Topperworld.

in

PPS
B.Tech (1ST YEAR)
Notes

Prepared By: Prof .Sukeshini Jadhav

Unit-1

Overview of Computers
What is computer ?
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input,
processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Basic components of computer system

By definition, components of a computer system are the primary elements
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which make the functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster.
There are five basic components which include:
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Memory Unit
• Control Unit
• Arithmetical and Logical Unit

• Input Unit
A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device.
These commands can be given using the input unit or the input devices.
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For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the
computer processes the entered data and then displays the output of the
same of the screen.
The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We
enter the information using an input device, the processing units convert it
into computer understandable languages and then the final output is
received by a human-understandable language.

• Output Unit
When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action
performed and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are
various output devices connected to the computer. The most basic of which
is a monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is
all displayed on the monitor.
Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is
done within the mechanism of a device.
For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language,
pin, amount to be withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash
dispenser releases is our outcome. In this case, the cash dispenser acts as
an output unit.
To get a list of computer input and output device and the function of the
various I/O devices, visit the linked article.
For better understanding and more interactive analysis of the components
of the computer, candidates can check the video given below and get
detailed information reading the five major components responsible for the
functioning of a computer device.

• Memory Unit
When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the
entered information immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the
Central Processing Unit (CPU). Because of the presence of some existing
programming, the Memory Unit transmits the data further to the other parts
of the CPU.
Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it
is saved in the memory unit before giving the output to the user.
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• Control Unit
This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer
device. It is one of the most essential components of the computer system.
The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on
for processing and once that is done, receives the output and presents it to
the user. It can be said to the centre of all processing actions taking place
inside a computer device.
Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing
signals to execute the data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in
the Control Unit.

• Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic
operations are performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.
It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making
actions. The ALU comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and other numerical based calculations can be
performed.

Block diagram of computer system

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1. Input unit – Input unit is a unit that accepts any input device. The input
device is used to input data into the computer system.
Function of input unit:
• It converts inputted data into binary codes.
• It sends data to main memory of computer .
2. Central Processing Unit (CUP) – CPU is called the brain of a
computer. An electronic circuitry that carries out the instruction given by a
computer program.
CPU can be sub classified into three parts.
i .Control unit (CU)
ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU)
iii. Memory Unit (MU)
i. Control unit (CU)- the control unit manages the various components of
the computer. It reads instructions from memory and interpretation and
changes in a series of signals to activate other parts of the computer. It
controls and co-ordinate is input output memory and all other units.
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ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU) – The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which
performs simple arithmetic operation such as +, -, *, / and logical operation
such as >, <, =<, <= etc.
iii. Memory Unit (MU)- Memory is used to store data and instructions
before and after processing. Memory is also called Primary memory or
internal memory. It is used to store data temporary or permanently.
Types of memory unit:-
Primary Memory
This is the internal memory that stores the data and instructions of the CPU.
It is volatile in nature (data is lost when the power is disconnected).

Secondary Memory
As we know that the primary memory is volatile therefore, we need some
devices to store the data permanently so we use some external storage
devices for this purpose which we name as the secondary memory. Some
examples: CD, DVD,etc.

Function of CPU-

• It controls all the parts and software and data flow of computer.
• It performs all operations.
• It accepts data from input device.
• It sends information to output device.
• Executing programs stored in memory
• It stores data either temporarily or permanent basis.
• It performs arithmetical and logical operations.
• Output Unit –Output unit is a unit that constituents a number of
output device. An output device is used to show the result of
processing.

Function of Output unit:

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• it accepts data or information sends from main memory of

computer
• It converts binary coded information into HLL or inputted
languages.
Number system:-
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in
numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
• The digit
• The position of the digit in the number
• The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system)
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to
9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example,
the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position.
Its value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand
the following number systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.No. Number System and Description

1 Binary Number System

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Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
• Uses two digits, 0 and 1
• Also called as base 2 number system
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example 20
• Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x

20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
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• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

• Also called as base 8 number system
• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8).
Example 80
• Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x

80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
• Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C =
12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
• Also called as base 16 number system
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the
base (16). Example, 160
• Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the
base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
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Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number
Number

Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x

1 160))10

Step ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x

19FDE16
2 160))10

Step 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

3

Step 19FDE16 10646210

4

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Arithmetic Of Number System

A number system is a set of symbols used to represent values derived from

a common base or radix. In a number, the value of each digit can be
determined using digit, position of the digit in the number, and the base of
the number system. The base is defined as the total number of digits are
available in the number system. This is known as positional number system.
Number System Base Digit Used

Binary 2 0, 1

Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
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Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

are performed in various radix bases. These arithmetic operations may also
use r’s complement and (r-1)’s complement representation.
These representation techniques hold basic laws for various arithmetic
operations:
(i) Unique Existence Law: The sum and product of any two numbers exist
uniquely. Where 0 is the identity element for additions and 1 is the identity
element for multiplication.
(ii) Associative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are
associative.
(iii) Commutative Law:Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are
commutative.
(iv) Distributive Law:Multiplication of binary numbers is distributive over two
or more terms in addition.
Now, arithmetic operations for various number systems are explained as
following below.
Arithmetic Operations of Binary Numbers:
In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit values,
i.e., 0 and 1. Represented by any device that only 2 operating states or
possible conditions. Generally, it is expressed by subscript 2 or binary (B).
Binary arithmetic is essential part of various digital systems. You can add,
subtract, multiply, and divide binary numbers using various methods. These
operations are much easier than decimal number arithmetic operations
because binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1.
Binary additions and subtractions are performed as same in decimal
additions and subtractions. When we perform binary additions, there will
have two outputs: Sum (S) and Carry (C) . There are four rules for binary
addition. These are given as following below,

Input A Input B Sum (S) Carry (C)

A+B
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0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

There are four rules for binary subtraction. These are given as following
below,
Input A Input B Subtract (S) Borrow (B)
A-B

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

Borrow 1 is required from next higher order bit to subtract 1 from 0. So, result
became 0.
There are four rules for binary multiplication. These are given as following
below,

Input A Input B Multiply (M)

AxB

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0
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1 1 1

Whenever at least one input is 0, then multiplication is always 0.

There are four part in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and
remainder. These are given as following rules for binary division,
Input A Input B Divide (D)
A/B

0 0 Not defined

0 1 0

1 0 Not defined

1 1 1

Whenever divisor is 0, then result is always not defined.

Arithmetic Operations of Octal Numbers:
It has base of 8 digits ranging from 0 to 7 (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Generally,
it is expressed by subscript 8 or octal (o).
Arithmetic operations of octal numbers are also performed same as decimal
arithmetic operations. The addition table for octal numbers is given as below:

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11
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3 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12

4 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13

5 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14

6 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15

7 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

With the help of above table, we can perform additions of octal numbers.
Similarly, we can perform subtraction of octal numbers same as decimal
number sutractions. But you can only take borrow of a number 7, which is
maximum digit allowed in octal number systems.
In the multiplication of octal numbers, if the product is less than radix of octal
(i.e, 8), then we take it as the result, else divide it by radix of octal (i.e., 8)
and take the remainder as the LSB (least significant bit). The quotient is
taken as carry in the next significant digit.
Similarly, division of octal numbers can be performed by following the rules
of division of decimal numbers but maximum allowed digit will be 7.

Arithmetic Operations of Hexadecimal Numbers:

It has base of 16 digits ranging from 0 to F (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
A, B, C, D, E, F). A, B, C, D, E, F are equivalent single digits of 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15 respectively. Generally, it is expressed by subscript 16 or Hexa
(H) or (h).
Arithmetic operations of hexadecimal numbers can be performed using
addition table for hexadecimal numbers which is given as below:

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10
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2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12

4 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13

5 5 7 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14

6 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 1 11 12 13 14 15
0

7 7 8 9 A B C D E F 1 1 12 13 14 15 16
0 1

8 8 9 A B C D E F 1 1 1 13 14 15 16 17
0 1 2

9 9 A B C D E F 1 1 1 1 14 15 16 17 18
0 1 2 3

A A B C D E F 1 1 1 1 1 15 16 17 18 19
0 1 2 3 4

B B C D E F 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 17 18 19 1A
0 1 2 3 4 5

C C D E F 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 18 19 1A 1B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

D D E F 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 19 1A 1B 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C

E E F 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 1 1B 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A C D

F F 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1E
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D
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With the help of above table, we can perform additions of hexadecimal

numbers.
Subtraction of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by using
complement methods or simple as decimal sutractions. The rule of simple
hexadecimal subtraction is the digit borrowed from the immediate higher
place is counted as 16.
In the multiplication of hexadecimal numbers, if the product is less than radix
of hexadecimal (i.e, 16), then we take it as the result, else divide it by radix
of hexadecimal (i.e., 16) and take the remainder as the LSB (least significant
bit). The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant digit. Using these
rules, you can make a table for hexadecimal multiplications.
Similarly, division of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by following
the rules of division of decimal numbers but maximum allowed digit will be
F(=15 in decimal).

Computer Hardware
Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the
physical components of an analog or digital computer. The
term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device
from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions
or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute
the instructions.

Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can

function efficiently and produce useful output only when both hardware and
software work together appropriately.

Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external

components. Generally, internal hardware components are those
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necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external

hardware components are attached to the computer to add or enhance
functionality.

What are internal computer hardware components?

Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered
by the program or operating system (OS). These include the following:

• Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the central

processing unit (CPU) and other essential internal hardware and
functions as the central hub that all other hardware components
run through.

• CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and
executes digital instructions from various programs; its clock
speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in
processing data.

• RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage

that makes information immediately accessible to programs; RAM
is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer
powers off.

• Hard drive. Hard disk drive are physical storage devices that store
both permanent and temporary data in different formats, including
programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.
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• Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices

based on NAND flash memory technology; SSDs are non-volatile,
so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered
down.

• Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive

bay; they enable the computer to read and interact with
nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only
memory or digital video discs.

• Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat

away from components to regulate/reduce their temperature to
help ensure they continue to function properly. Typically, a heat
sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most
heat among internal components.

• Graphics process unit. This chip-based device processes

graphical data and often functions as an extension to the main
CPU.

• Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that

enables the computer to connect to a network; also known as
a network adapter or local area network adapter, it typically
supports connection to an Ethernet network.

Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies,

transistors and chips, are also types of internal hardware.
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This computer hardware chart below illustrates what typical internal

computer hardware components look like.
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What are external hardware components?

External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are
those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control
either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to
either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its
execution (output).
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Common input hardware components include the following:

• Mouse. A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a

cursor around a computer screen and enables interaction with
objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless.

• Keyboard. A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard

QWERTY keyset that enables users to input text, numbers or
special characters.

• Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound

waves into electrical signals and supports computer-based audio
communications.

• Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to

the computer or through a computer to a network device.

• Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into

a laptop, used to control the pointer on a display screen. It is
typically an alternative to an external mouse.

• USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable

storage device that uses flash memory and interfaces with a
computer through a USB port.

• Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external

storage media, such as a Compactflash card, used to store media
or data files.
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Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners.

Examples of output hardware components include the following:

• Monitor. A monitor is an output device similar to a TV screen that

displays information, documents or images generated by the
computing device.

Printer
Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material. A printer
is a hardware output device that is used to generate hard copy and print any
document. A document can be of any type such as a text file, image, or the
combination of both. It accepts input command by users on a computer or
on other devices to print the documents. For example, if you have to submit
a project report at your college, you need to create a soft copy of your report
and print it with the help of the printer.

Printers are one of the common computer peripheral devices that can be
classified into two categories that are 2D and 3D printers. The 2D printers
are used to print text and graphics on a paper, and 3D printers are used to
create three dimensional physical objects.
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Types of printer
Although there are different types of printers, nowadays, two types of printers
are commonly used, which are inkjet and laser printers. A list of all the
various types of printers is given below:
• Inkjet Printers

• Laser Printers

• 3D Printers

• LED Printers

• Solid Ink Printers

• Dot Matrix Printers

• Multifunction or All-in-One Printers

• Thermal printer

• Plotter

Inkjet Printers
It is widely used by home and business computer users that prints characters
by spraying the ink using magnetic plates on the paper. It contains a paper
feed assembly, ink cartridge, print head, stabilizer bar, and belt. It stores
the ink in cartridges, and uses separate cartridge to print several types of
color documents. These colors are a combination of cyan, magenta,
yellow, and black color. These types of printers have the ability to create
high-quality pictures with the help of vivid colors. Furthermore, the inkjet
printers are more affordable and easier to use as compared to other printers.
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Advantages of Inkjet Printers:

• The Inkjet printers have the ability to produce high-quality output.

• These printers are reasonably fast and easy to use.

• Additionally, these types of printers do not take warm up time.

Disadvantages of Inkjet Printer:

• It may take more time to print.

• Its running cost is high.

• It does not allow the highlighter marker.

• Sometimes, it can produce a wrong warning of an empty cartridge.

Laser printers
The laser printer is one of the common personal computer printers. It was
introduced in 1971, and after that it was developed at Xerox PARC by Gary
Starkweather. It uses the laser or non-impact photocopier technology to print
the text and images on the paper. Whenever it gets input to print any
document, a laser beam draws the document on the selenium-coated drum
with the help of electric charges.
• When the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner (dry ink powder). The
ink follows the image, which has charged on the drum. The ink is
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combined with the paper, including heat and pressure, then transferred
on a chunk (piece) of paper.

When the document is printed, the excess toner is collected, and an electric
charge is removed from the drum. Most of the laser printers are capable of
printing only in monochrome. The monochrome laser printer is around ten
times cheaper than a color laser printer.

There are many differences between a laser printer and inkjet printer, such
as:
• The laser printer contains dry ink, while an inkjet contains wet ink.

• An inkjet printer is approximately ten times more expensive than the

laser printer as it requires replacing the ink very frequently.

• If a paper is wet, the inkjet printer will print the document with blur, but
the laser printer will print clear. The inkjet printer is suitable for printing
fewer documents, while the laser printer has the ability to print more
documents.

Advantages of a Laser printer:

• These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.

• It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.

• It has the ability to print documents speedily.

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• Furthermore, it is able to increase productivity.

Disadvantages of a Laser printer:

• Laser printers may need warm up time.

• Laser printers are bulky as they required the laser technology and
imaging drum.

• It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.

3D Printers
One of the best enhancements in the history of printing technology is the 3d
printer, which was developed by Chuck Hull in 1984. It produces 3D objects
and items by using quality resin. It uses materials like plastics, polymers,
metal alloys, or even food ingredients.

Application of 3D printers
There are many applications where 3D printers are used, such
as archaeology, aerospace engineering, information systems,
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dentistry, and biotechnology. For example, it might be used to reconstruct

ancient artifacts of archaeology physically, which have been destroyed with
time.

Advantages of 3D printer:
• The main advantage of a 3D printer is that it allows users to print
objects in 3D .

• It has the ability of full customization.

• It is easy to access and cost-effective.

• It prints the documents with better quality.

• It provides users unlimited shapes and geometry.

Disadvantages of 3D printer:
• Its initial and resin costs are high.

• 3D printing is still developing technology.

• It consumes high energy around 50 to 100 more than injection molding.

• It includes limited materials

• The 3D printers are slow as they are limitless for mass customization.

LED Printers
The LED printer is mostly like a laser printer. It uses the drum, ink, and fuser
system to print the black or colored documents. Initially, Casio and function
developed the LED printers by focusing light throughout the whole length of
the drum. These types of printers are non-impact, but instead of using a laser
in the printhead they use a light-emitting diode. These printers were invented
by the manufacturer OKI in 1989.
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There is a difference between laser printers and LED printers; the LED
printers use a strip of LEDs to create an ink-attracting static charge on the
printing drum while laser printers use a laser and mirror. Although LED
printers are not more popular as compared to inkjet and laser printer, they
are gently gaining popularity as they provide users the unique benefits.

Advantages of the LED printer:

• The manufacturing of LED printers is cheaper than laser printers.

• These types of printers mostly contain free warranty extensions.

• These printers are capable of printing on thick 3D items.

Solid Ink Printers

A laser class solid ink printer is designed to save space and money on
packaging. It uses a unique type of ink technology that is melted into a liquid
before being used. As inkjet printers stream the ink directly on the paper, but
solid ink printers are different as they stream the ink on the drum. Firstly,
transferring the ink to the drum than to the printer is a better way to get a
good color combination as a drum can be controlled appropriately than the
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moving paper. Xerox acquired the color printer division of Tektronix, Inc., in
2000. The solid ink printer was introduced in the market by Tektronix, Inc.,
with its crayonlike cartridges.
Advantages of solid ink printer:
• The print quality of a solid ink printer is good as it produces dynamic
colors and extraordinary print quality on a broad range of media like
envelopes, recycled paper, transparencies, and cardstock.

• The solid ink printers are easy to handle because these are made by
non-toxic vegetable oils and do not melt in our hands. Unlike laser or
inkjet printers, they do not spill or leak.

• These types of printers are capable of printing the documents fast.

Generally, it can print up to 30 pages per minute.

• The ink loading in the solid printer is an easy as it includes sticks in

particular shapes that only go to the correct slot. These types of
printers contain the ink slot on the top of the printer, and they allow you
to replace the ink at any time, including at the time of printing.

• The solid ink printers are designed in that way; they comprise only
three main assemblies, print drum, print head, and controller. It takes
less space as compared to the color laser printer.

• Furthermore, these printers and their parts are affordable than the
color toner cartridges and color laser printers.

Disadvantages of a solid ink printer:

• These printers may require warm-up and cool downtime.
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• These are sensitive to UV light, and color may fade under the sunlight
with the time.

• These printers consume more power than the laser printer

• These printers are mainly used for a large numbers of printing. If it is

turned off in the middle of the printing, it will take some time to warm
up again.

Dot Matrix Printers

The dot matrix printers are also known as a pin printer that was released
by IBM in 1957. Although, in 1970, Centronics created the first dot-matrix
impact printer. It strikes an ink ribbon using print heads that place thousands
of little dots to form images and text. Nowadays, as compared to laser and
inkjet printers, it is less used, as its printing speed slow and generates lower
quality images. However, dot matrix printers are still in use in some sectors
like package delivery companies and auto part stores.

Advantages of Dot matrix printer:

• A dot matrix printer is less expensive as compared to most of the
printers, and it is easily available in the market.

• It has the ability to print carbon copies of a particular print out, unlike
non-impact printers.
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• Its printing cost is lowest than the other printers.

• Furthermore, its maintenance cost is less expensive than the other

printers.

Disadvantages of Dot matrix printer:

• The speed of the dot matrix printer is slow as compared to non-impact
printers, and its output is also not of high resolution.

• It creates high noise when the pins hit the ribbon to the paper.

• It may be a time-consuming printer as it requires a single paper to

wound up and aligned manually.

Multifunction Printers
Multifunction printer is a hardware device that can perform various tasks
such as printing, scanning, faxing, and copying. It is also called the All-
in-One printer. It is suitable for budget-minded businesses that want to
reduce costs, consolidate assets, and improve workflow. Although it is
necessary to connect the printer to a computer with the help of a wire or
wireless connection, sometimes it can be controlled from their control panel
like standalone copiers. Furthermore, no need for more than one unit as it
can easily complete multiple tasks within an office or home simultaneously.
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Advantages of Multifunction Printers:

• The multifunction printers can save initial cost, as instead of
purchasing many printers and fax machines, you can purchase only
one large MFG for multipurpose.

• These types of printers are beneficial for home and office as they save
a lot of floor space. It may be difficult to find space for the fax machine,
printer, and scanner, but a multifunction printer takes limited space and
can perform multi-task such as a printing, faxing, and scanning.

• One of the best advantages of a multifunction printer, the operation

functionality is faster as compared to laser printers or other printers.
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Also, some of the multifunction printers can send print documents,

faxes, scan images, and copy all at the same time.

• Furthermore, these printers need only one cable to power the whole
setup, which reduces the congestion and electricity required to run the
device. Thus, the multifunction printer consumes less power as
compared to other printers.

Disadvantages of Multifunction Printers:

• The operating cost of a multifunction printer is high. Its maintenance
cost is also expensive as it uses ink speedily as compared to other
printers. All functions, such as faxing, copying, and printer, use ink
faster.

• These printers perform a task on the basis of first in first out rule. So
all tasks stack up in a queue that can cause slow the machine.Thus,
some people may have to wait to use the machine.

• When the multifunction printer is out of service or broken down, the all
work scanning, printing, copying, faxing will be completely stopped. It
can be an issue for an organization, if they have more requirements for
faxing, copying, and printing the documents.

Thermal printer
The thermal printer is invented by Jack Kilby that is also known as an
electrothermal printer, thermal transfer printer, or thermal wax-transfer
printer. It utilizes heated pins in order to produce the image on paper. These
types of printers are widely used in banking, airline, grocery, entertainment,
retail, healthcare industries, fax, and calculator machines.These printers are
low-cost and print fast, and do not use ink like other printers. They primarily
depend on the thermal paper to produce the images.
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This technology is useful for an organization as it is reliable as well as cost-

effective. Employees can work continuously without getting interrupted
because they do not need to change the cartridges or ribbons in this printer.

Advantages of Thermal printer:

• One of the main advantages of a thermal printer, it does not need any
ribbons or cartridges.Thus, the companies can save the time by using
it.

• These types of printers are easy to use as they have fewer buttons,
including the use of software.

• These are beneficial for offices as they provide noise-free

environments.

• These printers are cheaper and available in several models and sizes.

• These printers are faster and more efficient in printing monochromic

ones than the other printers.

Disadvantages of Thermal printer:

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• Generally, a thermal printer does not produce colors print out well, like
standard printers.

• At the time of printing, the high heat can be harmful to the printhead.
Consequently, if the printhead breaks down, you have to pay for a
repair or buy a new one.

Plotter
A plotter is a hardware device or a printer, which was first invented
by Remington-Rand in 1953. It is developed to print vector graphics and
uses a pencil, pen, marker, or other writing tools for drawing continuous lines
instead of using ink or tonner. It is widely used to print a hard copy of
schematics and other similar applications.
There are several types of plotter given in the below list:
• Drum plotter: It is also known as roller plotter. It turns the paperback
and forth on a drum while pens move left and right. With the help of
combining these two directions, the line can be drawn in any direction.

• Flatbed plotter: In flatbed plotter, a paper is placed on a large

horizontal surface.A traveling bar moves across the surface and draws
the lines.

• Electrostatic plotter: It draws on paper that is charged negatively with

positively charged ink or tonner.

• Inkjet Plotter: It is a type of Pinch Roller Plotter, which produces an

image with the help of showering little drops of ink on the paper.

• Cutting Plotter: It is a new generation device that allows users to cut

different shapes. It is mainly used for advertising, sign-making, bill
board, and vehicle graphics.
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Advantages of Plotter:
• A Plotter is capable of working on the large sheet around 2 feet or more
with better quality.

• It can print on sheet, steel, plastic, aluminum, plywood, and any flat
sheet material, including paper.

• It has the ability to save all templates and patterns on the disk. Thus, it
can overcome the problem to load the same pattern again and again.

• Furthermore, it can draw the same pattern thousand times without any
degradation.

Disadvantages of Plotter:
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• The size of a plotter is very large than the traditional printers.

• Plotters are more expensive as compared to a traditional printer.

Storage Devices

Magnetic storage devices

Nowadays, magnetic storage is commonly founded on hybrid hard drives or
extremely large HDDs.

A list is given below of magnetic storage devices:

• Floppy diskette: A floppy disk drive (FDD) offers users the benefit of
saving data to removable diskettes. FDDs have been replaced with
other storage devices like network file transfer and USB.

• Hard drive: A hard disk drive (HDD) is used to store data permanently
as it is a non-volatile computer storage device, and directly connected
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to the disk controller of the computer's motherboard. Usually, it is

installed internally in a computer, known as secondary storage device.

• Magnetic Card: A magnetic card is a card that may have information

about an individual, such as passcodes to enter secure buildings or
available recognition on a credit card.

• SuperDisk: Imation Corporation developed the disk storage

technology. SuperDisk is also known as a LS-240 and LS-120. The
drive was most popular with OEM computers and able to store up to
120 MB (Megabyte) on a single disk. Later, it was capable of storing
240 MB and also backward compatible with 1.44 MB disks.

• Tape cassette: A tape is a rectangular and flat container that is

capable of storing data. As compared to other storage media, it is less
expensive and commonly used for backing up a huge amount of data.

• Zip diskette: A Zip drive is a hardware data storage device that is an

advanced version of the floppy disk. Its functions like a diskette and
standard 1.44" floppy drive and developed by Iomega. It became very
popular in the late 1990s and capable of storing data that was not
possible with ordinary floppy disks.

Optical storage devices

Another type of storage devices are given below:
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• Blu-ray disc

• CD-ROM disc

• CD-R and CD-RW disc.

• DVD-R, DVD+RW, DVD+R, and DVD-RW disc.

Flash memory devices

Flash memory is cheaper as well as portable. Due to become more reliable
and efficient solution, most magnetic and optical media have replaced by
flash memory device.
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• Flash drive: A USB flash drive is a portable storage device used for
data storage that is also known as pen drive, thumb drive, data stick,
keychain drive. They are connected to a computer via a USB port and
often the size of a human thumb.

• Memory card: A memory card is commonly used in digital cameras,

printers, MP3 players, PDAs, digital camcorders, game consoles, and
handheld computers. The most common memory card format was
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CompactFlash for many years, but today are CFexpress, SD, MicroSD,
and XQD.

• Compact Flash (CF): Compact Flash is a type of flash memory that is

commonly found in digital cameras, PDAs and other portable devices.
It is a 50-pin connection storage device that is capable of storing data
ranging from 2 MB to 128 GB.

• 2: M.2 is a solid-state drive, introduced in 2014.There are two types of

M.2 devices; SATA M.2 and PCIe M.2.

• MultiMediaCard: A MultiMediaCard or MMC is an Integrated Circuit

that is used in car radios, printers, PDAs, MP3 players, and digital
cameras. It acts as external storage for data. The MMCP (MMCplus)
and MMCM (MMCmobile / MMCmicro) are the variations of the MMC
card.

• SDHC card (Secure Digital High Capacity): It uses new technology

and an improved version of the standard SD card. It is not backward
compatible with SD format devices and has the ability to store data in
a range from 4 GB to 32 GB.

• NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express): It is a device specification

that is designed for data centers and standardizes the way devices like
SSDs can be connected to a computer's PCI Express bus, introduced
by Intel in 2007.

• Sony Memory Stick: Sony Memory Stick is a family of flash memory

cards, first introduced by Sony in October 1998. It is designed for digital
storage in cameras and other Sony products.
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• SmartMedia Card: A SmartMedia card is a memory card developed

by Toshiba that is also known as a solid-state floppy disk card.

• xD-Picture Card (EXtreme Digital Picture Card): The xD-Picture

Card is a flash memory card that is introduced by Olympus and Fuji in
2002. In 2003, until the Mini SD card was introduced, the xD cards
were the smallest flash memory cards available on the market. H and
M/M+ versions of the xD-Picture Card had a capacity of up to 2 GB
and the original version up to 512 MB.

• SSD: An SSD is a storage medium that is similar to a hard disk drive

(HDD). Even without power, it has the ability to maintain stored data in
a permanent state. It has higher reliability, noiseless operation, lower
power consumption, and faster access time because it has no moving
parts, unlike a hard drive.

• SD Card: An SD Card, stands for Secure Digital Card, is most

commonly used with electronics that are designed to offer high-
capacity memory with small size. It is often used in small portable
devices like cell phones, digital cameras, digital video camcorders,
mp3 players, etc. It is used by more than 400 brands of electronic
devices.

Online and cloud storage

The need to store data online and in cloud storage is increasing rapidly.
• Cloud storage: Cloud storage is a cloud computing model that
transmits and holds data on remote storage systems where a cloud
computing provider manages, maintains, and made available data to
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users over a network. It offers users the reliability, confidentiality,

durability, and 'access data anytime'.

• Network media: Network media is used on a computer network such

as the Internet, as it is any audio, video, images or text.

Paper storage
Initially, computers were not able to store data on any storage technologies,
like flash memory devices, optical storage devices; they had to depend on
paper. In modern times, the method of paper storage to store data is rarely
used or found.

• Punch card: A punch card is also known as Hollerith cards or IBM

cards that are able to store data in the form of small punched holes. It
is a simple piece of paper stock that was widely used to input data into
early computers.

• OMR: It stands for optical mark recognition or optical mark reading. It

is a method of extracting data from human beings by identifying certain
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markings on a document, such as checkboxes and fill-infields, on

printed forms. Generally, the OMR process is accomplished by
scanning that detects a reflection or transmission with the help of a
piece of paper. This technology provides advantages for applications
such as ballots, reply cards, surveys, and questionnaires as they need
a large amount of hand-filled forms to be processed quickly and with
accuracy.

Introduction to Programming Language

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Programming Language
As we know, to communicate with a person, we need a specific language, similarly to
communicate with computers, programmers also need a language is called Programming
language.
Before learning the programming language, let's understand what is language?

What is Language?
Language is a mode of communication that is used to share ideas, opinions with each
other. For example, if we want to teach someone, we need a language that is
understandable by both communicators.

What is a Programming Language?

A programming language is a computer language that is used by programmers
(developers) to communicate with computers. It is a set of instructions written in any
specific language ( C, C++, Java, Python) to perform a specific task.
A programming language is mainly used to develop desktop applications, websites,
and mobile applications.

Types of programming language

1. Low-level programming language
Low-level language is machine-dependent (0s and 1s) programming language. The
processor runs low- level programs directly without the need of a compiler or interpreter,
so the programs written in low-level language can be run very fast.
Low-level language is further divided into two parts -
i. Machine Language
Machine language is a type of low-level programming language. It is also called
as machine code or object code. Machine language is easier to read because it is
normally displayed in binary or hexadecimal form (base 16) form. It does not require a
translator to convert the programs because computers directly understand the machine
language programs.
The advantage of machine language is that it helps the programmer to execute the
programs faster than the high-level programming language.
ii. Assembly Language
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Assembly language (ASM) is also a type of low-level programming language that is

designed for specific processors. It represents the set of instructions in a symbolic and
human-understandable form. It uses an assembler to convert the assembly language to
machine language.
The advantage of assembly language is that it requires less memory and less execution
time to execute a program.
2. High-level programming language
High-level programming language (HLL) is designed for developing user-friendly
software programs and websites. This programming language requires a compiler or
interpreter to translate the program into machine language (execute the program).
The main advantage of a high-level language is that it is easy to read, write, and
maintain.
High-level programming language includes Python, Java, JavaScript, PHP, C#, C++,
Objective C, Cobol, Perl, Pascal, LISP, FORTRAN, and Swift programming language.
A high-level language is further divided into three parts -
i. Procedural Oriented programming language
Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) language is derived from structured
programming and based upon the procedure call concept. It divides a program into small
procedures called routines or functions.
Procedural Oriented programming language is used by a software programmer to create
a program that can be accomplished by using a programming editor like IDE, Adobe
Dreamweaver, or Microsoft Visual Studio.
The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track the program
flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.
The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track the
program flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.
Example: C, FORTRAN, Basic, Pascal, etc.
ii. Object-Oriented Programming language
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) language is based upon the objects. In
this programming language, programs are divided into small parts called objects. It
is used to implement real-world entities like inheritance, polymorphism, abstraction, etc
in the program to makes the program resusable, efficient, and easy-to-use.
The main advantage of object-oriented programming is that OOP is faster and easier to
execute, maintain, modify, as well as debug.
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Note: Object-Oriented Programming language follows a bottom-up approach.

Example: C++, Java, Python, C#, etc.
iii. Natural language
Natural language is a part of human languages such as English, Russian, German, and
Japanese. It is used by machines to understand, manipulate, and interpret human's
language. It is used by developers to perform tasks such as translation, automatic
summarization, Named Entity Recognition (NER), relationship extraction, and topic
segmentation.
The main advantage of natural language is that it helps users to ask questions in any
subject and directly respond within seconds.
3. Middle-level programming language
Middle-level programming language lies between the low-level programming
language and high-level programming language. It is also known as the intermediate
programming language and pseudo-language.
A middle-level programming language's advantages are that it supports the features of
high-level programming, it is a user-friendly language, and closely related to machine
language and human language.
Example: C, C++, language

Most commonly used Programming Language

As we all know, the programming language makes our life simpler. Currently, all sectors
(like education, hospitals, banks, automobiles, and more ) completely depend upon the
programming language.
There are dozens of programming languages used by the industries. Some most widely
used programming languages are given below -
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1. Python

Python is one of the most widely used user-friendly programming languages. It is an

open-source and easy to learn programming language developed in the 1990s. It
is mostly used in Machine learning,Artificial intelligence, Big Data, GUI based
desktop applications, and Robotics.
Advantages
• Python is easy to read, easy to understand, and easy to write.

• It integrates with other programming languages like C, C++, and Java.

• Python executes code line-by-line, so it is easy for the programmer to find the error that

occurred in the code.

• Python is platform-independent means you can write code once and run it anywhere.

Disadvantages
• Python is not suitable for developing mobile applications and games.

• Python works with the interpreter. That's why it is slower than other programming

languages like C and C++.

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2. Java

java is a simple, secure, platform-independent, reliable, architecture-neutral high-level

programming language developed by Sun Microsystems in 1995. Now, Java is owned
by Oracle. It is mainly used to develop bank, retail, information technology, android, big
data, research community, web, and desktop applications.
Advantages
• Java is easy to write, compile, learn, and debug as compared to other programming

languages.

• It provides an ability to run the same program on different platforms.

• It is a highly secured programming language because in java, there is no concept of explicit

pointers.

• It is capable of performing multiple tasks at the same time.

Disadvantages
• Java consumes more memory and slower than other programming languages like C or

C++.

• It does not provide a backup facility.

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3. C

C is a popular, simple, and flexible general-purpose computer programming

language. Dennis M Ritchie develops it in 1972 at AT&T. It is a combination of both
low-level programming language as well as a high-level programming language. It is used
to design applications like Text Editors, Compilers, Network devices, and many more.
Advantages
• C language is easy to learn.

• It is fast, efficient, portable, easy to extend, powerful, and flexible programming language.

• It is used to perform complex calculations and operations such as MATLAB.

• It provides dynamic memory allocation to allocate memory at the run time.

Disadvantages
• In the C programming language, it is very difficult to find the errors.

• C does not support the concepts of constructors, destructors, abstraction, polymorphism,

encapsulation, and namespace like OOPs.

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4. C++

C++ is one of the thousands of programming languages that we use to develop software.
C++ programming language is developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1980. It is similar to
the C programming language but also includes some additional features such
as exception handling, object-oriented programming, type checking, etc.
Advantages
• C++ is a simple and portable structured programming language.

• It supports OOPs features such as Abstraction, Inheritance, Encapsulation.

• It provides high-level abstraction and useful for a low-level programming language, and

more efficient for general-purpose.

• C++ is more compatible with the C language.

Disadvantages
• C++ programming language is not secured as compared to other programming

languages like Java or Python.

• C++ can not support garbage collection.

• It is difficult to debug large as well as complex web applications.

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5. C#

C# (pronounced as C sharp) is a modern, general-purpose, and object-oriented

programming language used with XML based Web services on the .NET platform. It is
mainly designed to improve productivity in web applications. It is easier to learn for those
users who have sufficient knowledge of common programming languages like C, C++, or
Java.

Advantages
• C# is a modern, type-safe, easy, fast, and open-source programming language that is

easily integrated with Windows.

• The maintenance of C# (C sharp) is lower than the C++ programming language.

• C# is a pure object-oriented programming language.

• C# includes a strong memory backup facility. That's why it avoids the problem of memory

leakage.

Disadvantages
• C# is less flexible because it is completely based on Microsoft .Net framework.

• In C#, it is difficult to write, understand, debug, and maintain multithreaded applications.

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6. JavaScript

javascript is a type of scripting language that is used on both client-side as well as a

server-side. It is developed in the 1990s for the Netscape Navigator web browser. It
allows programmers to implement complex features to make web pages alive. It helps
programmers to create dynamic websites, servers, mobile applications, animated
graphics, games, and more.
Advantage
• JavaScript helps us to add behavior and interactivity on the web page.

• It can be used to decrease the loading time from the server.

• It has the ability to create attractive, dynamic websites, and rich interfaces.

• JavaScript is a simple, versatile, and lightweight programming language.

• JavaScript and its syntax are easy to understand.

Disadvantage
• JavaScript is completely based on the browser.

• It does not support multiple inheritance.

• It is less secure compared to other programming languages.

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7. R

Currently, R programming is one of the popular programming languages that is used

in data analytics, scientific research, machine learning algorithms, and statistical
computing. It is developed in 1993 by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman. It helps
marketers and data scientists to easily analyze, present, and visualize data.
Advantages
• R programming provides extensive support for Data Wrangling.

• It provides an easy-to-use interface.

• It runs on any platform like Windows, Linux, and Mac.

• It is an open-source and platform-independent programming language.

Disadvantages
• R programming does not support 3D graphics.

• It is slower than other programming languages.

8. PHP
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PHP stands for Hypertext Preprocessor. It is an open-source, powerful server-side

scripting language mainly used to create static as well as dynamic websites. It is developed
by Rasmus Laird in 1994. Inside the php, we can also write HTML, CSS and javascript
code. To save php file, file extension .php is used.
Advantages
• PHP is a more secure and easy-to-use programming language.

• It supports powerful online libraries.

• It can be run on a variety of operating systems such as Windows, Linux, and Mac.

• It provides excellent compatibility with cloud services.

Disadvantages
• PHP is not capable of handling a large number of applications and not suitable for large

applications.

• It is quite difficult to maintain.

9. Go

Go or Golang is an open-source programming language. It is used to build simple,

reliable, and efficient software. It is developed by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken
Thompson in 2007.
Advantages
• Go language is easy-to-learn and use.

• It comes with the in-built testing tools.

• Go is a fast programming language.

Disadvantages
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• Go language does not support generics.

• It does not support error handling.

• It supports a lack of frameworks.

10. Ruby

Ruby is an open-source, general-purpose, and pure object-oriented programming

language released in 1993. It is used in front-end and back-end web development. It is
mainly designed to write CGI (Common Gateway Interface) scripts.
Advantages
• Ruby supports various GUI (Graphical User Interface) tools like GTK and OpenGL.

• It is used to develop both internet as well as intranet applications.

• The code written in Ruby is small and contains less number of lines.

Disadvantages
• Ruby is slower than other programming languages.

• It is very difficult for programmers to debug the code written in Ruby.

Introduction to Compiler
• A compiler is a translator that converts the high-level language into the machine language.

• High-level language is written by a developer and machine language can be understood

by the processor.

• Compiler is used to show errors to the programmer.

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• The main purpose of compiler is to change the code written in one language without

changing the meaning of the program.

• When you execute a program which is written in HLL programming language then it

executes into two parts.

• In the first part, the source program compiled and translated into the object program (low

level language).

• In the second part, object program translated into the target program through the

assembler.

Fig: Execution process of source program in Compiler

Introduction to Interpreter

All high level languages need to be converted to machine code so that the
computer can understand the program after taking the required inputs. The
software by which the conversion of the high level instructions is performed line-
by-line to machine level language, other than compiler and assembler, is known
as INTERPRETER. If an error is found on any line, the execution stops till it is
corrected. This process of correcting errors is easier as it gives line-by-line error
but the program takes more time to execute successfully. Interpreters were first
used in 1952 to ease programming within the limitations of computers at the
time. It translates source code into some efficient intermediate representation
and immediately execute
this.
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Source programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as machine

independent code, which is then linked at run-time and executed by an
interpreter. An Interpreter is generally used in micro computer. It helps the
programmer to find out the errors and to correct them before control moves to
the next statement. Interpreter system performs the actions described by the
high level program. For interpreted programs, the source code is needed to run
the program every time. Interpreted programs run slower than the compiled
programs. Self-Interpreter is a programming language interpreter which is
written in a language which can interpret itself. For Example- BASIC interpreter
written in BASIC. They are related to self-hosting compilers. Some languages
have an elegant and self-interpreter such as Lisp and Prolog. Need of an
Interpreter : The first and vital need of an interpreter is to translate source code
from high-level language to machine language. However, for this purpose
Compiler is also there to satisfy this condition. The compiler is a very powerful
tool for developing programs in high-level language. However, there are several
demerits associated with the compiler. If the source code is huge in size, then it
might take hours to compile the source code, which will significantly increase
the compilation duration. Here, Interpreter plays its role. They can cut this huge
compilation duration. They are designed to translate single instruction at a time
and execute them immediately. Advantage and Disadvantage of Interpreter :
Advantage of interpreter is that it is executed line by line which helps
users to find errors easily.
Disadvantage of interpreter is that it takes more time to execute
successfully than compiler.
Applications of Interpreters :
Each operator executed in a command language is usually an
invocation of a complex routine, such as an editor or compiler so they
are frequently used to command languages and glue languages.
Virtualization is often used when the intended architecture is
unavailable.
Sand-boxing
Self-modifying code can be easily implemented in an interpreted
language.
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Emulator for running Computer software written for obsolete and

unavailable hardware on more modern equipment.
Some examples of programming languages that use interpreters are Python,
Ruby, Perl, PHP and Matlab. Top Interpreters according to the computer
languages –
Python- CPython, PyPy, Stackless Python, IronPython
Ruby- YARV, Ruby MRI (CRuby)
JAVA- HotSpot, OpenJ9, JRockIt
Kotlin- JariKo

Introduction to Dubugger
Debugging is the process of detecting and removing of existing and potential errors
(also called as ‘bugs’) in a software code that can cause it to behave unexpectedly or
crash. To prevent incorrect operation of a software or system, debugging is used to find
and resolve bugs or defects. When various subsystems or modules are tightly coupled,
debugging becomes harder as any change in one module may cause more bugs to
appear in another. Sometimes it takes more time to debug a program than to code it.

Introduction to Linker
A linker is a program in a system, also known as a link editor and binder, which combines object
modules into a single object file. Generally, it is a program that performs the process of linking;
it takes one or multiple object files, which are generated by compiler. And, then combines these
files into an executable files. Modules are called for the different pieces of code, which are
written in programming languages. Linking is a process that helps to gather and maintain a
different piece of code into an executable file or single file. With the help of a linker, a specific
module is also linked into the system library.
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The primary function of the linker is to take objects from the assembler as input and create an
executable file as output for the loader, as it helps to break down a large problem into a small
module that simplifies the programming task. Usually, computer programs are made up of
various modules in which all being a compiled computer programs and span separate object files.
The whole program refers to these different compiled modules with the help of using symbols.
These separate files are combined by linker into a single executable file. The source code is
converted into machine code, and the linking is performed at the last step while compiling the
program.
Source code -> compiler -> Assembler -> Object code -> Linker -> Executable file ->

Loader

The objects can be collected by linker from a library or runtime library. Most of the linker only
consists of files in the output that are referenced by other libraries or object files, and they do not
include the whole library. The process of library linking requires additional modules to be linked
with some referenced modules; thus, it may be an iterative process. Generally, one or more than
one system libraries are linked by default, and libraries are available for different purposes.
In the program's address space, the arranging of the objects is also handled by the linker. The
compiler often assumes a fixed base location (like zero), as it seldom knows about the object
location where it will reside. The loads, store, and re-targeting of absolute jumps may be
involved in the relocating machine code. When the executable output produced by the linker is
finally loaded into memory, it may require other relocation pass. Usually, this pass is omitted on
the hardware, hardware that offers virtual memory. There is no conflict even at the time all
programs load at the same base address because each program is put into its own address space.
If the executable file is a position-independent executable, this pass is also omitted on this file.

Introduction to Loader
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A loader is a major component of an operating system that ensures all necessary

programs and libraries are loaded, which is essential during the startup phase of
running a program. It places the libraries and programs into the main memory in
order to prepare them for execution. Loading involves reading the contents of the
executable file that contains the instructions of the program and then doing other
preparatory tasks that are required in order to prepare the executable for running,
all of which takes anywhere from a few seconds to minutes depending on the size
of the program that needs to run.

The following are the responsibilities of a loader:

• Validate the program for memory requirements, permissions, etc.
• Copy necessary files, such as the program image or required libraries,
from the disk into the memory
• Copy required command-line arguments into the stack
• Link the starting point of the program and link any other required
library
• Initialize the registers
• Jump to the program starting point in memory

Introduction to Assembler
The Assembler is a Software that converts an assembly language code to machine code.
It takes basic Computer commands and converts them into Binary Code that Computer’s
Processor can use to perform its Basic Operations. These instructions are assembler
language or assembly language.

We can also name an assembler as the compiler of assembly language. This is because a
compiler converts the high-level language to machine language. On the other hand, an
assembler is doing the same task but, for assembly language, the name compiler of
assembly language.

What is an Assembly Language?

An assembly language is a low-level language. It gives instructions to the processors for

different tasks. It is specific for any processor. The machine language only consists of 0s
and 1s therefore, it is difficult to write a program in it. On the other hand, the assembly
language is close to a machine language but has a simpler language and code.

We can create an assembly language code using a compiler or, a programmer can write it
directly. Mostly, programmers use high-level languages but, when more specific code is
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required, assembly language is used. It uses opcode for the instructions.

An opcode basically gives information about the particular instruction. The symbolic
representation of the opcode (machine level instruction) is called mnemonics.
Programmers use them to remember the operations in assembly language.

For example ADD A,B

Here, ADD is the mnemonic that tells the processor that it has to perform additional
function. Moreover, A and B are the operands. Also, SUB, MUL, DIVC, etc. are other
mnemonics.

Types of Assembler

Assemblers generate instruction. On the basis of a number of phases used to convert to

machine code, assemblers have two types:

1. One-Pass Assembler
These assemblers perform the whole conversion of assembly code to machine code in
one go.

2. Multi-Pass/Two-Pass Assembler
These assemblers first process the assembly code and store values in the opcode
table and symbol table. And then in the second step, they generate the machine code
using these tables.

a) Pass 1
• Symbol table and opcode tables are defined.
• keep the record of the location counter.

• Also, processes the pseudo instructions.

b) Pass 2
• Finally, converts the opcode into the corresponding numeric opcode.

• Generates machine code according to values of literals and symbols.

Some Important Terms
• Opcode table: They store the value of mnemonics and their corresponding
numeric values.
• Symbol table: They store the value of programming language symbols used
by the programmer, and their corresponding numeric values.
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• Location Counter: It stores the address of the location where the current
instruction will be stored.
Browse more Topics under System Software
• Operating system

• Compiler

• Interpreter
Differences Between Compiler and Assembler

Compiler Assembler

Compiler converts the high-level An assembler converts the assembly

language source code into machine level language code into the machine
level language code. level language code.

The input of a compiler is high-level Where as, its input is low level
language source code. assembly code.

Compiler converts the whole source Assembler does not convert the code
code to machine code at once. in one go.

It has the following phases: lexical

analysis, syntax analysis, semantic
An assembler completes the task in
analysis, intermediate code
two passes.
generation, code optimization, code
generation and error handling.

It produces a machine code in form of It produces binary code in form of 0s

mnemonics. and 1s.

Examples are Java, C, C++ etc. Examples of assemblers are GAS,

compilers. GNU etc.

Problem Analysis: Problem solving techniques

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1. Define the problem

Diagnose the situation so that your focus is on the problem, not just its symptoms.
Helpful problem-solving techniques include using flowcharts to identify the expected
steps of a process and cause and effect to define and analyze root causes.
The sections below help explain key problem-solving steps. These steps support the
involvement of interested parties, the use of factual information, comparison of
expectations to reality, and a focus on root causes of a problem. You should begin by:
• Reviewing and documenting how processes currently work (i.e., who does what,
with what information, using what tools, communicating with what organizations
and individuals, in what time frame, using what format).
• Evaluating the possible impact of new tools and revised policies in the
development of your "what should be" model.
2. Generate alternative solutions

Postpone the selection of one solution until several problem-solving alternatives have
been proposed. Considering multiple alternatives can significantly enhance the value of
your ideal solution. Once you have decided on the "what should be" model, this target
standard becomes the basis for developing a road map for investigating
alternatives. Brainstorming and team problem-solving techniques are both useful tools
in this stage of problem solving.
Many alternative solutions to the problem should be generated before final evaluation. A
common mistake in problem solving is that alternatives are evaluated as they are
proposed, so the first acceptable solution is chosen, even if it’s not the best fit. If we
focus on trying to get the results we want, we miss the potential for learning something
new that will allow for real improvement in the problem-solving process.
3. Evaluate and select an alternative

Skilled problem solvers use a series of considerations when selecting the best
alternative. They consider the extent to which:
• A particular alternative will solve the problem without causing other unanticipated
problems.
• All the individuals involved will accept the alternative.
• Implementation of the alternative is likely.
• The alternative fits within the organizational constraints.
4. Implement and follow up on the solution

Leaders may be called upon to direct others to implement the solution, "sell" the
solution, or facilitate the implementation with the help of others. Involving others in the
implementation is an effective way to gain buy-in and support and minimize resistance
to subsequent changes.
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Regardless of how the solution is rolled out, feedback channels should be built into the
implementation. This allows for continuous monitoring and testing of actual events
against expectations. Problem solving, and the techniques used to gain clarity, are most
effective if the solution remains in place and is updated to respond to future changes.

Algorithm and Flowchart Representation

The algorithm and flowchart are two types of tools to explain the process of a program.
In this page, we discuss the differences between an algorithm and a flowchart and how
to create a flowchart to illustrate the algorithm visually.
Algorithms and flowcharts are two different tools that are helpful for creating new
programs, especially in computer programming. An algorithm is a step-by-step analysis
of the process, while a flowchart explains the steps of a program in a graphical way.
Part 1: Definition of Algorithm
Writing a logical step-by-step method to solve the problem is called the algorithm. In
other words, an algorithm is a procedure for solving problems. In order to solve a
mathematical or computer problem, this is the first step in the process.
An algorithm includes calculations, reasoning, and data processing. Algorithms can be
presented by natural languages, pseudocode, and flowcharts, etc.
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Part 2: Definition of Flowchart

A flowchart is the graphical or pictorial representation of an algorithm with the help of
different symbols, shapes, and arrows to demonstrate a process or a program. With
algorithms, we can easily understand a program. The main purpose of using a flowchart
is to analyze different methods. Several standard symbols are applied in a flowchart:

Terminal Box - Start / End

Input / Output
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Process / Instruction

Decision

Connector / Arrow

The symbols above represent different parts of a flowchart. The process in a flowchart
can be expressed through boxes and arrows with different sizes and colors. In a
flowchart, we can easily highlight certain elements and the relationships between each
part.
Part 3: Difference between Algorithm and Flowchart
If you compare a flowchart to a movie, then an algorithm is the story of that movie. In
other words, an algorithm is the core of a flowchart. Actually, in the field of computer
programming, there are many differences between algorithm and flowchart regarding
various aspects, such as the accuracy, the way they display, and the way people feel
about them. Below is a table illustrating the differences between them in detail.
Algorithm Flowchart

It is a procedure for solving problems. It is a graphic representation of a process.

The process is shown in step-by-step The process is shown in block-by-block

instruction. information diagram.

It is complex and difficult to

It is intuitive and easy to understand.
understand.

It is convenient to debug errors. It is hard to debug errors.

The solution is showcased in natural

The solution is showcased in pictorial format.
language.
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It is somewhat easier to solve

It is hard to solve complex problem.
complex problem.

It costs more time to create an

It costs less time to create a flowchart.
algorithm.

Part 4: Types of Algorithm

It is not surprising that algorithms are widely used in computer programming. However,
it can be applied to solving mathematical problems and even in everyday life. Here
comes a question: how many types of algorithms? According to Dr. Christoph
Koutschan, a computer scientist working at the Research Institute for Symbolic
Computation (RISC) in Austria, he has surveyed voting for the important types of
algorithms. As a result, he has listed 32 crucial algorithms in computer science. Despite
the complexity of algorithms, we can generally divide algorithms into six fundamental
types based on their function.
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1. Recursive Algorithm
It refers to a way to solve problems by repeatedly breaking down the problem into sub-
problems of the same kind. The classic example of using a recursive algorithm to solve
problems is the Tower of Hanoi.
2. Divide and Conquer Algorithm
Traditionally, the divide and conquer algorithm consists of two parts: 1. breaking down a
problem into some smaller independent sub-problems of the same type; 2. finding the
final solution of the original issues after solving these more minor problems separately.
The key points of the divide and conquer algorithm are:
• If you can find the repeated sub-problems and the loop substructure of the
original problem, you may quickly turn the original problem into a small, simple
issue.
• Try to break down the whole solution into various steps (different steps need
different solutions) to make the process easier.
• Are sub-problems easy to solve? If not, the original problem may cost lots of
time.
3. Dynamic Programming Algorithm
Developed by Richard Bellman in the 1950s, the dynamic programming algorithm is
generally used for optimization problems. In this type of algorithm, past results are
collected for future use. Like the divide and conquer algorithm, a dynamic programming
algorithm simplifies a complex problem by breaking it down into some simple sub-
problems. However, the most significant difference between them is that the latter
requires overlapping sub-problems, while the former doesn’t need to.
4. Greedy Algorithm
This is another way of solving optimization problems – greedy algorithm. It refers to
always finding the best solution in every step instead of considering the overall
optimality. That is to say, what he has done is just at a local optimum. Due to the
limitations of the greedy algorithm, it has to be noted that the key to choosing a greedy
algorithm is whether to consider any consequences in the future.
5. Brute Force Algorithm
The brute force algorithm is a simple and straightforward solution to the problem,
generally based on the description of the problem and the definition of the concept
involved. You can also use "just do it!" to describe the strategy of brute force. In short, a
brute force algorithm is considered as one of the simplest algorithms, which iterates all
possibilities and ends up with a satisfactory solution.
6. Backtracking Algorithm
Based on a depth-first recursive search, the backtracking algorithm focusing on finding
the solution to the problem during the enumeration-like searching process. When it
cannot satisfy the condition, it will return “backtracking” and tries another path. It is
suitable for solving large and complicated problems, which gains the reputation of the
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“general solution method.” One of the most famous backtracking algorithm example it
the eight queens puzzle.
Part 5: Use Flowcharts to Represent Algorithms
Now that we have learned the definitions of algorithm and flowchart, how can we use a
flowchart to represent an algorithm? To create an algorithm flowchart, we need to use a
handy diagramming tool like EdrawMax to finish the work.
Algorithms are mainly used for mathematical and computer programs, whilst flowcharts
can be used to describe all sorts of processes: business, educational, personal, and
algorithms. So flowcharts are often used as a program planning tool to organize the
program's step-by-step process visually. Here are some examples:
Example 1: Print 1 to 20:
Algorithm:
• Step 1: Initialize X as 0,
• Step 2: Increment X by 1,
• Step 3: Print X,
• Step 4: If X is less than 20 then go back to step 2.
Flowchart:
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Example 2: Convert Temperature from Fahrenheit (℉) to Celsius (℃)

Algorithm:
• Step 1: Read temperature in Fahrenheit,
• Step 2: Calculate temperature with formula C=5/9*(F-32),
• Step 3: Print C.
Flowchart:
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Example 3: Determine Whether A Student Passed the Exam or Not:

Algorithm:
• Step 1: Input grades of 4 courses M1, M2, M3 and M4,
• Step 2: Calculate the average grade with formula "Grade=(M1+M2+M3+M4)/4"
• Step 3: If the average grade is less than 60, print "FAIL", else print "PASS".

Flowchart:
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Part 6: Conclusion
From the above, we can come to the conclusion that a flowchart is a pictorial
representation of an algorithm, an algorithm can be expressed and analyzed through a
flowchart. An algorithm shows you every step of reaching the final solution, while a
flowchart shows you how to carry out the process by connecting each step. An
algorithm uses mainly words to describe the steps while you can create a flowchart with
flowchart symbols to make the process more logical.
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Unit-2
Overview of C
# Elements of c language

Before going in-depth, we need to understand the basic elements of the C language. It
is very necessary to know these elements because it helps you to write C Program. In
the below list, I have listed some important elements of the C language.

• Preprocessor directives.
• Functions.
• Variables.
• Statements.
• Comments.

Preprocessor directives:
A pre-processor directive begins with a special character # (pound ). When you compile
the code, then before compilation, directives tell the preprocessor to perform specific
actions. These actions can be like replacing tokens in the text (using the macro), insert
the contents of other files into the source file (Using file inclusion like #include <stdio.h>
), or perform conditional Compilation (using #if, #else, #endif ..etc ).

Function
A function is a collection of statements that perform a task, as the addition of two
numbers. In other languages, a function is called procedure or subroutine. In C
language there should be at least one function, this mandatory function is the main()
function. The main() function is an entry point for c language that means it executes
first.
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Variables:
A variable defines a location name where we can put value and we can use these
values whenever required in the program. In other words, we can say that variable is a
name (or identifier) that indicates some physical address in the memory, where data will
be stored. The value of a variable can be changed at different times of execution and it
may be chosen by the programmer in a meaningful way.

Syntax of variable,

Data_Type Variable_Name;

E.g.,
Data_Type V1, V2, V3; V1 V2, and V3 are three variables of the same data type.

In the above example, the Data type should be valid. It can be int, char, float, etc, or any
user-defined data type like structure, union, or enum, etc.

Note: Variable names should be unique in the same scope otherwise you will get a
compiler error.

Statements:
A statement is a command given to the computer that instructs the computer to take a
specific action, like display a message on the console, performing the mathematical
operation, and so on. In the C program is the collection of statements and each
statement must be terminated with a semicolon(;).

There is a lot of type of statements available in C language these are,

• Labeled Statements (switch and case)

• Expression Statements ( optional statement like printf (“welcome”); )
• Compound Statements (function)
• Selection Statements (if,else, ..etc)
• Iteration Statements (for,while, ..etc)
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• Jump Statements (goto, ..etc) .

Comment:
Good comments increase the readability of the code. Every module should have good
commenting, it helps the developer who comes on the project after you and it also helps
to maintain the codebase.

One thing you should remember, if you are commenting on the code which has multiple
lines then you should use the preprocessors conditional compilation feature (for
example, #if 0 … #endif), it increases the code clarity.

See the below code,

//First way: Don't do this

/*

//bit reversal function

unsigned int ReverseTheBits(register unsigned int x)

x = (((x & 0xaaaaaaaa) >> 1) | ((x & 0x55555555) << 1));

x = (((x & 0xcccccccc) >> 2) | ((x & 0x33333333) << 2));

x = (((x & 0xf0f0f0f0) >> 4) | ((x & 0x0f0f0f0f) << 4));

x = (((x & 0xff00ff00) >> 8) | ((x & 0x00ff00ff) << 8));

return((x >> 16) | (x << 16));

*/

//Second way: Do this

#if 0

//bit reversal function

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unsigned int ReverseTheBits(register unsigned int x)

x = (((x & 0xaaaaaaaa) >> 1) | ((x & 0x55555555) << 1));

x = (((x & 0xcccccccc) >> 2) | ((x & 0x33333333) << 2));

x = (((x & 0xf0f0f0f0) >> 4) | ((x & 0x0f0f0f0f) << 4));

x = (((x & 0xff00ff00) >> 8) | ((x & 0x00ff00ff) << 8));

return((x >> 16) | (x << 16));

#endif

# Data Types

Just like the name suggests, here, data types refer to the type of data that we are using
in a C program. Whenever we utilise a data type in a C program, we define the
variables or functions used in it. We do so because we must specify the type of data
that is in use, so that the compiler knows exactly what type of data it must expect from
the given program.

Purpose of Data Types in C

Data types used in C language refer to an extensive system that we use to declare
various types of functions or variables in a program. Here, on the basis of the type of
variable present in a program, we determine the space that it occupies in storage, along
with the way in which the stored bit pattern will be interpreted.
A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,
character, etc.

Example of Data Types in C

Let us take a look at an example to understand data types better.
For instance, we may want to utilise some numbers such as 5, 8, 600, or maybe a
decimal point number such as 43.59, 127.368, 271.49, or maybe a text such as
“cappuccino”. Then, the compiler used in C language would handle all of these very
differently. Thus, here, we use different data types for defining what data types we want
in the program.
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Types of Data Types in C

Here are the five major categories into which data types are divided in C language:
Data Type Example of Data Type

Basic Data Type Floating-point, integer, double, character.

Derived Data Type Union, structure, array, etc.

Enumeration Enums
Void Data Type Empty Value

Bool Type True or False

The basic data types are also known as the primary data types in C programming.

Primary Data Types in C

Here are the five primitive or primary data types that one can find in C programming
language:
1. Integer – We use these for storing various whole numbers, such as 5, 8, 67, 2390,
etc.
2. Character – It refers to all ASCII character sets as well as the single alphabets, such
as ‘x’, ‘Y’, etc.
3. Double – These include all large types of numeric values that do not come under
either floating-point data type or integer data type.
4. Floating-point – These refer to all the real number values or decimal points, such as
40.1, 820.673, 5.9, etc.
5. Void – This term refers to no values at all. We mostly use this data type when
defining the functions in a program.
Various keywords are used in a program for specifying the data types mentioned above.
Here are the keywords that we use:
Keyword Used Data Type
int Integer
float Floating-point
void Void
char Character
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double Double

Storage Classes in C
Storage classes in C are used to determine the lifetime, visibility, memory location, and
initial value of a variable. There are four types of storage classes in C
• Automatic

• External

• Static

• Register

Storage Storage Default Scope Lifetime

Classes Place Value
auto RAM Garbage Local Within function
Value

extern RAM Zero Global Till the end of the main program
Maybe declared anywhere in the
program

static RAM Zero Local Till the end of the main program,
Retains value between multiple
functions call

register Register Garbage Local Within the function

Value

Automatic
• Automatic variables are allocated memory automatically at runtime.
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• The visibility of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are defined.

The scope of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are defined.

• The automatic variables are initialized to garbage by default.

• The memory assigned to automatic variables gets freed upon exiting from the block.

• The keyword used for defining automatic variables is auto.

• Every local variable is automatic in C by default.

Example 1
• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• int a; //auto

• char b;
• float c;

• printf("%d %c %f",a,b,c); // printing initial default value of automatic variables a, b

, and c.
• return 0;

• }

Output:
garbage garbage garbage
Example 2
• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• int a = 10,i;

• printf("%d ",++a);
• {

• int a = 20;
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• for (i=0;i<3;i++)

• {
• printf("%d ",a); // 20 will be printed 3 times since it is the local value of a

• }
• }

• printf("%d ",a); // 11 will be printed since the scope of a = 20 is ended.

• }

Output:
11 20 20 20 11

Static
• The variables defined as static specifier can hold their value between the multiple function

calls.

• Static local variables are visible only to the function or the block in which they are defined.

• A same static variable can be declared many times but can be assigned at only one time.

• Default initial value of the static integral variable is 0 otherwise null.

• The visibility of the static global variable is limited to the file in which it has declared.

• The keyword used to define static variable is static.

Example 1
• #include<stdio.h>
• static char c;

• static int i;
• static float f;

• static char s[100];

• void main ()

• {
• printf("%d %d %f %s",c,i,f); // the initial default value of c, i, and f will be printed.
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• }

Output;
0 0 0.000000 (null)
Example 2
• #include<stdio.h>
• void sum()

• {
• static int a = 10;

• static int b = 24;

• printf("%d %d \n",a,b);

• a++;
• b++;

• }
• void main()

• {
• int i;

• for(i = 0; i< 3; i++)

• {

• sum(); // The static variables holds their value between multiple function calls.
• }

• }

Output:
10 24
11 25
12 26

Register
• The variables defined as the register is allocated the memory into the CPU registers

depending upon the size of the memory remaining in the CPU.

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• We can not dereference the register variables, i.e., we can not use &operator for the

register variable.

• The access time of the register variables is faster than the automatic variables.

• The initial default value of the register local variables is 0.

• The register keyword is used for the variable which should be stored in the CPU register.

However, it is compiler?s choice whether or not; the variables can be stored in the register.

• We can store pointers into the register, i.e., a register can store the address of a variable.

• Static variables can not be stored into the register since we can not use more than one

storage specifier for the same variable.

Example 1
• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• register int a; // variable a is allocated memory in the CPU register. The initial default val

ue of a is 0.

• printf("%d",a);
• }

Output:
0
Example 2
• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• register int a = 0;
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• printf("%u",&a); // This will give a compile time error since we can not access the

address of a register variable.

• }

Output:
main.c:5:5: error: address of register variable ?a? requested
printf("%u",&a);
^~~~~~

External
• The external storage class is used to tell the compiler that the variable defined as extern is

declared with an external linkage elsewhere in the program.

• The variables declared as extern are not allocated any memory. It is only declaration and

intended to specify that the variable is declared elsewhere in the program.

• The default initial value of external integral type is 0 otherwise null.

• We can only initialize the extern variable globally, i.e., we can not initialize the external

variable within any block or method.

• An external variable can be declared many times but can be initialized at only once.

• If a variable is declared as external then the compiler searches for that variable to be

initialized somewhere in the program which may be extern or static. If it is not, then the

compiler will show an error.

Example 1
• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• extern int a;

• printf("%d",a);
• }

Output
main.c:(.text+0x6): undefined reference to `a'
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collect2: error: ld returned 1 exit status

Example 2
• #include <stdio.h>
• int a;

• int main()
• {

• extern int a; // variable a is defined globally, the memory will not be allocated to

a
• printf("%d",a);

• }

Output
0
Example 3
• #include <stdio.h>

• int a;

• int main()
• {

• extern int a = 0; // this will show a compiler error since we can not use extern an

d initializer at same time

• printf("%d",a);

• }

Output
compile time error
main.c: In function ?main?:
main.c:5:16: error: ?a? has both ?extern? and initializer
extern int a = 0;
Example 4
• #include <stdio.h>

• int main()

• {
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• extern int a; // Compiler will search here for a variable a defined and initialized somewh

ere in the pogram or not.

• printf("%d",a);
• }

• int a = 20;

Output
20
Example 5
• extern int a;
• int a = 10;

• #include <stdio.h>
• int main()

• {
• printf("%d",a);

• }
• int a = 20; // compiler will show an error at this line

Output
compile time error

C Operators
An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many
types of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise, etc.
There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C
language.
• Arithmetic Operators

• Relational Operators

• Shift Operators
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• Logical Operators

• Bitwise Operators

• Ternary or Conditional Operators

• Assignment Operator

• Misc Operator

Precedence of Operators in C
The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first and next.
The associativity specifies the operator direction to be evaluated; it may be left to right or
right to left.
Let's understand the precedence by the example given below:

• int value=10+20*10;

The value variable will contain 210 because * (multiplicative operator) is evaluated before
+ (additive operator).
The precedence and associativity of C operators is given below:
Category Operator Associativity
Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

 Topperworld.in

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Precedence and Associativity of Operators in C

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression and decides how
an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for
example, the multiplication operator has a higher precedence than the addition operator.
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has a higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the
lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be
evaluated first.
Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

 Topperworld.in

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Example Code
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a = 20;
int b = 10;
int c = 15;
int d = 5;
int e;
e = (a + b) * c / d; // ( 30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of (a + b) * c / d is : %d\n", e );
e = ((a + b) * c) / d; // (30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
e = (a + b) * (c / d); // (30) * (15/5)
printf("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : %d\n", e );
e = a + (b * c) / d; // 20 + (150/5)
printf("Value of a + (b * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
return 0;
}

Output
Value of (a + b) * c / d is : 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : 90
 Topperworld.in

Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : 90

Value of a + (b * c) / d is : 50

Formatted and Unformatted Input/Output Function in

C
Nikhilesh GuptaOctober 14, 2019

There are two types of Input/Output function in C, which have some advantages as well as some
disadvantages over each other. Each of them is used for a specific work to do.

Formatted Function

One type of Input/Output function is Formatted function in which input/output is formatted as per
our requirements.
There are two types of Formatted Functions:

• printf( )
In a C program we use "printf( )" to print “character, string, float, integer, octal and
hexadecimal values” in the output screen. In printf( ) the format specifier will help the
compiler to know whether the output value is int, float or of some other datatype. Also we
can print anything we desire to print by putting that value under double coats ( " " ).

Syntax:
⧫ printf("Format Specifier", arg 1, arg 2, arg 3, ........ arg n);
The above syntax is used when you want to print some value.
 Topperworld.in

Example 1

OR
⧫ printf("Enter the text you want to print");
The above syntax is used when you want to print a text directly.

Example 2

• scanf( )
In a C program we use "scanf( )" to get the values as input to the program of different
datatypes like int, float, double and many more. We use format specifier to differentiate
the datatypes as Inputs.

Syntax:
⧫ scanf("Format Specifier", arg 1, arg 2, arg 3, ...... arg n);
In scanf( ) you have to determine the type data you want to enter.
 Topperworld.in

Example 3
In scanf( ) we have to use '&' otherwise it will show you error.

Unformatted Function

Other type of Input/Output function is Unformatted function. This type of Input/Output function
doesn't require any format specifier.

There are three types of Unformatted I/O functions:

🔺 Character I/O
In this I/O function it doesn't require any datatype because it will only work with CHAR DATATYPE.

• getchar( ):
This function can read one character at one time until and unless the user presses the
"Enter Key". It can only store or take CHAR type input from the user.

Syntax: Variable_Name = getchar( );

 Topperworld.in

Example 4

• putchar( ):
This the function use to print one character in the screen at a time.

Syntax: putchar( variable name );

Example 5

• getch( ) & getche( ):

These function read any alphanumeric character from the standard input device. The
character entered is not displayed by the getch( ) function until the enter is pressed.

Syntax: getch( ); getche( );

 Topperworld.in

Example 6

• putch( ):
This function can print any alphanumeric character given by the user.

Syntax: putch( variable name );

Example 7

🔺 String I/O
In this I/O function we take "String" as the input and also print "String" as output.

• gets( ):
This function is used to take "String" as input until and unless the enter key is pressed.

Syntax: char str[length of the string in number];

gets(str);
 Topperworld.in

Example 8

• puts( ):
This function is used to print the string which has been stored in the program.

Syntax: char str[length of str in number]; gets(str); puts(str);

Example 9

🔺 File I/O

A file represents the sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data is stored. File is
created for permanent storage of DATA. It is ready made structure.
 Topperworld.in

Some I/O Function

Control Statements in C:
Control Statements in C are used to execute/transfer the control from one part of the
program to another depending on a condition. These statements are also called as
conditional statements.
Types of Control Statements in C:
In C Programming, There are mainly two types of Control Statements:
1. if-else statement
2. switch statement
 Topperworld.in

if-else statement:
if-else statement is used to execute a statement block or a single statement depending
on the value of a condition. It has the following syntax :
• if(condition)
• {
• ---------
• <true block>
• ---------
• }
• else
• {
• ---------
• <false block>
• ---------
• } // where <condition> is a logical expression which will have the value
<strong>true</strong> or <strong>false .</strong>
 Topperworld.in

Nested if-else Statement:

An if statement may have another if statement in the < true block > and < false block >.
It is the nesting of if statement within another if statement and nesting of if statement
with an else statement. This compound statement is called Nested if-else statement.
• if(condition 1)
• if(condition 2)
• {
• ---------
• <true block 1>
• ---------
• }
• else
• {
• ---------
• <false block 1>
• ---------
• }
• else
• if(condition 3)
• {
• ---------
• <true block 2>
• ---------
• }
• else
• {
• ---------
• <false block 2>
• ---------
• }

Switch statement:
switch statement is used to execute a block of statements depending on the value of a
variable or an expression. It has the following syntax :
• switch (<expression>)
• {
• case <label 1>: {
• ----------
• <statement 1>
 Topperworld.in

• ----------
• break;
• }
• case <label 2>: {
• ----------
• <statement 2>
• ----------
• break;
• }
• case <label 3>: {
• ----------
• <statement 3>
• ----------
• break;
• }
• case <label n>: {
• ----------
• <statement n>
• ----------
• break;
• }
• default: {
• ----------
• <default statement>
• ----------
• break;
• }
• } // where <expression> refers any int or char expression or variable. <label 1>, <label 2>,
<label 3>, <label n> are the values which will match with the value of the expression.
• the break is a statement that will transfer the control to the end of a switch statement

Loop Statements in C are used to execute and repeat a block of statements depending
on the value of a condition. There are three types of Loop Control Statements in C
language:
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do-while loop
 Topperworld.in

for loop:
The for loop is entry-controlled loop that provides a more concise loop control structure.
A for loop is used to execute and repeat a block of statements depending on a
condition. It has the following syntax:
• for(<initial value>;<condition>;<increment>)
• {
• ----------
• <statement block>
• ----------
• }

Nested for loop:

This statement block of a for loop lies completely inside the block of another for loop
that is called Nested for loop or Nested for Statement.
• for(i=1;i<=3;i++) // outer loop
• {
• --------
 Topperworld.in

• for(j=1;j<=5;j++) // inner loop

• {
• --------
• <statement block>
• --------
• }
• }

while loop:
It is also an entry-controlled loop statement. A while loop is used to execute and repeat
a block of statements depending on a condition. It has the following syntax:
• while(<condition>)
• {
• --------
• <statement block>
• --------
• } // where <condition> is a relational or logical expression which will have the value true or
false.

do-while:
A do-while loop is an exit-controlled loop statement. It is used to execute and repeat a
block of statements depending on a condition. It has the following syntax :
• do
• {
• --------
• <statement block>
• --------
• }
• while(<condition>) // where <condition> is a relational or logical expression which will have
the value true or false.

We can Comparison Between for loop while loop and do-while loop is given below:

for loop vs while loop vs do-while loop:

for loop while loop do-while loop
 Topperworld.in

1. A for loop is used to 1. A while loop is used to 1. A do-while loop is used

execute and repeat a execute and repeat a to execute and repeat a
statement block statement block depending statement block depending
depending on a condition on a condition which is on a condition which is
which is evaluated at the evaluated at the beginning evaluated at the end of the
beginning of the loop. of the loop. loop.

2. A variable value is 2. A variable value is 2. A variable value is

initialized at the beginning initialized at the beginning initialized before the loop
of the loop. or before of the loop. or assigned inside the
loop.

3. The statement block will 3. The statement block will 3. The statement block will
not be executed when the not be executed when the not be executed when the
value of the condition is value of the condition is value of the condition is
false. false. false, but the block is
executed at least once
irrespective of the value of
the condition.

4. A statement to change 4. A statement to change 4. A statement to change

the value of the condition the value of the condition the value of the condition
or to increment the value or to increment the value or to increment the value
of the variable is given at of the variable is given of the variable is given
the beginning of the loop. inside of the loop. inside of the loop.

5. A for loop is commonly 5. A while loop is widely 5. A do-while loop is used

used by many used by many in some cases where the
programmers. programmers. condition need to be
checked at the end of the
loop.
 Topperworld.in

Unconditional Control Transfer Statements is used to transfer the control to some other
place in the program. In C Programming Language, There are four types of
unconditional control transfer statements.
1. goto
2. break
3. continue
4. return

goto statement:
The goto statement is used to transfer the control from one part of the program to
another. It has the following syntax :
• -----------
• goto display;
• -----------
• -----------
• display;
• -----------

when this statement is executed, the control is transferred to the statement lebel display which
is followed by a colon.

break statement:
The break statement is used to transfer the control to the end of a statement block in a
loop. It is an unavoidable statement to transfer the control to the end of a switch
statement after executing anyone statement block. It has the following syntax :
break;

continue statement:
The continue statement is used to transfer the control to the beginning of a statement
block in a loop. It has the following syntax:
continue;

return statement:
The return statement terminates the execution of a function, it returns control to
the calling function. It resumes the execution in the calling function immediately.
It has the following syntax:
• jump instruction or statement:
• return expression;
 Topperworld.in

Unit-3
Arrays
An array is defined as the collection of similar type of data items stored at contiguous
memory locations. Arrays are the derived data type in C programming language which
can store the primitive type of data such as int, char, double, float, etc. It also has the
capability to store the collection of derived data types, such as pointers, structure, etc. The
array is the simplest data structure where each data element can be randomly accessed
by using its index number.
C array is beneficial if you have to store similar elements. For example, if we want to store
the marks of a student in 6 subjects, then we don't need to define different variables for
the marks in the different subject. Instead of that, we can define an array which can store
the marks in each subject at the contiguous memory locations.
By using the array, we can access the elements easily. Only a few lines of code are required
to access the elements of the array.
Properties of Array
The array contains the following properties.
• Each element of an array is of same data type and carries the same size, i.e., int =

4 bytes.

• Elements of the array are stored at contiguous memory locations where the first element

is stored at the smallest memory location.

• Elements of the array can be randomly accessed since we can calculate the address of each

element of the array with the given base address and the size of the data element.

Advantage of C Array
1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.
2) Ease of traversing: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an array
easily.
3) Ease of sorting: To sort the elements of the array, we need a few lines of code only.
4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.
 Topperworld.in

Disadvantage of C Array
1) Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of the array, we can't
exceed the limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically like LinkedList which we will learn
later.

Declaration of C Array
We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.
• data_type array_name[array_size];

Now, let us see the example to declare the array.

• int marks[5];

Here, int is the data_type, marks are the array_name, and 5 is the array_size.

Initialization of C Array
The simplest way to initialize an array is by using the index of each element. We can
initialize each element of the array by using the index. Consider the following example.
• marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
• marks[1]=60;

• marks[2]=70;
• marks[3]=85;

• marks[4]=75;

C array example
• #include<stdio.h>
• int main(){
 Topperworld.in

• int i=0;
• int marks[5];//declaration of array

• marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
• marks[1]=60;

• marks[2]=70;
• marks[3]=85;

• marks[4]=75;
• //traversal of array

• for(i=0;i<5;i++){
• printf("%d \n",marks[i]);

• }//end of for loop

• return 0;

• }

Output
80
60
70
85
75

C Array: Declaration with Initialization

We can initialize the c array at the time of declaration. Let's see the code.
• int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};

In such case, there is no requirement to define the size. So it may also be written as the
following code.
• int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};

• Let's see the C program to declare and initialize the array in C.

• #include<stdio.h>
• int main(){

• int i=0;
 Topperworld.in

• int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array

• //traversal of array
• for(i=0;i<5;i++){

• printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
• }

• return 0;
• }

Output
20
30
40
50
60

C Array Example: Sorting an array

In the following program, we are using bubble sort method to sort the array in ascending
order.
• #include<stdio.h>
• void main ()

• {
• int i, j,temp;

• int a[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
• for(i = 0; i<10; i++)

• {

• for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)

• {
• if(a[j] > a[i])

• {
• temp = a[i];

• a[i] = a[j];
• a[j] = temp;
 Topperworld.in

• }
• }

• }
• printf("Printing Sorted Element List ...\n");

• for(i = 0; i<10; i++)

• {

• printf("%d\n",a[i]);
• }

• }

Program to print the largest and second largest element of the

array.
• #include<stdio.h>
• void main ()

• {
• int arr[100],i,n,largest,sec_largest;

• printf("Enter the size of the array?");

• scanf("%d",&n);

• printf("Enter the elements of the array?");

• for(i = 0; i<n; i++)

• {
• scanf("%d",&arr[i]);

• }
• largest = arr[0];

• sec_largest = arr[1];
• for(i=0;i<n;i++)

• {
• if(arr[i]>largest)
 Topperworld.in

• {
• sec_largest = largest;

• largest = arr[i];
• }

• else if (arr[i]>sec_largest && arr[i]!=largest)

• {

• sec_largest=arr[i];
• }

• }
• printf("largest = %d, second largest = %d",largest,sec_largest);

• }

Two Dimensional Array in C

The two-dimensional array can be defined as an array of arrays. The 2D array is organized
as matrices which can be represented as the collection of rows and columns. However, 2D
arrays are created to implement a relational database lookalike data structure. It provides
ease of holding the bulk of data at once which can be passed to any number of functions
wherever required.

Declaration of two dimensional Array in C

The syntax to declare the 2D array is given below.
• data_type array_name[rows][columns];

Consider the following example.

• int twodimen[4][3];

Here, 4 is the number of rows, and 3 is the number of columns.

 Topperworld.in

Initialization of 2D Array in C
In the 1D array, we don't need to specify the size of the array if the declaration and
initialization are being done simultaneously. However, this will not work with 2D arrays.
We will have to define at least the second dimension of the array. The two-dimensional
array can be declared and defined in the following way.
• int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

Two-dimensional array example in C

• #include<stdio.h>
• int main(){

• int i=0,j=0;
• int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

• //traversing 2D array
• for(i=0;i<4;i++){

• for(j=0;j<3;j++){
• printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);

• }//end of j
• }//end of i

• return 0;
• }

Output
arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6
 Topperworld.in

C 2D array example: Storing elements in a matrix and printing

it.
• #include <stdio.h>
• void main ()

• {
• int arr[3][3],i,j;

• for (i=0;i<3;i++)
• {

• for (j=0;j<3;j++)
• {

• printf("Enter a[%d][%d]: ",i,j);

• scanf("%d",&arr[i][j]);

• }
• }

• printf("\n printing the elements .....\n");

• for(i=0;i<3;i++)

• {
• printf("\n");

• for (j=0;j<3;j++)
• {

• printf("%d\t",arr[i][j]);

• }

• }
• }

Output
Enter a[0][0]: 56
Enter a[0][1]: 10
Enter a[0][2]: 30
Enter a[1][0]: 34
 Topperworld.in

Enter a[1][1]: 21
Enter a[1][2]: 34

Enter a[2][0]: 45
Enter a[2][1]: 56
Enter a[2][2]: 78

printing the elements ....

56 10 30
34 21 34
45 56 78

String Holder
A string is a 1-D array of characters, so an array of strings is a 2-D array of characters.
Just like we can create a 2-D array of int, float etc; we can also create a 2-D array of
character or array of strings. Here is how we can declare a 2-D array of characters.
char ch_arr[3][10] = {
{'s', 'p', 'i', 'k', 'e',
1
'\0'},
2
{'t', 'o', 'm','\0'},
3
{'j', 'e', 'r', 'r',
4
'y','\0'}
5
};

It is important to end each 1-D array by the null character, otherwise, it will be just an
array of characters. We can't use them as strings.

Declaring an array of strings this way is rather tedious, that's why C provides an
alternative syntax to achieve the same thing. This above initialization is equivalent to:

char ch_arr[3][10] = {
1
"spike",
2
"tom",
3
"jerry"
4
};
5

The first subscript of the array i.e 3 denotes the number of strings in the array and the
second subscript denotes the maximum length of the string. Recall the that in C, each
character occupies 1 byte of data, so when the compiler sees the above statement it
allocates 30 bytes (3*10) of memory.

We already know that the name of an array is a pointer to the 0th element of the array.
Can you guess the type of ch_arr?
 Topperworld.in

The ch_arr is a pointer to an array of 10 characters or int(*)[10].

Therefore, if ch_arr points to address 1000 then ch_arr + 1 will point to address 1010.

From this, we can conclude that:

ch_arr + 0 points to the 0th string or 0th 1-D array.

ch_arr + 1 points to the 1st string or 1st 1-D array.
ch_arr + 2 points to the 2nd string or 2nd 1-D array.

In general, ch_arr + i points to the ith string or ith 1-D array.

We know that when we dereference a pointer to an array, we get the base address of
the array. So, on dereferencing ch_arr + i we get the base address of the 0th 1-D
array.

From this we can conclude that:

 Topperworld.in

*(ch_arr + 0) + 0 points to the 0th character of 0th 1-D array (i.e s)

*(ch_arr + 0) + 1 points to the 1st character of 0th 1-D array (i.e p)
*(ch_arr + 1) + 2 points to the 2nd character of 1st 1-D array (i.e m)

In general, we can say that: *(ch_arr + i) + j points to the jth character of ith 1-D
array.

Note that the base type of *(ch_arr + i) + j is a pointer to char or (char*), while the
base type of ch_arr + i is array of 10 characters or int(*)[10].

To get the element at jth position of ith 1-D array just dereference the whole
expression*(ch_arr + i) + j.

*(*(ch_arr + i) + j)

We have learned in chapter Pointers and 2-D arrays that in a 2-D array the pointer
notation is equivalent to subscript notation. So the above expression can be written as
follows:
ch_arr[i][j]
The following program demonstrates how to print an array of strings.

#include<stdio.h>
1
2
int main()
3
{
4
int i;
5
6
char ch_arr[3][10] = {
7
"spike",
8
"tom",
9
"jerry"
10
};
11
12
printf("1st way \n\n");
13
14 for(i = 0; i < 3; i++)
15
{
16
printf("string = %s \t address = %u\n", ch_arr + i, ch_arr + i);
17
}
18
19
// signal to operating system program ran fine
20
return 0;
21
}
22
Expected Output:

1 string = spike address = 2686736

 Topperworld.in

2 string = tom address = 2686746

3 string = jerry address = 2686756

Some invalid operation on an Array of

string
char ch_arr[3][10] = {
{'s', 'p', 'i', 'k', 'e',
1
'\0'},
2
{'t', 'o', 'm','\0'},
3
{'j', 'e', 'r', 'r',
4
'y','\0'}
5
};

It allocates 30 bytes of memory. The compiler will do the same thing even if we don't
initialize the elements of the array at the time of declaration.

We already know that the name of an array is a constant pointer so the following
operations are invalid.

ch_arr[0] = "tyke"; // invalid

1
ch_arr[1] = "dragon"; // invalid
2
Here we are trying to assign a string literal (a pointer) to a constant pointer which is
obviously not possible.

To assign a new string to ch_arr use the following methods.

strcpy(ch_arr[0], "type"); // valid

1
scanf(ch_arr[0], "type"); // valid
2
Let's conclude this chapter by creating another simple program.

This program asks the user to enter a username. If the username entered is one of the
names in the master list then the user is allowed to calculate the factorial of a number.
Otherwise, an error message is displayed.

1 #include<stdio.h>
2 #include<string.h>
3 int factorial(int );
4
5 int main()
 Topperworld.in

6{
7 int i, found = 0, n;
8
9 char master_list[5][20] = {
10 "admin",
11 "tom",
12 "bob",
13 "tim",
14 "jim"
15 }, name[10];
16
17 printf("Enter username: ");
18 gets(name);
19
20 for(i = 0; i < 5; i++)
21 {
22 if(strcmp(name, master_list[i]) == 0 )
23 {
24 found = 1;
25 break;
26 }
27 }
28
29 if(found==1)
30 {
31 printf("\nWelcome %s !\n", name);
32 printf("\nEnter a number to calculate the factorial: ");
33 scanf("%d", &n);
34 printf("Factorial of %d is %d", n, factorial(n));
35 }
36
37 else
38 {
39 printf("Error: You are not allowed to run this program.", name);
40 }
41
42 // signal to operating system program ran fine
43 return 0;
44}
45
46int factorial(int n)
47{
48 if(n == 0)
49 {
50 return 1;
51 }
52
53 else
54 {
55 return n * factorial(n-1);
56 }
57}
 Topperworld.in

Expected Output: 1st run:

Enter username: admin

1
2
Welcome admin !
3
4
Enter a number to calculate the factorial: 4
5
Factorial of 4 is 24
6
2nd run:

Enter username: jack

1
Error: You are not allowed to run this program.
2

How it works:

The program asks the user to enter a name. After the name is entered it compares the
entered name with the names in the master_list array using strcmp() function. If
match is found then strcmp() returns 0 and the if condition strcmp(name,
master_list[i]) == 0 condition becomes true. The variable found is assigned a value
of 1, which means that the user is allowed to access the program. The program asks the
user to enter a number and displays the factorial of a number.

If the name entered is not one of the names in the master_list array then the program
exits by displaying an error message.

Functions
In c, we can divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function. The
function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be
called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the C program. In other
words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function is also
known as procedureor subroutinein other programming languages.

Advantage of functions in C
There are the following advantages of C functions.
• By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
 Topperworld.in

• We can call C functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a

program.

• We can track a large C program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.

• Reusability is the main achievement of C functions.

• However, Function calling is always a overhead in a C program.

Function Aspects
There are three aspects of a C function.
• Function declaration A function must be declared globally in a c program to tell the

compiler about the function name, function parameters, and return type.

• Function call Function can be called from anywhere in the program. The parameter list

must not differ in function calling and function declaration. We must pass the same

number of functions as it is declared in the function declaration.

• Function definition It contains the actual statements which are to be executed. It is the

most important aspect to which the control comes when the function is called. Here, we

must notice that only one value can be returned from the function.

SN C function aspects Syntax

1 Function declaration return_type function_name (argument list);

2 Function call function_name (argument_list)

3 Function definition return_type function_name (argument list) {function body;}

The syntax of creating function in c language is given below

• return_type function_name(data_type parameter...){
• //code to be executed
 Topperworld.in

• }

Types of Functions
There are two types of functions in C programming:
• Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C header files such as

scanf(), printf(), gets(), puts(), ceil(), floor() etc.

• User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C programmer, so

that he/she can use it many times. It reduces the complexity of a big program and

optimizes the code.

Return Value
A C function may or may not return a value from the function. If you don't have to return
any value from the function, use void for the return type.
Let's see a simple example of C function that doesn't return any value from the function.
Example without return value:
• void hello(){
• printf("hello c");
 Topperworld.in

• }

If you want to return any value from the function, you need to use any data type such as
int, long, char, etc. The return type depends on the value to be returned from the function.
Let's see a simple example of C function that returns int value from the function.
Example with return value:
• int get(){

• return 10;

• }

In the above example, we have to return 10 as a value, so the return type is int. If you want
to return floating-point value (e.g., 10.2, 3.1, 54.5, etc), you need to use float as the return
type of the method.
• float get(){
• return 10.2;

• }

Now, you need to call the function, to get the value of the function.

Different aspects of function calling

A function may or may not accept any argument. It may or may not return any value.
Based on these facts, There are four different aspects of function calls.
• function without arguments and without return value

• function without arguments and with return value

• function with arguments and without return value

• function with arguments and with return value

Example for Function without argument and return value

Example 1
• #include<stdio.h>
• void printName();

• void main ()
 Topperworld.in

• {

• printf("Hello ");
• printName();

• }
• void printName()

• {
• printf("topperworld");

• }

Output
Hello topperworld

Example 2
• #include<stdio.h>

• void sum();

• void main()
• {

• printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");

• sum();

• }
• void sum()

• {
• int a,b;

• printf("\nEnter two numbers");

• scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);

• printf("The sum is %d",a+b);

• }

Output
Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:
 Topperworld.in

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34

C Library Functions
Library functions are the inbuilt function in C that are grouped and placed at a common
place called the library. Such functions are used to perform some specific operations. For
example, printf is a library function used to print on the console. The library functions are
created by the designers of compilers. All C standard library functions are defined inside
the different header files saved with the extension .h. We need to include these header
files in our program to make use of the library functions defined in such header files. For
example, To use the library functions such as printf/scanf we need to include stdio.h in
our program which is a header file that contains all the library functions regarding
standard input/output.
The list of mostly used header files is given in the following table.
SN Header Description
file
1 stdio.h This is a standard input/output header file. It contains all the library
functions regarding standard input/output.

2 conio.h This is a console input/output header file.

3 string.h It contains all string related library functions like gets(), puts(),etc.

4 stdlib.h This header file contains all the general library functions like malloc(),
calloc(), exit(), etc.

5 math.h This header file contains all the math operations related functions like
sqrt(), pow(), etc.

6 time.h This header file contains all the time-related functions.

7 ctype.h This header file contains all character handling functions.

8 stdarg.h Variable argument functions are defined in this header file.

9 signal.h All the signal handling functions are defined in this header file.

10 setjmp.h This file contains all the jump functions.

11 locale.h This file contains locale functions.

 Topperworld.in

12 errno.h This file contains error handling functions.

13 assert.h This file contains diagnostics functions.

Call by value and Call by reference in C

There are two methods to pass the data into the function in C language, i.e., call by
value and call by reference.

Let's understand call by value and call by reference in c language one by one.

Call by value in C
• In call by value method, the value of the actual parameters is copied into the formal

parameters. In other words, we can say that the value of the variable is used in the function

call in the call by value method.

• In call by value method, we can not modify the value of the actual parameter by the formal

parameter.
 Topperworld.in

• In call by value, different memory is allocated for actual and formal parameters since the

value of the actual parameter is copied into the formal parameter.

• The actual parameter is the argument which is used in the function call whereas formal

parameter is the argument which is used in the function definition.

Let's try to understand the concept of call by value in c language by the example given
below:
• #include<stdio.h>
• void change(int num) {

• printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",num);

• num=num+100;

• printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", num);

• }

• int main() {
• int x=100;

• printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);

• change(x);//passing value in function

• printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);

• return 0;

• }

Output
Before function call x=100
Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=100

Call by Value Example: Swapping the values of the two variables

 Topperworld.in

• #include <stdio.h>
• void swap(int , int); //prototype of the function

• int main()
• {

• int a = 10;
• int b = 20;

• printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing t

he value of a and b in main

• swap(a,b);

• printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The value of ac

tual parameters do not change by changing the formal parameters in call by valu

e, a = 10, b = 20
• }

• void swap (int a, int b)

• {

• int temp;
• temp = a;

• a=b;
• b=temp;

• printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // Formal para

meters, a = 20, b = 10
• }

Output
Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 10, b = 20
 Topperworld.in

Call by reference in C
• In call by reference, the address of the variable is passed into the function call as the actual
parameter.

• The value of the actual parameters can be modified by changing the formal parameters

since the address of the actual parameters is passed.

• In call by reference, the memory allocation is similar for both formal parameters and actual

parameters. All the operations in the function are performed on the value stored at the

address of the actual parameters, and the modified value gets stored at the same address.

Consider the following example for the call by reference.

• #include<stdio.h>
• void change(int *num) {

• printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",*num);

• (*num) += 100;

• printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", *num);

• }

• int main() {

• int x=100;

• printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);

• change(&x);//passing reference in function

• printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);

• return 0;

• }

Output
Before function call x=100
Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=200
Call by reference Example: Swapping the values of the two variables
• #include <stdio.h>
 Topperworld.in

• void swap(int *, int *); //prototype of the function

• int main()
• {

• int a = 10;
• int b = 20;

• printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing t

he value of a and b in main

• swap(&a,&b);

• printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The values of a

ctual parameters do change in call by reference, a = 10, b = 20

• }

• void swap (int *a, int *b)

• {

• int temp;
• temp = *a;

• *a=*b;
• *b=temp;

• printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",*a,*b); // Formal pa

rameters, a = 20, b = 10
• }

Output
Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 20, b = 10

Difference between call by value and call by

reference in c
No. Call by value Call by reference
 Topperworld.in

1 A copy of the value is passed into the An address of value is passed into the
function function

2 Changes made inside the function is Changes made inside the function
limited to the function only. The values of validate outside of the function also. The
the actual parameters do not change by values of the actual parameters do
changing the formal parameters. change by changing the formal
parameters.

3 Actual and formal arguments are created Actual and formal arguments are created
at the different memory location at the same memory location

Recursion in C
Recursion is the process which comes into existence when a function calls a copy of itself
to work on a smaller problem. Any function which calls itself is called recursive function,
and such function calls are called recursive calls. Recursion involves several numbers of
recursive calls. However, it is important to impose a termination condition of recursion.
Recursion code is shorter than iterative code however it is difficult to understand.
Recursion cannot be applied to all the problem, but it is more useful for the tasks that can
be defined in terms of similar subtasks. For Example, recursion may be applied to sorting,
searching, and traversal problems.
Generally, iterative solutions are more efficient than recursion since function call is always
overhead. Any problem that can be solved recursively, can also be solved iteratively.
However, some problems are best suited to be solved by the recursion, for example, tower
of Hanoi, Fibonacci series, factorial finding, etc.
In the following example, recursion is used to calculate the factorial of a number.
• #include <stdio.h>
• int fact (int);

• int main()
• {

• int n,f;

• printf("Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?");

• scanf("%d",&n);
 Topperworld.in

• f = fact(n);

• printf("factorial = %d",f);
• }

• int fact(int n)
• {

• if (n==0)
• {

• return 0;
• }

• else if ( n == 1)
• {

• return 1;
• }

• else
• {

• return n*fact(n-1);

• }

• }

Output
Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?5
factorial = 120

We can understand the above program of the recursive method call by the figure given
below:
 Topperworld.in

Recursive Function
A recursive function performs the tasks by dividing it into the subtasks. There is a
termination condition defined in the function which is satisfied by some specific subtask.
After this, the recursion stops and the final result is returned from the function.
The case at which the function doesn't recur is called the base case whereas the instances
where the function keeps calling itself to perform a subtask, is called the recursive case.
All the recursive functions can be written using this format.
Pseudocode for writing any recursive function is given below.
• if (test_for_base)

• {

• return some_value;
• }

• else if (test_for_another_base)
• {
 Topperworld.in

• return some_another_value;
• }

• else
• {

• // Statements;
• recursive call;

• }

Example of recursion in C
Let's see an example to find the nth term of the Fibonacci series
• #include<stdio.h>
• int fibonacci(int);

• void main ()
• {

• int n,f;
• printf("Enter the value of n?");

• scanf("%d",&n);
• f = fibonacci(n);

• printf("%d",f);
• }

• int fibonacci (int n)

• {

• if (n==0)
• {

• return 0;
• }

• else if (n == 1)
• {
 Topperworld.in

• return 1;
• }

• else
• {

• return fibonacci(n-1)+fibonacci(n-2);
• }

• }

Output
Enter the value of n?12
144

Return an Array in C
An array is a type of data structure that stores a fixed-size of a homogeneous collection
of data. In short, we can say that array is a collection of variables of the same type.
For example, if we want to declare 'n' number of variables, n1, n2...n., if we create all these
variables individually, then it becomes a very tedious task. In such a case, we create an
array of variables having the same type. Each element of an array can be accessed using
an index of the element.
Let's first see how to pass a single-dimensional array to a function.
Passing array to a function

• #include <stdio.h>
• void getarray(int arr[])

• {
• printf("Elements of array are : ");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
• {
 Topperworld.in

• printf("%d ", arr[i]);

• }

• }
• int main()

• {
• int arr[5]={45,67,34,78,90};

• getarray(arr);
• return 0;

• }

In the above program, we have first created the array arr[] and then we pass this array to
the function getarray(). The getarray() function prints all the elements of the array arr[].
Output

Passing array to a function as a pointer

Now, we will see how to pass an array to a function as a pointer.
• #include <stdio.h>
• void printarray(char *arr)

• {
• printf("Elements of array are : ");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
• {

• printf("%c ", arr[i]);

 Topperworld.in

• }

• }
• int main()

• {
• char arr[5]={'A','B','C','D','E'};

• printarray(arr);
• return 0;

• }

In the above code, we have passed the array to the function as a pointer. The
function printarray() prints the elements of an array.
Output

Note: From the above examples, we observe that array is passed to a function as a
reference which means that array also persist outside the function.
How to return an array from a function
Returning pointer pointing to the array

• #include <stdio.h>
• int *getarray()
 Topperworld.in

• {
• int arr[5];

• printf("Enter the elements in an array : ");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)

• {
• scanf("%d", &arr[i]);

• }
• return arr;

• }
• int main()

• {
• int *n;

• n=getarray();
• printf("\nElements of array are :");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
• {

• printf("%d", n[i]);

• }

• return 0;
• }

In the above program, getarray() function returns a variable 'arr'. It returns a local
variable, but it is an illegal memory location to be returned, which is allocated within a
function in the stack. Since the program control comes back to the main() function, and
all the variables in a stack are freed. Therefore, we can say that this program is returning
memory location, which is already de-allocated, so the output of the program is
a segmentation fault.
Output
 Topperworld.in

There are three right ways of returning an array to a function:

• Using dynamically allocated array

• Using static array

• Using structure

Returning array by passing an array which is to be returned as a parameter to the

function.
 Topperworld.in

• #include <stdio.h>
• int *getarray(int *a)

• {
•

• printf("Enter the elements in an array : ");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)

• {
• scanf("%d", &a[i]);

• }
• return a;

• }
• int main()

• {
• int *n;

• int a[5];
• n=getarray(a);

• printf("\nElements of array are :");

• for(int i=0;i<5;i++)

• {
• printf("%d", n[i]);

• }
• return 0;

• }

Output
 Topperworld.in

Returning array using malloc() function.

• #include <stdio.h>
• #include<malloc.h>

• int *getarray()
• {

• int size;
• printf("Enter the size of the array : ");

• scanf("%d",&size);
• int *p= malloc(sizeof(size));

• printf("\nEnter the elements in an array");

• for(int i=0;i<size;i++)

• {
• scanf("%d",&p[i]);

• }
 Topperworld.in

• return p;

• }
• int main()

• {
• int *ptr;

• ptr=getarray();
• int length=sizeof(*ptr);

• printf("Elements that you have entered are : ");

• for(int i=0;ptr[i]!='\0';i++)

• {
• printf("%d ", ptr[i]);

• }
• return 0;

• }

Output

Using Static Variable

 Topperworld.in

• #include <stdio.h>
• int *getarray()

• {
• static int arr[7];

• printf("Enter the elements in an array : ");

• for(int i=0;i<7;i++)

• {
• scanf("%d",&arr[i]);

• }
• return arr;

• }

• int main()
• {

• int *ptr;
• ptr=getarray();

• printf("\nElements that you have entered are :");

• for(int i=0;i<7;i++)

• {
• printf("%d ", ptr[i]);

• }
• }

In the above code, we have created the variable arr[] as static in getarray() function,
which is available throughout the program. Therefore, the function getarray() returns the
actual memory location of the variable 'arr'.
Output
 Topperworld.in

Using Structure
The structure is a user-defined data type that can contain a collection of items of different types.
Now, we will create a program that returns an array by using structure.

• #include <stdio.h>
• #include<malloc.h>

• struct array
• {

• int arr[8];
• };

• struct array getarray()

• {

• struct array y;
• printf("Enter the elements in an array : ");

• for(int i=0;i<8;i++)
• {

• scanf("%d",&y.arr[i]);
 Topperworld.in

• }

• return y;
• }

• int main()
• {

• struct array x=getarray();

• printf("Elements that you have entered are :");

• for(int i=0;x.arr[i]!='\0';i++)
• {

• printf("%d ", x.arr[i]);

• }

• return 0;
• }

Unit-4
Pointers
C Pointers
The pointer in C language is a variable which stores the address of another variable. This
variable can be of type int, char, array, function, or any other pointer. The size of the
pointer depends on the architecture. However, in 32-bit architecture the size of a pointer
is 2 byte.
Consider the following example to define a pointer which stores the address of an integer.
• int n = 10;
• int* p = &n; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of the variable n of ty

pe integer.
 Topperworld.in

Declaring a pointer
The pointer in c language can be declared using * (asterisk symbol). It is also known as
indirection pointer used to dereference a pointer.
• int *a;//pointer to int
• char *c;//pointer to char

Pointer Example
An example of using pointers to print the address and value is given below.

As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable,
i.e., fff4. The value of number variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.
By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.
Let's see the pointer example as explained for the above figure.
• #include<stdio.h>

• int main(){

• int number=50;
• int *p;

• p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

• printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p); // p contains the address of the number therefo

re printing p gives the address of number.

 Topperworld.in

• printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p); // As we know that * is used to dereferen

ce a pointer therefore if we print *p, we will get the value stored at the address co

ntained by p.
• return 0;

• }

Output
Address of number variable is fff4
Address of p variable is fff4
Value of p variable is 50
Pointer to array
• int arr[10];
• int *p[10]=&arr; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of an integer arra

y arr.

Pointer to a function
• void show (int);
• void(*p)(int) = &display; // Pointer p is pointing to the address of a function

Pointer to structure
• struct st {
• int i;

• float f;
• }ref;

• struct st *p = &ref;
 Topperworld.in

Advantage of pointer
1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving
strings, trees, etc. and used with arrays, structures, and functions.
2) We can return multiple values from a function using the pointer.
3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.

Usage of pointer
There are many applications of pointers in c language.
1) Dynamic memory allocation
In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions
where the pointer is used.
2) Arrays, Functions, and Structures
Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions, and structures. It reduces the
code and improves the performance.

Address Of (&) Operator

The address of operator '&' returns the address of a variable. But, we need to use %u to
display the address of a variable.
• #include<stdio.h>
• int main(){

• int number=50;
• printf("value of number is %d, address of number is %u",number,&number);

• return 0;
• }

Output
value of number is 50, address of number is fff4

NULL Pointers
It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you do
not have an exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable
declaration. A pointer that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer.
The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard libraries.
Consider the following program −
 Topperworld.in

#include <stdio.h>

int main () {

int *ptr = NULL;

printf("The value of ptr is : %x\n", ptr );

return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
The value of ptr is 0
In most of the operating systems, programs are not permitted to access memory at
address 0 because that memory is reserved by the operating system. However, the
memory address 0 has special significance; it signals that the pointer is not intended to
point to an accessible memory location. But by convention, if a pointer contains the null
(zero) value, it is assumed to point to nothing.
To check for a null pointer, you can use an 'if' statement as follows −
if(ptr) /* succeeds if p is not null */
if(!ptr) /* succeeds if p is null */

C Pointers & Arrays with Examples

Traditionally, we access the array elements using its index, but this method can
be eliminated by using pointers. Pointers make it easy to access each array
element.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5}; //array initialization
int *p; //pointer declaration
/*the ptr points to the first element of the array*/

p=a; /*We can also type simply ptr==&a[0] */

printf("Printing the array elements using pointer\n");

for(int i=0;i<5;i++) //loop for traversing array elements
{
printf("\n%x",*p); //printing array elements
p++; //incrementing to the next element, you can also write
p=p+1
 Topperworld.in

}
return 0;
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
Adding a particular number to a pointer will move the pointer location to the
value obtained by an addition operation. Suppose p is a pointer that currently
points to the memory location 0 if we perform following addition operation, p+1
then it will execute in this manner:

Pointer Addition/Increment

Since p currently points to the location 0 after adding 1, the value will become 1,
and hence the pointer will point to the memory location 1.
C Pointers and Strings with Examples

A string is an array of char objects, ending with a null character ‘\ 0’. We can
manipulate strings using pointers. This pointer in C example explains this section
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str[]="Hello Guru99!";
char *p;
p=str;
printf("First character is:%c\n",*p);
p =p+1;
printf("Next character is:%c\n",*p);
printf("Printing all the characters in a string\n");
p=str; //reset the pointer
for(int i=0;i<strlen(str);i++)
{
printf("%c\n",*p);
p++;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
First character is:H
Next character is:e
Printing all the characters in a string
H
 Topperworld.in

e
l
l
o

G
u
r
u
9
9
!
Another way to deal strings is with an array of pointers like in the following
program:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char *materials[ ] = { "iron", "copper", "gold"};
printf("Please remember these materials :\n");
int i ;
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
printf("%s\n", materials[ i ]);}
return 0;}
Output:
Please remember these materials:
iron
copper
gold

Pointers and functions in C

As we discussed in the previous chapter, a pointer can point to a function in C. However,
the declaration of the pointer variable must be the same as the function. Consider the
following example to make a pointer pointing to the function.
• #include<stdio.h>
• int addition ();

• int main ()
• {

• int result;
• int (*ptr)();

• ptr = &addition;
• result = (*ptr)();

• printf("The sum is %d",result);

 Topperworld.in

• }

• int addition()
• {

• int a, b;
• printf("Enter two numbers?");

• scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
• return a+b;

• }

Output
Enter two numbers?10 15
The sum is 25

Dynamic memory allocation in C

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer
to allocate memory at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4
functions of stdlib.h header file.
• malloc()

• calloc()

• realloc()

• free()

Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory
allocation and dynamic memory allocation.
static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

memory can't be increased while executing memory can be increased while executing
program. program.

used in array. used in linked list.

 Topperworld.in

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.
malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.

calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc() function in C
The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.
It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of malloc() function is given below:
• ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

Let's see the example of malloc() function.

• #include<stdio.h>
• #include<stdlib.h>

• int main(){
• int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

• printf("Enter number of elements: ");

• scanf("%d",&n);

• ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc

• if(ptr==NULL)

• {
• printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");

• exit(0);
• }

• printf("Enter elements of array: ");

• for(i=0;i<n;++i)
 Topperworld.in

• {
• scanf("%d",ptr+i);

• sum+=*(ptr+i);
• }

• printf("Sum=%d",sum);
• free(ptr);

• return 0;
• }

Output
Enter elements of array: 3
Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

calloc() function in C
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.
It initially initialize all bytes to zero.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of calloc() function is given below:
• ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)

Let's see the example of calloc() function.

• #include<stdio.h>
• #include<stdlib.h>

• int main(){
• int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;

• printf("Enter number of elements: ");

• scanf("%d",&n);

• ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc

• if(ptr==NULL)
 Topperworld.in

• {
• printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");

• exit(0);
• }

• printf("Enter elements of array: ");

• for(i=0;i<n;++i)

• {
• scanf("%d",ptr+i);

• sum+=*(ptr+i);
• }

• printf("Sum=%d",sum);
• free(ptr);

• return 0;
• }

Output
Enter elements of array: 3
Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

realloc() function in C
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by
realloc() function. In short, it changes the memory size.
Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.
• ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)

free() function in C
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free()
function. Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.
Let's see the syntax of free() function.
• free(ptr)
 Topperworld.in

Structure And Union

What are Structures in C?

Structure stores the different types of elements i.e heterogeneous elements.

The struct keyword is used to define structure.

Syntax

struct structure_name
{
data_type member1;

data_type memeberN;
};

Declaring structure variable

You can declare structure variable in two ways:-

1. By struct keyword within main() function

2. By declaring variable at the time of defining structure.

Example
 Topperworld.in

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
char name[60];
}s1; //declaring s1 variable for structure
void main( )
{
//store first employee information
s1.rollno=1;
strcpy(s1.name, “intellipaat”);//copying string into char array
//printing first employee information
printf( "Rollno : %d\n", s1.rollno);
printf( "Name : %s\n", s1.name);
}

Output

Rollno : 1

Name : intellipaat

What are Unions in C?

Union also stores the different types of elements i.e heterogeneous elements.

The union keyword is used to define structure. Union takes the memory of largest

member only so occupies less memory than structures.

Syntax

union union_name
{
data_type member1;

data_type memeberN;
};
 Topperworld.in

Example

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union student
{
int rollno;
char name[60];
}s1; //declaring s1 variable for union
void main( )
{
//store first employee information
s1.rollno=1;
strcpy(s1.name, “intellipaat”);//copying string into char array
//printing first employee information
printf( "Rollno : %d\n", s1.rollno);
printf( "Name : %s\n", s1.name);
}

Output

Rollno : 3546656

Name:intellipaat

Rollno takes garbage value because name has large memory size. So only name will

have actual value.

Uses of Union
To me, the most useful cases are two:

First one is when data in the union will be used to be sent/written using a driver.

• union employeeData {
• struct eData sEmployee;
• char cEmployeeSerialized[64];
• } employee;
•
 Topperworld.in

• // Get employee data from data base

• getEmployeeQuery(int id, &employee.sEmployee);
•
• // Send this data through serial port using driver
• // where driver takes an array to be sent
• uartTxBuffer(&employee.cEmployeeSerialized);
Second is when you work on a limited resources platform (embedded system with low
profile microcontroller for instance), and you want to save memory by using a general
purpose buffer to store temporary data from different points of your program flow, but data
comes in different formats.

• union multiPurposeBuffer {
• float modulatorOutput[256];
• int interleaverOutput[256];
• char scramblerOutput[1024];
• } multiBuffer;