CHAPTER ONE: PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

1.1. Structural characteristics

 Density and unit weight

Density of a material is its mass per unit volume. Unit weight is the weight per
unit volume of a material.

Weight of materials in a structure contributes to the load carried by the structure.

Dead load and live loads
The weight of materials is important in such a way that if it can be reduced, size of
structural members can also be reduced.
Density and specific gravity are often used interchangeably.
Specific gravity is ratio of mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at a specified temperature. It is equivalent to ratio of density of a material
to density of water. In the metric system, density of water is 1g/cm3 (Mg/m3)
therefore specific gravity equals density.
There’s a variety of densities for materials with pores. These will be discussed
under various materials.

 Porosity and void ratio

Porosity is the ratio of volume of voids to total volume of specimen.

Void ratio is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids.

Relationship between n and e

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1.2. Physical properties
1.2.1. Hydro-physical properties
 Water absorption
It is ability of the material to absorb and retain water. Materials with pores tend
to absorb moisture and keep it, which affects the weight and subsequent uses.

 Moisture
Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a
material such as soil, rock or wood. Moisture content is determined by drying the
material at standard temperature (105-1100 Celsius) for 24hours and measuring
difference in weight and expressing it as a percentage of dry weight.

 Water permeability
Water permeability is the rate of water flow in cubic meter per day through a
cross section of 1m2 under a unit hydraulic gradient, at the prevailing
temperature.

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1.2.2. Thermal-technical properties

 Thermal conductivity
Each material has a characteristic rate at which heat will flow through it. The
faster heat flows through a material, the more conductive it is. Thermal
conductivity is the material ability to conduct heat.
Thermal conductivity λ is given by:

Where q = the resultant heat flow, A = surface area through which the heat flows,
∆T = the temperature difference between the warm and cold sides of the material
and L = the thickness or length of the material.

 Thermal expansion
Materials expand as temperature increases and contract as temperature falls. The
amount of expansion per unit length due to one unit of temperature increase is a
material constant and is expressed as the coefficient of thermal expansion.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is very important in the design of structures.
Generally, structures are composed of many materials that are bound together. If
the coefficients of thermal expansion are different, the materials will strain at
different rates. The material with the lesser expansion will restrict the straining of
other materials. This constraining effect will cause stresses in the materials that
can lead directly to fracture.

Thermal stress: Increasing the temperature of a solid almost always increases its
size. This is called thermal expansion. The coefficient of thermal expansion puts a
number on this material property where the numerical value is the relative length
change caused by a temperature change of 1 Kelvin. It is a property of the bonds
between the atoms. Thermal gradient or temperature difference on a small scale
in a specimen always causes mechanical stress and strain. Stresses can also be
developed as a result of a thermal gradient in the structure. As the temperature
outside the structure changes and the temperature inside remains constant, a
thermal gradient develops. When the structure is restrained from straining, stress
develops in the material. Concrete pavements restrained from movement, may
crack during cold weather and “blow up” during hot weather. Joints are used to
accommodate this thermal effect.

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 Fire resistance
Materials have fire resistance rating which typically means the duration for which
a passive fire protection system can withstand a standard fire resistance test.

 Melting point
This is the temperature at which a material goes from the solid to the liquid state
at one atmosphere.

Surface characteristics
2. Surface texture
3. Hardness: This is the ability of a material to resist penetration or abrasion.
4. Corrosion
These will be looked at in detail in the study of specific materials.

Aesthetic characteristics
These refer to the appearance of a material. The engineer needs to work with
architects to select materials with aesthetic appeal.
These will be looked at in detail in the study of specific materials.

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1.3. Mechanical properties
Mechanical behavior is response to external loading. Mechanical properties of a
material are those properties that involve a reaction to an applied load.
Loading can be static or dynamic. Static load is applied slowly and remains or is
removed slowly. Dynamic loads cause shocks and vibrations. More about loads in
structural analysis

1.3.1. Types of loading

 Axial loading: Applied force is collinear with longitudinal axis of the member.
 Transverse loading: Applied force is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
 Torsional loading: Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal
and oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single
external couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.

Depending upon the arrangement and direction of external loads, the stress
produced in the material body may be direct tensile or compressive stress,
bending tensile or compressive stress, shearing stress, torsional stress or a
combination of these. Detailed studies of these in structural analysis and soil and
rock mechanics.

1.3.2. Stress and strain

Stress is load per unit cross-sectional area of a material specimen.

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Strain is deformation or change in length per unit original length

The relationship between stress and strain is linear in a typical uniaxial tension or
compression situation until the point of failure.
Elastic materials return to original shape when load is removed. The explanation
for this is that deformation is in the bonds between atoms of the material while
arrangement of atoms is unchanged. Thus when load is removed, atomic bonds
return to their original positions.
Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of normal stress to normal strain. Also known as
Young’s modulus, it’s a property of a material.

Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain.

There is reduction in cross section during tension and increase in cross section
during compression. Negative because one increases while the other reduces.

1.3.3. Strength
Strength of a material deals with its behavior subject to stress and strain. When a
solid body is acted upon by external forces, there can be deformation or internal
forces are developed in the body to balance the external applied forces. The
strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or
plastic deformation.

1.3.4. Elastoplastic behavior

It’s where stress and strain increase proportionally up to a point (elastic limit)
after which strain increases with little additional stress. Then it is in the plastic
state. If there’s plastic deformation, it signifies permanent deformation and if
stress is removed the material will remain deformed and not return to original
shape. Yield point is when the material enters plastic deformation. The stress
value at this point is yield stress.

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Yield strength: When the stress on a material is slowly increased, the strain
initially increases in proportion. If the force causing stress on the material is
removed, then the material will return to its original shape. Then the material is
elastic. However if the stress keeps increasing, the material will eventually reach
a point when the material becomes so deformed that, even when the deforming
forces are removed, the material is unable to return to its original shape. The
stress at which a material stops behaving elastically is called the yield strength.
When the material is unable to return to its original shape, it is plastic.
Ultimate strength: It is the maximum stress that the material can handle before
breaking. If the force on the material keeps increasing beyond yield strength, the
material keeps deforming, and eventually the forces between the molecules
become unable to counter the external forces and the material breaks.
Determining yield point and yield stress: In some cases the transition from elastic
to plastic is gradual and there’s no abrupt change, making it difficult to locate the
point. We use offset and extension methods to estimate this point.

1.3.5. Ductile and brittle materials

Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large deformations without rupture
before failure.
Steel undergoes plastic deformation before failure while concrete does not
undergo plastic deformation prior to failure. Steel is ductile and concrete is
brittle. Brittle materials deform by fracture when subjected to stress beyond the
yield point.

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Brittle materials fail in a catastrophic manner without warning. Ductile materials
are preferred in construction because there will be visible distortions and
structure can still stand even under plastic deformation. This provides a warning.
It’s further discussed in the concept of margin of safety in design of structures.
A brittle material fractures when the static stress reaches the strength of the
material, where strength is defined as the maximum stress the material can carry.
A ductile material may fracture due to excessive plastic deformation.

Assignment 1
(a) Write short notes about strain hardening and strain softening
(b) Describe the following failure modes in elastic materials: fracture, fatigue,
yielding, buckling

1.3.6. Viscoelastic behavior

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Viscoelasticity is the property
of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing
deformation. Typical viscoelastic materials used in construction applications are
asphalt and plastics. Viscous materials have delayed response to stress.

Viscoelastic materials exhibit elastic and viscous response. E.g. asphalt concrete.
Deformation lags stress. The time of delay between deformation and stress
application depends of material structure and temperature.
Elastic Plastic Viscous
Linear stress-strain Deforms at constant stress Linear stress-strain rate
relationship beyond yield point relationship
Instant response to Constant stress Delayed response to stress
stress (more time, more strain)
Nonpermanent strain Permanent strain Permanent strain
Some of the properties of viscoelastic materials are their ability to creep, recover,
undergo stress relaxation and absorb energy.

Creep is time-dependent deformation under sustained stress. Compared to

viscous behavior which occurs under short-term stress, creep is long-term
deformation and occurs in all materials including metals and amorphous
materials. Viscous behavior is only for amorphous materials. Amorphous material

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may have short range atomic order but has no long range order or translational
symmetry. It’s a non-equilibrium material.

1.3.7. Fatigue failure

This is failure due to repeated loadings. Repeated stresses less than the material
strength can cause the material to fail. The number of applications a material can
withstand depends on the stress level relative to the material strength. On road a
pavement the stresses by traffic are typically less than the material strength,
however repeated loading eventually leads to loss of structural integrity of the
pavement surface layer causing fatigue cracks.

1.4. Variability of properties and material testing

Materials are variable. Steel properties vary depending on chemical composition
and method of manufacture. Concrete properties vary depending on cement type
& amount, type of aggregate or curing method. Asphalt concrete properties vary
depending on binder amount & type, aggregate properties, compaction and age.
Wood properties vary depending on tree species, cut method & moisture content.
Some materials are more homogeneous than others, depending on nature of the
material and the method of manufacturing. Variability of the yield strength of one
type of steel is less than the variability of the compressive strength of one batch
of concrete. Variability is important in defining quality of construction materials.
When materials from one lot are tested, the observed variability is the cumulative
effect of three types of variance: the inherent variability of the material, variance
caused by the sampling method, and variance associated with the way the tests
are conducted. Just as materials have an inherent variability, sampling procedures
and test methods can produce variable results.

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