Language, Moscow University Press.
10. Myers L.M. (1966), The Roots of Modern English, Boston, Little Brown & Company.
11. Stepanyan.E. A Survey on Loanwords and Borrowings and Their Role in the Reflection of
Cultural Values and Democracy Development: the Armenian Paradigm, European Journal of
Marketing and Economics May-August 2018 Volume 1, Issue 2, Pg77-86.
12. Williams, Joseph M.(1975), Origins of English Language, A Social and Linguistic History.
Free press.
13. Cf. Charles Barber, Joan.C. Beal, Philip.A.Shaw (2009), The English Language: a historical
introduction, Cambridge University Press.
14. David Burnley in: Norman Blake (1992), The Cambridge History of the English Language.
volume 2, Cambridge University Press, p.427.
Characteristics of Language
Let us know the characteristics of the language in brief: language is arbitrary, productive,
creative, symbolic, systematic, vocalic, social, non-instinctive, and conventional;
language is a system of communication, and language is human structurally complex, and
modifiable.
10 Characteristics Of Human Language
The ten characteristics of a language are given below. Please read carefully for proper
understanding.
1. Language Is Arbitrary
Language is undoubtedly arbitrary as there is no inherent connection between the nature
of things or concepts the speech deals with. However, those things and ideas are
expressed, and there is no reason why different communities pronounce a ‘single term’
differently.
A word was chosen to mean a specific thing or idea is arbitrary. It might be noticed that if
a language had not been arbitrary, there would have been just a single language that
remained throughout the world. That is why we can consider language as an arbitrary
vocal symbol.
2. Language Is A Social Phenomenon
In a sense, language should be considered a social phenomenon. Language is social in our
human society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human
relations.
As a member of a particular social group, we human beings interact with each other,
allowing us to identify with one another and connect and coordinate with one another.
This is how language is part and parcel of our society.
Language exists in the public arena, is a method for feeding and creating a society, and
sets up human relations. As a member of the community, we acquire a language
permanently.
3. Language Is A Symbolic System
Language signifies a symbolic system, and it consists of different sound symbols for
concepts, things, ideas, objects, etc. Language has sounds and words as their symbols.
These symbols are picked and routinely acknowledged and utilized. The words in a
language are not just patterns or images but symbols that denote meaning.
The language uses words as symbols and not as signs for the concept represented by
them. The core value of a language sometimes relies on the proper explanation of these
symbols.
4. Language Is Systematic
Although the language is symbolic, its symbols are arranged in specific systems. All
languages have their arrangement of plans, and each language is an arrangement of
systems.
Furthermore, all languages have phonological and syntactic systems, and within a system,
there are also several sub-systems.
For instance, we have the morphological and syntactic systems inside the linguistic
system. Inside these two sub-systems, we have systems, such as plural, of mindset, or
perspective, of tense, etc.
5. Language Is Vocal, Verbal And Sound
Language is a system of vocal and verbal symbolism, and it is essentially comprised of
vocal sounds just created by a physiological articulatory component in the human body.
First and foremost, it shows up as vocal sounds only. Language takes verbal elements
such as sounds, words, and phrases fixed up in specific ways to make several sentences.
Language is vocal and sound, which is produced by different speech organs. Writing can
be considered as an intelligent platform to represent vocal sounds, and it is the graphic
representation of the speech sounds of the language.
6. Language Is Non-Instinctive, Conventional
No language was made in multi-day out of a commonly settled upon recipe by a gathering
of people. Language is the result of advancement and tradition, and every age transmits
this tradition onto the following.
Like every human organization, languages may also change and pass on, develop and
extend. Each language has a circulation in a particular community around the globe.
However, we can consider language as non-instinctive because, naturally, it is acquired
by us.
7. Language Is Productive And Creative
Language has its efficiency and innovativeness. The auxiliary components of human
language are joined to create new expressions that neither the speaker nor their listeners
may have made or heard previously.
Honestly, the two sides comprehend without trouble. Language can be changed as
indicated by the necessities of human society. After all, language has the power of
productivity and creativity.
8. Language Is a System Of Communication
Language is strong, convenient, and the best form of communication for no doubt, and it
is the best way to express everything. Through language, we human beings express our
thoughts, desires, emotions, and feelings.
Further, we can interact easily through the welfare of language. After all, we may say that
language is the best communication system around the world.
9. Language Is Human And Structurally Complex
Human language is open-minded, extendable, and modifiable, contrary to animal
language. Language should be modifiable from time to time.
No species other than human beings have been endowed with language. So we can say
that language is naturally human, structurally complex, and modifiable in some cases.
10. Language Is Unique, Complex, And Modifiable
Language is indeed a unique phenomenon in the world. Every language has its
characteristics and distinctive features. Furthermore, each language has its creativity and
productivity to deliver the best ways to communicate.
And this is how language has the potentiality to be unique, complex, and modifiable by
the change of time and culture.
Conclusion
After the above discussion, we conclude that these language characteristics are part and
parcel of building the authenticity of any language.