FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

INTRODUCTION TO MIXED SIGNALS/ DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

SIGNAL
 A description of how one parameter is related to another parameter
 It is the variation pattern that conveys the information, in a signal
 Signal may exist in many forms like acoustic, image, video, electrical, heat & light signal
 Ex: Speech Signal, ECG (Electrocardiography) Signal, Image
SYSTEM
 An entity that responds to a signal (Input -> system -> output)
 Ex: Circuit, camera, speech recognition system
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
 A signal can be represented as a function of one or more independent variables
CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNALS
 A value of signal exists at every instant of time
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 The value of signal exists only at equally spaced discrete points in time
MIXED SIGNALS
 Refer to systems or circuits that handle both analog and digital signals.
 Most systems on chip involve a combination of analog and digital circuity.
 Involves a combination of an analog design, physical layer (PHY), and an analog-to-digital or digital-
to-analog controller
ANALOG SIGNALS/CONTINUOUS
 Signals that are continuous in both time and amplitude. They can take any value/ infinite within a
given range. Smooth waveforms
 Ex: Sound waves, temperature readings, and radio waves.
 They convey information by utilizing variations in a physical property, such as voltage, frequency, or
current.
 ANALOG TRANSMISSION
o FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM): FM manipulates frequency to transmit information
o AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM): manipulates amplitude
 Works well for audio and video transmission or for transmitting physical, “real world” information,
such as temperature, light, and sound
 Commonly transmitted over radio, water, or cable (twisted pair, coaxial, or optical).
 Devices that capture analog signals include phones, voice recorders, temperature sensors, and
control systems.
 Operational amplifiers, resistors, capacitors, and transistors
ADVANTAGES OF ANALOG SIGNALS
1. Have a higher density (carry more info)
2. Are less bandwidth-intensive (slow transfer of data)
3. Are cheaper and easier to process
DIGITALS SIGNALS/DISCRETE SIGNALS
 are discrete in both time and amplitude. They take on specific values/finite, usually represented by
binary numbers (0s (off) and 1s(on)). Square waves or pulses
 Ex: Computer data, digital audio, and digital video
 A subset of analog signals, carrying only a portion of the information in analog signals
  Commonly used in wireless communications, computer buses, storage media, networking, and data
communications.
 Microcontroller units (MCUs) and digital signal processors (DSPs)
 Synchronous, meaning a reference clock coordinates their operation. This contrasts with
asynchronous analog circuits, where information is processed at the input.
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
1. Easily encrypted
2. Easier to upgrade and configure
3. Ideal for long-distance signal processing, preserving signal integrity.
SIGNAL PROCESSING:
 ANALOG SIGNALS PROCESSING (ASP): Involves operations like amplification, filtering, and
modulation on analog signals.
 DIGITAL SIGNALS PROCESSING (ASP): Involves operations like sampling, quantization, and
digital filtering on digital signals.
 Filter: A device or process that removes some unwanted components or features from a signal.
 Filtering: A class of signal processing, the defining feature of filters being the complete or partial
suppression of some aspect of the signal.
 Sampling: The reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal.
 Quantization: The process of mapping input values from a large set (often a continuous set) to
output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a finite number of elements.
 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): They amplify, filter, and manipulate signals.
 Signal Converters: These transform one signal type into another. Analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs) turn real-world vibes into digital bits.
 Power Switching: Decides which signals get in and which stay out. Power MOSFETs, thyristors,
and relays are the gatekeepers of energy flow.
 Sensors: taste buds of electronics, sense temperature, pressure, light, and more.
 Transducers: the translators, convert physical parameters into electrical signals.
MIXED-SIGNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
 Combines analog and digital components onto a single semiconductor chip.
 While conventional analog or digital circuit designs rely on the advantages of each individually, a
mixed-signal integrated circuit uses the best of both to enable optimal chip performance.
 With the proliferation of smartphones and portable electronic devices, mixed-signals ICs have
become increasingly popular.
TYPES OF MIXED-SIGNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 Combines analog and digital circuitry to provide sophistication and flexibility in the design and
development of semiconductor chip designs.
 Aims for optimal balance between accuracy and performance, combining passive elements (such
as capacitors) with active elements (such as the high-voltage transistors used in power
management).
 Analog Mixed Signal (AMS) Chips: integrate analog with digital signals on a single chip design,
ensuring smooth communication between analog sensors and digital processors, underpinning the
next generation of electronic devices.
o Radio frequency Integrated Circuits: combine high-frequency analog design approaches
with microwave circuit design methodologies, incorporating modulators/demodulators,
amplifiers, oscillators, filters, and mixers on a single chip. They power a wide range of
wireless communication systems, from cellular to wireless to navigation systems.
o Memory chips: incorporating millions of capacitors and transistors that store information
temporarily (Random Access Memory) or permanently (Read Only Memory).
o Voltage Regulators: Incorporating three pins (or more) that maintain a constant voltage
level in a wider integrated circuit. Components include a transistor switch, a diode, a
capacitor, and an inductor.
 o Power Management Integrated Circuits: highly efficient power supply devices that
integrate multiple voltage regulators and control circuits onto a single chip. They power a
range of applications, including edge computing, the IoT, autonomous vehicles, and electric
vehicles.
CONSIDERATIONS OF MIXED-SIGNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN
 IC design flow describes the process of designing circuits until they’re ready for production (such as
in foundry)
 IC design circuit employs various tools, software (including computer-aided design), processes
(including electronic design automation), and devices to simulate and optimize processes, and
eliminate errors.
 In integrated circuit design:
o Digital integrated circuit design (transistor switches and logic circuits).
o Analog design (capacitors, transistors, amplifiers, diodes, and others that haven't been
digitized).
o Radio frequency integrated circuit design — often considered a subset of analog design —
integrates signals above several hundred kilohertz where RF phenomena dominate.
o A mixed-signal design flow typically includes:
1. Domain-specific design, including digital and analog (or RF) behavioral simulation
2. Mixed-signal analysis
3. Layout, including the physical layout in an analog design or the place-and-route in a
digital design
4. Assembly and physical verification
5. Mixed-signal functional verification
6. Tape-out
DEVICES THAT INTEGRATE MIXED-SIGNALS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 Serializers/deserializers (SerDes)

 Analog-to-digital converters
 Digital-to-analog converters
 Power Management IC

 High Bandwidth Memory (HBM) : a computer memory interface for 3D-stacked synchronous
dynamic random access memory (SDRAM)
  Dynamic random-access memory (dynamic RAM or DRAM) : a type of random-access
semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a memory cell, usually consisting of a tiny
capacitor and a transistor, both typically based on metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology

 Embedded memory system: can contain either volatile or non-volatile hardware components.
Those that have volatile hardware components consist of temporary storage spaces. Meanwhile,
embedded memories with non-volatile hardware consist of persistent storage. Despite their
differences, both store information to be used as bytes for binary code and group data. Standard
bytes contain 8 bits of information data, while double bytes feature 16 bits and quad bytes feature
32 bits

 Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA): a type of configurable integrated circuit that can be
repeatedly programmed after manufacturing. FPGAs are a subset of logic devices referred to as
programmable logic devices (PLDs).

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
 A very high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance and low output impedance.
 Uses: Provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and
many types of instrumentation circuits.
 Basic op-amp

 Single -Ended Input: Results when the

input signal is connected to one input with the other input connected to ground. The input signal
operates both transistors, resulting in output from both collectors.
 Double-
Ended (Differential) Input: In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each
input. If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied. The difference of the inputs resulting in
outputs from both collectors due to the difference of the signals applied to both inputs.
 Double -Ended Output: An input applied to either input will result in outputs from both output
terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity.

 Differential-Output: floating signal, since neither output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal.
The difference output is twice as large as either Vo1 or Vo2 because they are of opposite polarity
and subtracting them results in twice their amplitude.

 Double-Ended Output: shows a differential

input, differential output operation. The input is applied
between the two input terminals and the output taken
from between the two output terminals.
 Common-Mode Rejection: Since noise is generally common to both inputs, the differential
connection tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an amplified output of
the difference signal applied to the inputs. The ratio of the difference gain to the common gain.
 Common-Mode: If the same input is applied to both inputs. The common input signal results in
opposite signals at each collector, these signals canceling, so that the resulting output signal is
zero. As a practical matter, the opposite signals do not completely cancel, and a small signal results.
 Differential Amplifier: Extremely popular connection used in IC units. An amplifier that produces
outputs that are a function of the difference between two input voltages.
o Basic modes: 1) Differential (two inputs are different) 2) common mode (two inputs are the
same)

 The main feature of the differential amplifier is the very large gain when opposite signals are
applied to the inputs as compared to the very small gain resulting from common inputs.