CROPS, HORTICULTURE & SOILS

GENERAL FRUIT PRODUCTION

Course Description
 Trainees will be introduced to general principles of fruit production.
 It is designed to provide knowledge and skills necessary for the enhancement of fruit production.
Course Objective:
 To provide trainees with the basic knowledge on the general principles of fruit production.
Learning Outcome:
 The students should appreciate and apply the knowledge on principles and techniques of fruit
production

Week Topic
1 Introduction (History, Fruit Industry in Kenya, Classification, Environment and
Fruit Production, Orchard Establishment)
Tropical Fruits
2 Pineapple
Banana
3 Passion
Avocado
4 Mango
Papaya
5 Citrus – Oranges, Lemons
Custard
Subtropical Fruits
6 Tree tomatoes
Strawberry
Guava
7 Loquats
Lime
Temperate Fruits
8 Plums
Pears
Apples
9 Peaches
Apricot

PRACTICALS:
1. Identification and classification of fruits
2. Biotic and Abiotic stresses in fruit production
3. Fruit propagation techniques
4. Cultural practices in fruit production
5. Maturity indices
6. Post-harvest handling of fruits
ASSESSMENT:
1. CAT 1 Week 5 15%
2. CAT 2 Week 10 15%
3. Practical & Assignments 10%
5. Final Exam 60%
Total 100%

REFERENCES:
1. Taiz, L. and E. Zeiger. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauar Associates Inc
Publishers. Victoria Australia.
2. Hartman, H.T., D.E. Kester and F.T. Davis. 1994. Plant Propagation Principles and Practices.
5th edition. New Delhi. India.
3. Janic, J. 1994. Principles and Practices of Horticulture. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
4. Davis, F.S. 1976. The Naval Orange. Horticultural Reviews, 8:129-180.
5. Seelig, R.A. 1969. Bananas. Washington Printers 3rd edition.
6. Nakasone and Pauli. 1976. Tropical Fruit Growing. John Wiley and Sons. London 4th edition.
7. HCDA. The Horticultural crop Development Authority Bulletin.
www.hcda.or.ke/tech/contacts.php. (4.4.2013).
TROPICAL FRUITS
Fruits that are grown in hot and humid regions within the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn, covering most of the tropical and subtropical areas of Asia, Africa, Central America,
South America, the Caribbean and Oceania.

1. PINEAPPLES (Ananas comosus)

Introduction:
- The pineapple belongs to the family Bromeliaceae and is one of about 45 genera and 2000 species in
this family.
- Plants in the family are of tropical American origin except for one species, Pitcairnia felicana - a
native of tropical West Africa.
- The plants are herbaceous or shrubby and are classified as epiphytic or terrestrial.
- Some bromeliads including pineapple are grown for their leaf fibres and many others are grown as
ornamentals.
- Ananas comosus is the only species that is commercially grown for its fruit.

Origin and distribution:

- The pineapple was first seen by Europeans during the second voyage of Columbus and his men in the
island of Guadalupe in 1493.
- They called it ‘Pina’ because of its resemblance to the pine cone. Later botanists in South America
indicated the area of origin to be southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina because of the
abundance of wild species.
- Pineapple distribution from the Americas is attributed to Spanish and Portuguese explorers and was
aided by the resistance of crowns and slips to desiccation.
- It was introduced into Africa at an early date and reached India in 1550. Before the end of the 16 th
century it had become established in China, Java and the Philippines.
- Currently, pineapples are produced widely in all tropical and subtropical areas of the world and have
become one of the leading tropical fruits in international commerce.

Pineapple utilization/importance:
- The bulk of the fruit produced goes into the fresh market.
- Pineapples are eaten fresh as a dessert fruit where they provide Vitamins C & A, Ca, P, Fe, K and
thiamine.
- They are also processed into canned slices or solid cubes or chunks.
- They can be crushed to extract juice that is concentrated or frozen.
- A byproduct of the cannery fruit residue, pineapple bran, is used as cattle feed.
- Bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme found in pineapple plants, particularly the stem, has a number of
industrial and medicinal applications.
- The leaves are utilized in fibre extraction that is weaved into fabric (Pina cloth).
Botany:
- Family = Bromeliaceae.
- Pineapple is a monocarpic herbaceous perennial monocot that grows to a height of 90-100cm.
- The stem of a mature plant is 30-35cm long and club-shaped; the thickest diameter being 6.5-7.5cm
below the apex.
- It is the main axis that supports other structures: inflorescence, fruit crown, peduncle, leaves, suckers,
hapas, and axillary roots.
- Internodes are short (1-10mm) and are longer in the middle region of the stem.
- Axillary buds occur at each node; these produce slips, hapas or shoots depending on their location
along the stem.

- Roots of pineapple are shallow, fibrous and adventitious – arise from preformed root primordia in the
stem and they occupy the top 15cm of the soil profile.
- The roots are separated into ‘soil roots (develop at the base of the stem to form the underground root
system) and ‘axillary roots’ (form above the soil surface in leaf axils).
- Axillary roots absorb forliarly trapped or applied water and nutrients. The main absorptive area of
the root is the unlignified white tissue at the root tip. Roots without white tissue at the root tips are
not actively growing and are inefficient in absorbing water.
- Some cultivars may have marginal spines on their leaves.

There are a number of structures in the pineapple plant and other bromeliads that contribute to their strong
resistance to moisture stress:
 Position and trough shape of the leaves – aid in efficient water interception,
 The presence of multicellular trichomes – reduce heat load on leaves and cut on
evapotranspiration,
  Location of stomata in furrows beneath trichomes on the underside of leaves
 Trichome also aid in absorption of water and nutrients.
 Presence of a colourless and translucent water storage tissue in the leaf – this tissue can
occupy up to half the leaf cross-section. It becomes narrower as water stress increases.
 The CAM system characterized by large diurnal fluctuations in organic acids (malic and citric
acids) and an inverted pattern of gas exchange in which CO 2 is fixed at night and
transpiration is suspended during the daytime.

 Pineapple stomata are closed during the day and open at around 2p.m. and throughout the
night.

- It takes about 4 months from the end of last open flower to fruit maturity and the total time from
floral initiation to harvest is between 6 and 7 months. Temperature significantly accelerates or delays
development.
- Cell division in the fruit is completed prior to anthesis – all further development is the result of cell
enlargement. From flowering time to maturation fruit mass increases 20-fold.
- The most marked changes in flesh composition occur in the 3-7 weeks prior to and at the half-yellow
shell colour stage. Titratable acidity declines and TSS gradually increases, with a more rapid increase
in the last 6 weeks, as the fruit approaches the full ripe stage.
- Fruit sugars continue to increase through to senescence, unless the fruit is harvested.

Breeding:
- Early breeding and selection objectives varied with the localities, but almost always emphasized
disease and insect resistance.
- Recently, development of cultivars for fresh fruit consumption has been the major focus.
Accompanying breeding for disease and insect resistance are attempts to develop cultivars suitable
for fresh-fruit export.
- A suitable clone should have a high yield, high sugar, a good balance of sugars to acids, high ascorbic
acid and an appealing flavour.

Cultivars:
Five main horticultural groups of cultivars are recognized.

1. ‘Cayene’ group – ‘Smooth cayene’ is the standard for processing and the fresh fruit trade
because of its cylindrical shape, shallow eyes, yellow flesh colour, mild acid taste and high
yields. ‘Smooth cayene’ is the most widely distributed clone although other local clones in
the group also exist. Local selections are known by their areas of origin. The cayenne group
of cultivars is susceptible to mealy-bug wilt and nematodes.
2. ‘Queen’ group – This group generally produces smaller plants and fruit with spiny, shorter
leaves than the ‘cayene’ group. The cultivars e.g. ‘Natal queen’ are grown in South Africa,
Australia and India for the fresh-fruit market. The ‘z-queen’ is natural triploid mutant of the
‘Natal queen’.
3. ‘Spanish’ group – Plants in this group are generally small-medium, spiny, vigorous and
resistant to the mealy-bug wilt, but susceptible to gummosis, caused by the larvae of the
Batrachedra moth. The cultivars are accepted for fresh fruit market but not favoured for
 canning due to deep eyes and poor flesh colour. The major cultivars is the ‘Red Spanish’ in
the Caribbean and the ‘Singapore Spanish’ and ‘Nanas Merah’ being the principal canning
pineapples in Malaysia because of their adaptability to the peat soils. The flesh of these
cultivars has a bright yellow colour.
4. ‘Abacaxi’ group – These are grown mostly in Latin America and the Caribbean region. The
fruit is not considered suitable for canning or for fresh fruit export, but the juicy, sweet
flavour of the fruit is favoured in the local markets.
5. ‘Maipure’ group – This group is cultivated in Central and South America as fresh fruit for
the local markets. The clones may be of interest to breeders in the western hemisphere as
they constitute a gene pool of adapted forms almost unused in breeding programmes.

Cultural Practices:
Planting Materials and Propagation:
- Commercially pineapples are vegetatively propagated using crowns, slips, hapas, shoots and
suckers.

- It is important that each of these materials be used separately since their growth rates, harvest time
and other management aspects differ. The time from planting to harvesting also depends on the mass
of the propagule; the heavier they are the faster they mature.

- Crowns produce fruit in 18-24 months, slips, shoots and hapas in 15-20 months and suckers in 14-17
months.

- Planting materials are treated with a fungicide and are cured by drying the butt end to prevent rots
before planting. Production of propagules on the plant can be enhanced by application of growth
regulators (morphactins), which induce the axillary bud growth after breaking apical dominance with
ethephon.

- Tissue culture methods are also used to produce plantlets and protocorm-like bodies from shoot tips
and axillary buds. About 5000 plantlets can be produced from a single crown and 100000 plants from
a single shoot in 12 months.

Types of propagules and their locations on the plant:

1. Crown – Arises at the apex of the fruit.

2. Slips – Leafy branches appearing just below the fruit. They arise from axillary buds on the
peduncle. They range in number from 0 – 10 per plant.
3. Hapas – These are also leafy branches that arise from axillary bud at the junction between the
peduncle and the stem.
4. Shoots – These can be referred to as ‘above ground’ suckers. They are leafy branches
produced from axillary buds in the leaf axils just above the ground. They are about 0-3 per
plant.
5. Suckers – These are shoots that arise from axillary buds on the underground portion of the
stem. They are usually 1-5 in number.
Field Establishment:
Planting bed preparation
- Deep ploughing at least 60cm is necessary and should be followed by proper harrowing to remove
stones, roots etc.
- On commercial field soil fumigation is done to control nematodes – planting is not done earlier than 2
weeks after fumigation. This is followed by marking out planting lines and laying black polythene
mulch.

Planting
- Usually done in double rows on prepared mulched beds. Plants are set in by punching holes through
the polythene with a trowel.
- The depth of planting is usually 7-10cm. Deeper planting may cause rotting due to presence of soil in
the leaf axils. Shallow planting leads to weak establishment of plants and low eventual yields.

Spacing
- Double row spacing is popular on commercial plantations – it is convenient for field maintenance.
The beds are 1.5m apart from their centres and the double rows are 0.5m apart within beds; plants are
set 30cm apart within the rows.
- The 30cm spacing in double rows may be staggered – triangular planting or whole – rectangularly
planted. The inside rows in double rows are 90cm apart.

Irrigation
- Pineapples can survive long periods of water stress under natural conditions but yields are low with
poor quality fruit of unacceptable size.
- Irrigation can increase yields by up to 14-22 tons/ha. Drip irrigation has largely replaced other
methods of irrigation with the layout providing one tubing orifice for every two plants. About 50mm
of water every fortnight is adequate.

Mulching
- Black polythene gauge 150 is used. It increases yields and quality significantly, probably by
conserving moisture, raising soil temperatures, reducing leaching and suppressing weed growth.
Organic mulches are not recommended.

Fertilizers
- Pineapples show significant response to fertilizers and also extrude large quantities of nutrients from
the soil. Reports on pineapple nutrition indicate quantities as follows:
Nitrogen (N) 225-350 kg/ha
Potassium (K) 225-450 kg/ha
- The crop has low requirement for phosphorus (P) and reports tend to omit the amount applied, but
generally the amounts required range from 150 to 225 kg/ha as P2O5.

Weeding
- Necessary in the unmulched space between double row beds. It is usually done manually or
chemically. Herbicides such as Dalapon, Paraquat and Bromacil have been used effectively.
Pruning
- (“Stripping”) – Involves the removal of suckers, hapas, and slips and shoots just before or after
harvesting to leave one shoot to bear a ratoon crop.
- Most suckers are etiolated due to heavy shading and are therefore not recommended for a ratoon crop.

Ratoon crop
- Only one ratoon crop is recommended after which all plants are dug out and fresh planting done.
- Weed, fertilizer and other maintenance practices are the same as the ‘plant crop’.

Forcing – The accidental discovery in the Azores that smoke from burning organic materials induces
premature flowering in greenhouse-cultured pineapples led to the wide practice of burning rubbish around
the periphery of fields. The active ingredient in the smoke is ethylene gas.

Forcing plants into flowering allows synchronization of harvest and makes it possible to control harvest
dates to meet anticipated fresh-market and cannery needs.

Currently, ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) is the most widely used chemical in commercial
pineapple production. Applied concentrations range from 500 to 1500 μg/L. At least 90% flowering is
evident 40-60 days after application.

Pest and Disease Management:

Pests:
1. Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes)
- A very serious pest in East Africa.
- Attacked plants wilt due to sap suction. Plants become discoloured to a bronze, red or pink.
Margins reflex and tops curl backwards.
- Mealybugs are also associated with the pineapple wilt disease.
Control – Dipping planting materials in insecticides e.g. diazinon or fenitrothion. Spraying
on insects as soon as wilt is noticed.

2. Scales (Diapsis spp.)

- These are found sucking fruits, leaves and other exposed parts of the plant.
Control – If attack is severe spraying diazinon is effective.
3. Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
- Mainly root knot nematodes. They cause galls and therefore disorders in vascular bundles
leading to may wilt.
Control – Soil fumigation with Nemagon and chloropicrin.

Diseases:

1. Pineapple wilt
- This is thought to be the effect of a virus transmitted through the saliva of mealybugs or the
toxin in the saliva itself. Plants develop a general wilt.
Control – Treating planting materials with insecticides before planting. Also spraying when
wilting is observed can alleviate the problem.
2. Leaf spot
 - Brown spots about 2.5-5 cm long on leaves usually appearing under overcast weather
conditions. They heal when weather conditions improve.

Harvesting:
- Maturity occurs 15-24 months after establishment depending on the type and weight of planting
materials used. The ratoon crop matures earlier (14 months).
- Fruits are ready for harvesting when ripe – at this time they produce a dull sound when knocked and
are easy to dislodge from the plant.
- Colour change can be used but may be misleading in cool weather where fruits take longer to induce
colour changes.
- Fruits harvested for canning are completely broken off their stalks while those for fresh market export
are left with about 3-4 cm of the stalk. A minimum reading of 12% TSS is required for fresh fruit
market. A sugar-to-acid ratio of 0.9-1.3 is recommended.
- Pineapples for fresh fruit market are harvested by hand and the fruit is either packed in the field or
taken to a packing shed.
- Some limited mechanization may be used where pickers walk in the inter-rows and place the fruit on
a conveyor belt running on a boom, which transfers the fruit to a truck field bin.

Yields and longevity:

- Expected yields from the plant crop is 65 ton/ha or more. The ratoon crop yields about 50 ton/ha.
Economic yields from the plant crop take about 24 months and only one ratoon crop is recommended
which comes in 14 months.
- Therefore the approximate economic life of a field is about 38 months.

Pineapple Pack House Operations

Grading Standards:
- After harvesting, the fruits are graded according to size, shape, maturity, and freedom from diseases
and blemishes. The cut surface is treated with a suitable fungicide to control fungal decay.

Size Weight

A 1500 g and over

B 1100 - 1500 g

C 800 - 1100 g

D Less than 800 g

Baby Approx. 550 g

Packaging:
- For local markets, fruits are packed in bamboo baskets lined with paddy-straw.
- The first layer of fruits is arranged in such a way that they stand on their stumps.
- The second layer of fruits is arranged on the crowns of the first layer fruits.
- Each basket weights 20-25 kg.
- For distant markets, fruit are wrapped individually with paddy straw and then packed.
- For export purpose the pineapples are packed into fiberboards or wood containers.
- The fruits are placed vertically or horizontally in container.
- The interspace between the fruits should be filled with straw and firm lining all around the container.
For long-distance transportation, fruits are held at 7°C for 10-20 days.

Storage:
- When fruits are transported for long distances or to be stored for several days, refrigerated transport is
required to slow down ripening process.
- In tropical areas, partially ripe, healthy and unbruised pineapple could be stored for almost 20 days
when refrigerated at 10-13° C with RH 85-90%.
- Fruits harvested in early stage of ripening are stored at 7-10°C. Exposure of pineapples to
temperatures below 7°C results in chilling injury. Controlled atmosphere storage (3-5% O 2 and 5-8%
CO2) delayed senescence and reduced respiration.

Cool Chain:
- Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the farm to
the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low level as in the
cold storage. The various stages of the cool chain are:
 Cold store at the farm.
 Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
 Cold store at the airport.
 Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport.
 Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time.
 Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold.
 Offloading direct into a cold store in the receiving country.
2. BANANA PRODUCTION

Introduction
- Bananas are a major fruit crop in the world. It is an important crop in the humid tropical lowlands
with year round fruit production.

- The commercial banana is a giant, perennial, herbaceous monocotyledon belonging to the family
Musaceae of the genus Musa. The genus Musa has about 25 species, some with numerous subspecies.
- Edible bananas are derived from either Musa accuminata (A-genome) or Musa balbisiana (B-
genome) or a combination of both (AB genomes).
- Banana cultivars are either diploid or triploid with some new tetraploids that have been developed by
breeding. There’s also considerable somatic variation that has led to a great range of cultivars.
Bananas are described by their name and genomic make-up e.g.
‘Pisang Raja’ = AAB
AAB indicates that it is a hybrid with two genomes of A and one genome of B.
- Most dessert bananas are AA or AAA. The triploid AAA is the most important in the trade.

Origin and distribution

- The primary origin is thought to be Malaysia and the Philippines. Also some areas in Borneo and
Papua New Guinea are implicated.
- The typical M. accuminata has seeded fruit; but dessert cultivars were developed from it via
parthenocarpy and sterility aided by selection and vegetative propagation.
- M. balbisiana also has wild seeded fruit and was similarly taken into cultivation with the selection of
natural diploid, triploid and tetraploid hybrids.
- Bananas are now cultivated throughout the tropical and in selected areas in the subtropical regions.

Uses of Bananas
1. Bananas is a useful source of vitamins A, C, and B6. Has about twice, the concentration of K
compared with other ripe fruits.
2. Plantain bananas are a staple food and provide energy and protein. Bananas are used in special
diets where ease of digestibility, low fat, no cholesterol, minerals and vitamin content are
required. The fruit does not cause digestive disturbance; it readily neutralizes free acid in the
stomach and does not give rise to uric acid.
3. Very little processing of banana is done.
Procedures include:-
 Canning as slices,
 Drying as slices or flakes,
 Freezing of juice,
 Frying, and
 Fermentation.
4. Banana essence is also extracted as a clear colourless liquid used in deserts, juices and drinks.
5. Dried ripe fruit can be made into flour.
6. A beer is brewed from plantains and consumed in Uganda Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania.
7. The corms, shoots and male buds are also eaten as a starch source or vegetable.
 8. The male bud, with the outer fibrous bracts removed is boiled in south-East Asia and eaten as a
vegetable.
9. Banana leaves are used as food wrappers for steaming.

Botany and plant description

The Plant
- The banana is a 2-9 m perennial monocarpic monocot that produces both a pseudostem and a true
underground stem (rhizome).
- The true stem is made up of condensed internodes and remains vegetative until flowering time. The
pseudostem (tree) consists of overlapping leaf sheaths with new leaves and finally the inflorescence,
growing up through the centre.
- Leaf lamina are large 1.5 – 4m long and 0.7 – 1 m wide with pronounced midribs and parallel veins.

- Stomata occur on both surfaces, with 3 times more on the adaxical surface. Leaves take 6-8 days to
fully unroll from the tip and can last up to 50 days or more.

- Leaves emerging just before flowering can live up to 150 days or more.
- 25 – 50 leaves emerge, with 10-15 functional leaves present at one time. This provides a total area of
25m2 at inflorescence emergence.

- The number of leaves at flowering is positively correlated with bunch weight.

Pollination and Fruit Set
- The banana fruit develops parthenocarpically.
- Ovules shrivel early and are recognized as brown specks in the mature fruit - along the axial placenta.
- Sometimes seeds are found in mature fruits of edible cultivars, especially those with the B-genome.
- The “Cavendish” group has absolute female sterility with some viable pollen.
- The flowering stimulus in banana is unknown. So far temperature, photoperiodism, and number of
leaves developed have been discounted as initiation factors.

Fruit Morphology
- The fruit of banana is a berry.
- The exocarp is made up of: epidermial layer, aerenchyma layer
- The banana flesh is the mesocarp
- The endocarp is a thin lining next to the ovarian cavity.
- The axial placenta has numerous airspaces and ventral vascular bundles. Each node on the bunch
stalk has a double row of flowers forming a cluster of fruit that is commercially called a “hand”.

- The individual fruit is called a “finger”. “Canendish’ bananas can have up to 16 hands per bunch
with up to about 30 fingers per hand. Bunches can weigh up to 70kgs.

- Harvest maturity is a commercial stage - (¾ round fruit).

- Fruit still has some angularity and is about 75% of its potential maximum size. Fruit allowed to
mature on the tree to the round stage may show splitting.
- Fruit number and size decrease from the proximal to the distal end of the bunch.

Breeding
- A majority of breeding efforts have been directed at the AAA group because it is the group with the
highest export potential. However, female sterility and low numbers of viable pollen make
conventional breeding difficult. Breeding is mainly supported by the International Network for the
Improvement of Bananas and Plantains (INIBAP).

Selection and Evaluation

Somaclonal Variation and mutation breeding efforts are underway and geared towards controlling: -
 Blark sigatoka,
 Fusarium wilt,
 Bunchy top virus and
 Nematodes

Other focus for improvement include:-

 Resistance to the weevil borer, dwarfism, tolerance to cold and drought and improved
bunch yield, harvest index, fruit quality and storability.

 Some genetic engineering potential is currently being developed to target specific problems.
Ecology of banana
Soils
- Deep friable loams with natural drainage and no soil compaction are preferred.
- High organic matter and fertility assure high yields.
- Soil pH 4.5 – 7.5 – optimum 5.8-6.5.
- Banana can withstand a wide variety of pH ranges.
- Most exported bananas are produced on highly fertile alluvial loam soils. Soil textures ranging from
sands to heavy clays are used for banana production.

Climate
- Banana is a fruit of the humid tropics and mild subtropics.

Temperature
- A range of 15-380c occurs in most production areas; optimum temperature is 270c.
- The optimum for dry matter accumulation and fruit repining is about 20 0c and for the appearance of
new leaves is 300c.
- Growth in banana ceases at 100c and can lead to “choke-throat” disorders; inflorescence emergence is
impeded and poor fruit development occurs.
- Temperatures less 150 C can be withstood for short period; but at less than 60c damage occurs.

Frost – bananas are tender and cannot withstand any frost. It causes rapid death of the pseudostem.

Temperatures higher than 380c also cause growth cessation and leaf burn. Plants growing in the
subtropics produce fewer leaves and take longer to produce and develop fruits.

Rainfall
- Bananas require regular water supply that matches or slightly exceeds the free water evaporation rate.
Rainfall requirement varies from 900-2000m per year depending on the cultivar.
- Irrigation is essential for high yields if rainfall is less than evaporation.
- Areas with very high rainfalls may be too overcast for optimum photosynthesis and have more
disease problems.

Light
- Full sunlight is required for best growth. However, fruit sunburn can occur, especially if water supply
is low.
- Shaded or overcast conditions extend the growth cycle by up to 3 months and also reduce bunch size.

Photoperiodism
- There is no evidence of photoperiodic events in bananas.
- Increasing the photoperiod from 10-14 hrs tends to increase the rate of new leaf appearance, probably
due to increased photosynthesis.

Cultivars
- Cultivars of bananas are classified based on the plant stature or size of the mature pseudosterm.
- Based on this about 200-300 clones have been named in various countries, many having different
names in different locations.

Dwarfs (1.2 – 2.1.m height)

 Chinese dwarf
 Dwarf convendish
 Juba

Medium SIZE (2.7 – 3.6M)

 Mulalu
 Mutahato
 Sialianuli

Giant (tall) cultivars (3.6 +m)

 Uganda green
 Gruben
 Uganda red
 Kitarasa
 Gross mitchel
 Valeny
 Lacatan
 Giant Cavendish

Cultivars can also be classified based on uses:-

 Dessert cultivars (AA & AAA genomes)
 Plantain cultivars (BB & BBB)
 Brewing cultivars

Cultural Practices
Propagation
Sexual –
- Seeds are only used in breeding programs. Many of the commercial cultivars are female sterile.

Asexual
- Several vegetative propagules can be used depending on:-
 Availability
 Their yield performance
 Economic life of the orchard/ Personal/ regional preferences

There are 5 types of vegetative propagules that can be utilized.

Generally, any suckers used must have a piece of the rhizome attached and a functional apical growing
point.
i) Peepers
- These are the most ideal type of planting materials because of their superior establishment
potential.
- They also establish orchards with long economic lives.
- These are suckers that are just emerging from the ground (peeping).
- Problem – they are the least available.

ii) Sword suckers

- These are suckers that are much more advanced in growth.
- They have sword shaped leaves with a base diameter of 15cm and are about 75 cm tall.
- They are most numerous in a stool and are the most utilized for planting.
- They have a fair establishment potential and have an economical life of about 10 yrs, after
establishment.

iii) Maiden suckers

- These are much taller and older (5-8 months old).
- They have a base diameter of 20-25cm.
- They are not the best propagules because they flower early before proper stool establishment.
- They are usually chopped to a convenient height before planting.

iv) Water/aerial sheets

- These are suckers that come up after a shower of rain.
- They are superficially attached to the rhizome and rarely have roots on them.
- Have very broad leaves and appear flushy and weak.
- They are not popular as propagules because of their weakness and poor establishment. To
use them, they must be cut off with a big chunk of the corn.
v) Bull heads/corms
- These are the underground stems of the banana plant.
- They can be used effectively, especially where drought has cleared all bananas.
- They are dug up and chopped into pieces having ‘eyes’ (buds).
 - Before use these need to be treated as follows.
 All roots must be trimmed off to exclude any resident nematodes or root weevil eggs.
 Their bases should be dipped in a fungicide/ nematicide suspension.
 They should be “primed” - a curing treatment that facilitates wound healing for about
3 weeks and also allows new root initiation.

Tissue culture
- Bananas can also be propagated in-vitro to allow for rapid clonal multiplication of selected cultivars.
- This also facilitates production of disease free materials.
- TC plantlets also have:-
 High field establishment rates
 Uniformity of harvest timing
 Precocity and high production.
Somaclonal variation is the only problem here – it needs to be kept at a low levels (<3%).

Field establishment
Hole preparation
- Hole dimensions depend on the potential of the area.
- In arid areas large holes are needed: 120xm x 120cm x 120cm.
- In moderately wet areas smaller holes may suffice: 60cm x 60cm x 60cm.

Hole filling –
- Holes should be filled up to 2/3 full. The top 1/3 is left to create a basin for water collection and
will be subsequently filled with debris.
- A pesticide to curtail nematodes may be applied during hole filling. In some countries planting is
done in furrows.

Spacing
- Depends on the cultivars, environmental conditions, water, and soil fertility.
- Dwarf cultivars are usually spaced closer than giant ones.

Recommendation:
Dwarf: 2.7m x 2.7m
Medium: 3.0m x 3.0m
Giant: 3.6m x 3.6m

- Usually, planting densities of 1000 – 3000 plants per hectare are used.
- Rectangular single – or double row cropping can be done.
- Double rows spaced 2m apart with 3.5m alleys for access are common.
Irrigation
- Can be done by furrow or over-head sprinklers. Used mainly to supplement rainfall and should be
calculated based on pan evaporation, soil water holding capacity, banana root depth, water depletion
and the crop water use.
- Important characteristics of bananas as they relate to water management.
i) High water loss potential, associated with its large broad leaves.
ii) Shallow root system: - 90% of roots are the top 300 mm of the soil profile.
iii) Poor ability to absorb water from a drying soil
iv) Rapid physiological response to water deficits.

Fertilizer application
- To maintain optimum productivity, regular fertilizer practices need to be followed.
- Using mineral analysis of plants, ranges of deficiency and adequacy have been suggested – large
amounts of nutrients are required.

- The amount removed by fresh fruits of Cavendish bananas (50 tons/ha/year):

N = 189 kg/ha, P = 29 kg/ha, K = 778 kg/ha, Ca = 101kg/ha

This is equivalent to

49%N of the totals taken up by the plant

56%P
54%K
45% Ca

- The rate of fertilizer application depends on the climate, soil type, variety, management practices and
the yields obtained.
- Delaying fertilization can significantly reduce yields (by 40-50%) or more; 3 months delay makes it
difficult for the plants to recover.

Recommendations are based on soils and tissue analyses.

N - Applied from the beginning due to high leaching potential.

- 100 – 125 g of CAN/plant or its equivalent after plant establishment.

P - Supplied initially in planting holes

- 250 g/plant
- Subsequent additions given depending on tissue analysis.
- Sufficient P - 0.3 – 0.45% P2O5 in tissue
- Sufficient P - 20 ppm in soil
- If levels are low then supplementation with DSP at 200-250 g/plant or its equivalent is
given.

K - Critical in banana production

- Provides physiological advantages in plants e.g. increasing banana disease tolerance
- Improving the keeping quality
- Improving flavor
- 3.3 – 4% K20 in tissue analysis is sufficient
 - Yearly application of manure of potash (110g/ plant/) is recommended.

Organic Manures
- Their use is common in E. Africa. In Uganda growers solely use manures.
- About 30-60 kg/stool is applied every 2 years.
- Manures should be analyzed to determine proper rates of application.

Pruning
Objectives of pruning bananas
- To control pests e.g. weevils
- To extend the life span of the orchard
- To improve yield performance
- To spread the time the bunches will be obtained
- To dictate market availability of bunches.
Two basic techniques are used.

a) Setting followers
- Technique involves selecting suckers on a stool to dictate which will come into bearing when and
in what order.
- Usually 3-5 suckers can be chosen per stool and the order maintained.

i) 5 suckers per stool – the stages of suckers will be as follows:

 Flowering sucker
 Adolescent sucker – to flower in 3-4 months after the first has been harvested.
 Granddaughter sucker
 Great grand daughter
 Bud/ peeper

ii) 4 suckers per stool – here we have

 Flowering/mother
 Daughter
 Grand daughter
 Bud/peeper

iii) 3 suckers
 Flowering/mother
 Daughter
 Bud
The decision on the system depends on:-
 Market demand – for large bunches the 3 sucker or 4 sucker systems is employed.
 Age of the stool – for old stools the 3 sucker system is adopted.
 Climate – under high rainfall regimes the 5 suckers system can be advantageous.
 Soil fertility – under high fertility soils the 5 sucker system can be ideal.
 b) Removal of excess suckers and stripping.
- Any excess and unwanted suckers should be removed from the stool.
- Suckers should be removed in a circular fashion to restrict stool spreading.
- Stripping is the removal of dead leaves and sheaths.

Weed Management
- Weeds are a major problem during stand establishing before canopy closure occurs.
- Cultivation needs to be carefully done to avoid damage to the surface feeder roots.
- Herbicides can be used once the banana canopy is sufficiently high to avoid contact with the leaves.
- Mulching and intercropping can be used during early stand development. Failure to weed can lead to
severe yield decline.

Special operations in banana production

1. Deflowering
- This is a procedure performed when fruits are about to reach maturity.
- It involves removal of dried up pistils still clinging to the banana fingers. If these are left they
can be sporulation grounds for fungi during wet weather.

2. Propping
- It is an essential operation in giant and medium height cultivars that produce large bunches.
- The operation involves placing Y-shaped props at the throat of the pseudostem to support the
excess weight caused by the bunch. If not done, the stems lodge.

3. Earthing up
- The operation is taken care of during weeding.
- It involves pulling soil towards the stool. It helps provide support and encourages the growth of
vigorous suckers.

4. Removal of the male parts

- The male part of the fruit bunch usually hangs on as the bunch develops. This should be removed
before maturity to avoid creating an alternative sink for metabolites/ nutrients.

5. Bagging/Bunch covering
- Polyethylene bunch covers (30-40 µm thick) are used to cover bunches – they improve yield and
maintain high quality. Some covers are impregnated with pesticides to reduce thrip damage.
- The covers produce a microclimate around the bunch (increased temperature 0.5 – 1.5 0c and high
relative humidity). They also prevent fingers from being chaffed by leaves and covered in dust.
- Perforated covers may be used in hot areas to facilitate aeration and cooling. These covers are
applied after the bracts have fallen and they should hang about 15cm below the distal hand.

Harvesting
- During maturation individual fingers loose angularity in cross-section. Fruit for export are harvested
green at about 75% maturity i.e. 10-14 weeks after flower emergence in the tropics and up to 9
months in the cool subtropical regions.
- More mature fruit have a shorter post-harvest life and are more liable to be sun burnt and split.
 Other criteria used to judge maturity include:-
 Drying of leaves
 Drying of stylar ends
 Days from bunch emergence (7-24 weeks) depending on cultivation, season, crop
management and environment.
 Pulp to peel ratio and skin firmness.

Harvest Operation
- The bunch is removed from the plant by cutting a notch in the pseudo stem while supporting the
bunch with a pole and slowly lowering it on the shoulder pad of a harvester.
- The stem is then fully cut leaving about 30 cm of peduncle.
- Bunches are transported to the packing shed on padded trailers or on an overhead cable system.
- De-handing can be performed in the field or in the packing shed.
- Care should be taken to avoid any mechanical injury that would reduce fruit quality.

Ripening
- Dessert bananas are allowed to ripen and are mainly eaten raw when they have a low starch, high
sugar and high flavor.
- Plantains have high starch content and are eaten when green or ripe after cooking – boiling, frying or
roasting.
- The ripening process for export dessert bananas is carried out by specialists under controlled
conditions just before distribution and marketing to consumers.
- Under controlled conditions, ethylene is supplied from compressed gas cylinders, ethylene generators
or ethylene generating chemicals e.g. ethephon and ethrel. Commercially, bananas are treated with
100 ppm of ethylene for about 24 hours under controlled temperature, humidity and ventilation to
prevent CO2 build up.
190C - 4 days to ripen
14.50C - 10 days to ripen
- In local markets fruits are ripened by covering with a tarpaulin or cloth after inserting a pack of
calcium carbide to generate acetylene which is a 100 times less effective analogue of ethylene.
- A prolific ethylene producing fruit, such as avocado, can also be used as an ethylene source.
- Banana leaves or young leaves of trees such as Gliricidia sepium are good ethylene generators.

Banana Pack House Operations

Grading:
- The hands are graded based on the number and size of fingers in each hand.
- Overripe and injured fruits are discarded at this stage. Banana is sent to the local market as bunches.

Packaging:
- For packing and transportation the bunch is padded with banana leaves. A fungicidal paste prepared
by the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore is applied to cut ends to prevent stem
end rot. After the paste dries, bunches are put into polythene tubes (175 gauge, 55 cm wide with 1.8
cm with holes 10 cm apart).
- The bunches should then be stacked vertically or horizontally on the ground added with wilted or dry
banana leaves in case there is delay in transportation.
- For exports, bananas are removed from the stem and hands and clusters of the bananas are packed in
corrugated boxes with perforated polyethylene liners. The curved side of the hands is kept facing
upwards making sure that the crown of the upper hands do not damage the banana underneath.

Storage:
- In the cold storage, bananas are stored at 13-14°C with 90-95% relative humidity.
- Under controlled atmospheric conditions, 2-5% oxygen and 2-5% carbon dioxide should be used to
supplement temperature and humidity management during transport and storage.
- Maintaining ethylene concentration below 1 ppm can extend postharvest life of mature green
bananas. Mature-green bananas can be stored for up to 3 weeks in ethylene-free air or up to 6 weeks
in a controlled atmosphere at 14° C.

Cool Chain:
- Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the farm to
the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low level as in the
cold storage.
- The various stages of the cool chain are:
 Cold store at the farm.
 Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
 Cold store at the airport.
 Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport.
 Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time.
 Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold.
 Offloading direct into a cold store in the receiving country.

3. PASSION
Scientific names: Passiflora edulis Sims (purple passion fruit);
Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Deg. (yellow passion fruit);
Passiflora.quadrangularis L. (giant granadilla).

 Family: Passifloraceae
 Origin: American tropics
  Distribution: Introduced and grown in most tropical and subtropical parts of the world, passion
fruit is particularly important commercially in Australia, Hawaii, South Africa and Brazil.

Fruits of the passiflora (passion flowers)

Passiflora edulis f. edulis

- In Europe the fruit of Passiflora edulis f. edulis is the best known of this species. Apart from South
America, the most important areas where crops are raised are in South Africa, India, Malaysia,
Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii.
- Passiflora edulis f. edulis is the more cold-tolerant form and does very well at elevations of 600-
2000m.

- In Kenya it is successfully cultivated at an altitude of 2500m ASL.

- The seedlings are planted 3-4m apart. The first crop can be harvested in the following year and will
become continuously larger until the 5th and 6th years.
- At this point the yield will gradually diminish and the plantation must be renewed for economic
reasons, though the plants can live much longer. On average, such a plantation has a life span of 7
years.
- In comparison with other cultivars, the annual yield per hectare is relatively low for typical forma
edulis: 10-15tons. As a rule the globular to ovoid fruit reaches 4-5cm diameter, the size of a hen’s
egg. The average weight of the dark yellow pulp is about 35% of the fruit weight.
- It has a smooth leathery skin that begins to wrinkle after some days of storage. The wrinkles indicate
that it has gained its full flavor and maturity, but nevertheless it can be stored for additional weeks
and remain juicy.
- The taste of the pulp and the juice pressed out of it is slightly sour, with a touch of wine flavor and an
exotic apricot-like aroma.
- Many prepared foods are made with this fruit, including multivitamin juices, liqueurs, tropical
punches, yoghurts, ice creams, and confectioneries.
- The value of the juice and pulp is determined by their content of ascorbic acid, sugar, carotene,
riboflavin, and minerals.
- The cold-pressed seeds yield a pale yellow oil with a mild, pleasant taste. This oil is used both in the
kitchen and as a raw material in the paint and varnish industry. The compressed residues are used as
fodder.
- The fruit is also well suited for eating raw. To this end it is cut into halves and the refreshing pulp is
spooned out of the skin. The numerous blackish seeds can be eaten too.
- The fresh pulp is also used to refine fruit salads, ice creams, and other sweets.

Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa

- The yellow-fruited Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa is the other main cultivated stock.
- It is resistant to nematodes as well as to several fungal diseases, such as Fusarium wilt. Sometimes
called maracuya, forma flavicarpa is particularly suited for warmer regions and thus grows best at
elevations below 1000m.
- The largest plantations are in Brazil, Colombia, Australia, Hawaii and Peru.
- One hectare yields a crop of up to 50 tons of this yellow, ovoid fruit. Although the fruit does not
measure up to the lovely taste of P. edulis f. edulis, it is significantly larger, at 7-12cm long, and
therefore the yield is considerably higher.
- The average weight of the fruit is around 90g. In contrast to forma edulis, forma flavicarpa has
brownish seeds. A major part of the fruit is used for juice production. Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa is
self-sterile.
- As a rule, its flowers open around noon and close during the course of dusk. Natural pollination is
accomplished by carpenter bees, and where there are no bees, pollination must be done by hand.
- Field-workers can pollinate about 600 flowers per hour with a success rate of about 70%. Fruit ripens
in 70-80 days.

Studies in Venezuela have shown that the highest yields are obtained when vines are planted 3m apart.
The average life span of a plantation of Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa is 5-6 years.

Uses
- Passion fruit juice is a good source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and carotenoids (vitamin A).
- It is rich-flavored and strongly, but pleasantly aromatic.
- The undiluted juice is highly concentrated but is an excellent additive to other fruit juices
- The juice makes an excellent jelly, pie filling or cake frosting. Seeds with the surrounding juice sacs
are often added to fruit salads in Australia.
- Fruit of the purple passion fruit (sweeter and less acid than the yellow) may be eaten by itself, seeds
and all. Juice of the giant granadilla has a milder flavor than that of the others and is used in
confections or drinks.
- Its melon like, edible flesh also can be pulverized and used in pies.

Description
Plant
- Vigorous perennial vine.
- The purple and yellow passion fruit have trilobed leaves 10-18 cm (4-7 In.) long with finely-toothed
margins.
- The giant granadilla has rounded-oblong leaves 10-20 cm (4-8 in.) long and its stem is
characteristically square in cross section.

Fruit.
- The purple passion fruit bears dark-purple or nearly black, rounded or egg-shaped fruit about 5 cm (2
in.) long, weighing 30-45 g.
- Fruit of the yellow passion fruit is deep yellow and similar in shape but slightly longer -- 6 cm (2.5
in.) -- than the purple passion fruit.
- It weighs 60-90 g and averages about 75 g under.
- Fruits contain numerous small, black wedge-shaped seeds that are individually surrounded by deep
orange-colored sacs that contain the juice, the edible part of the fruit.
- The giant granadilla bears irregularly rounded or oblong-shaped fruit 10-20 cm (4-8 in.) long and has
a thick, edible rind in addition to black seeds surrounded by juice sacs. It may weigh 225-450 g or
more.
Flowers
- Flowers of the purple passion fruit are normally smaller, approximately 4.5 cm (1.75 in.) in diameter,
than those of the yellow form, about 6 cm (2.5 in.) in diameter.
- Both are dull white with very deep blue centers.
- Flowers of the giant granadilla are quite different; they droop like old-fashioned lampshades and their
petals are deep maroon on the inner surface.

Season of bearing.
- The purple passion fruit flowers in early spring and its fruit matures some 60-80 days later, so fruit
may be expected from late May until early July.
- The yellow passion fruit flowers from spring until late fall-with a break in early summer-so that
mature fruit appears at intervals from early summer into winter.
- The giant granadilla begins to flower in spring and its fruit matures in summer. It may continue
flowering throughout the summer but ordinarily sets or produces no normal fruit at that time,
probably because high temperatures interfere with normal fertilization after pollination.
- When the weather cools, this granadilla resumes setting fruit, which matures at odd times through the
season.

Climate and soils

- The yellow passion fruit and giant granadilla are tropical plants, and thus restricted to protected sites.
- The purple passion fruit is adapted to subtropical conditions and endures a few degrees of winter frost
without injury, but will not tolerate severe freezes.
- Passion vines prefer a slightly acid soil, but the yellow passion vine will tolerate alkaline soils if
adequate micronutrients are added.
- Well-drained soil is essential. Otherwise, root problems develop that soon destroy these plants.

Cultivars
- No well-established cultivars are regularly available, so plants are customarily grown from seed or
cuttings of vines selected for desirable characteristics.

Propagation
- All 3 passion fruits can be propagated from seed, which should be fresh (less than I year old) because
seeds lose viability rapidly.
- Seeds may be sown in flats or pots of sterile soil and kept in a moist place shaded from direct
sunlight. Seeds ordinarily germinate in 10-20 days and young plants grow rapidly.
- Seedlings should be potted individually in small containers as soon as practical after germination.
- They can be transferred to a permanent location when they are 25-40 cm (10-16 in.) tall.
- Purple passion fruit is sometimes grafted onto a yellow passion fruit rootstock to alleviate nematode
and disease problems affecting the root system of purple passion fruit.
- Seedlings of both stock and scion should be about 45 cm (18 in.) tall and have a stem diameter about
that of a pencil when grafted.
- Scions should be about 8-10 cm (3-4 in.) long and contain at least 2 nodes.
- The stock should be cut off 25-30 cm (10-12 in.) above the soil line.
For grafting:-
- A long, slanting cut is made from 1 side to the other through the base of the scion for about half its
length, and a similar cut is made through the stem of the stock.
- The 2 cut surfaces are then placed together with cambia aligned and the graft is tied firmly with
budding tape.
- The graft is enclosed in a small plastic bag tied shut below the graft, and placed in a warm, shady
location for 10-14 days or until the union takes.
- Then the bag is loosened to admit air and is removed when scion buds begin to grow. The budding
tape is removed before it can construct the growing stem.
- Cuttings from passion fruit vines can be rooted under intermittent mist, but they should be selected
carefully from healthy, productive plants to avoid spreading virus disease.

Planting and trellising

- Ideally, young passion vines should be set in the field early in spring after danger of frost is past.
- Passion vines are planted 3m X 3m (10-15 ft.) apart in rows and apart.
- Horizontal trellises have cross-pieces at the top of each post with 2-4 wires strung horizontally 60 cm
(2 ft.) apart along the top of each cross-piece.
- Vertical trellises consist of heavy posts without cross-pieces, with 2 or 3 wires strung along the row
like barbed wire fencing, attached to the posts from the top down at intervals about 6m apart.
- Trellis wires should be No. 9 or 10 galvanized steel. The posts need to be stout enough to withstand
the weight of the vines throughout a season that normally includes the buffeting of strong winds.
Ideally they should be long enough to provide a trellis height of 1.5 m (5 ft.), with 45-75 cm (18-30
in.) in the ground. Trellis rows should be oriented east - west for maximum exposure to sunlight, and
the vines should be allowed to grow together along the trellises to promote cross-pollination.

Pollination
- Pollination is essential for fruit production on passion vines.
- Flowers of the purple passion vine normally set fruit when self-pollinated, but many yellow passion
vines will not set fruit unless their flowers are dusted with pollen from a different vine that is
genetically compatible.
- Thus, 2 plants grown from cuttings taken from the same vine cannot pollinate each other. Moreover,
some vines from a group of seedlings can cross-pollinate and others cannot. This must be learned by
trial and error as the plants develop. Ordinarily, many opportunities for cross-pollination exist in a
large seedling population.
- The most effective insect for pollinating passion fruit is the carpenter bee (Apidae, subfamily
Anthophoridae), a large, solitary bee similar to the bumble bee in appearance. The native bee
population may ensure adequate pollination in areas where wild maypops fruit naturally. Elsewhere,
other means must be supplied. Carpenter bees can be encouraged by placing hollow logs in the field
near the vines.
- Honeybees are less effective because of their small size and because they prefer to work other flowers
at the time Passiflora is in bloom. They may be successful with the relatively small-flowered (and
self-compatible) purple passion fruit under some conditions, however.
- The giant granadilla also needs pollination to ensure fruit set. It requires mild temperatures for normal
fruiting and may bloom but set no fruit (or misshapen fruit) during the hottest part of the summer.
Hand pollination may be the easiest way to ensure fruit production on a few passion vines growing in
the home garden.

Pests and diseases

- Few pests attack the fruit of this crop.
a) A stink bug may puncture young passion fruit, but the fruit usually continues to develop
more or less normally.
b) Nematodes and fungi that invade the roots are the most common pests on Passiflora species.
The purple passion fruit, in fact, is impossible to grow in most parts, grafted on the root of the
yellow passion fruit or another resistant species. Nematodes and 2 fungi, species of
Phytophthora and Fusarium, have been found on the roots of declining or drying vines.
 The yellow passion vine is more resistant to harmful soil organisms than the purple,
but it is not immune. Vines may show cankers or stem lesions near the soil line, and
slowly decline after growing for as long as 5-7 years. When this happens, it is
advisable to start new vines, preferably in a new site, for replacements.
c) Virus diseases affect passion fruit production. All practical means should be used to protect
passion fruit plantings from possible viral infections.
 Any vines whose leaves show mosaic or vein-clearing symptoms should be removed
and destroyed.
 Also, plants should be propagated from seed whenever possible. A vine used as a
source of cuttings should be kept insect free in a screen house to protect it from viral
infections.

Fertilizer application
- A balanced fertilizer that supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in approximately equal
proportions, as well as essential micronutrients (magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc and iron), is
adequate for passion vines on the slightly acid, sandy soils.
- On alkaline, rocky soils, phosphorus is needed less than nitrogen and potash, but micronutrients must
be applied for normal growth and production. These can be applied 4 times a year in foliar sprays. In
addition, iron chelates can be applied directly in solution to the soil near the roots.
- Fertilizer should be applied in early spring before growth begins. Light applications should be given
4-to 6-week intervals.
- Passion vines are heavy feeders, but over-fertilization will damage the roots, and possibly destroy the
plant.
- The amount to apply depends on the size of the plant, and can be determined by experience. No more
than 110-170 g of low-analysis (6-6-6, 5-7-5, etc.) fertilizer should be applied at one time until it has
been determined that more can be applied safely. It should be evenly spread in a circle of about 45 cm
(18 in.) radius about the stem, and then watered in.

Pruning and training

- Passion vines in their native state clamber up available trees or rocks and spread out to catch the
available sunlight.
- In cultivation, vines should be trained to cover the wires of the trellis or fence on which they are
grown.
- Young vines are trained by aiming a growing up toward the top of the trellis and once there, allowing
a shoot to grow along each wire in each direction.
- A 2-wire trellis provides 4 sprouts growing along the trellis away from the vine's trunk. Once started,
the vine should be allowed to grow without pruning throughout the season, since the more vine there
is, the more bearing surface there will be.
- Vines should be pruned in late winter when they are not actively growing. All dead and weak wood
should be cut out and the vine pruned back to vigorous, well-budded stems so that it can resume
healthy, active growth in early spring. Disinfect pruning shears between each pruning to avoid
spreading disease from vine to vine.
- A good time to make the first fertilizer application is after pruning.
- The passion vine is a short-lived perennial. A more realistic life expectation is 3-5 years. A vine that
appears to have excessive deadwood may have lost so much vigor that it should be removed and
replaced with a young, healthy plant.

Production and harvest

- Vines grown from cuttings flower more profusely and set more fruit the first year in the field than do
seedlings, but cutting-grown vines are more expensive to produce and often less vigorous than
seedlings.
- Furthermore, one must exercise great caution to keep the plants from which cuttings are taken free of
disease, a task that is not necessary when seedlings are used.
- Approximately 3.5-7 kg of fruit per plant is likely to be the best production that can be expected of
the yellow passion fruit.
- With these levels of production and a spacing of 3 x 3m (10 x 10 ft.), one might optimistically expect
a production of 2.5-5 metric tons/ha of yellow passion fruit here. At best, the purple passion fruit
would likely produce yields only 1/3 as great.

Ripening and storage

- Developing passion fruit remains green until fully mature, then colors rapidly within a few days. Both
yellow and purple fruits drop to the ground when ripe.
- The fruit should not be harvested until it drops, because fruit picked from the vine has an unripe
"woody" taste. In some regions, the soil beneath the vines is kept weed free and the newly fallen fruit
is collected once or twice a week for market.
- The fall crop is easily collected from the ground twice a week where raccoons and other animal pests
are not abundant. Summer fruit is better collected daily because of higher temperatures and the
danger of sun-scalding.
- Both purple and yellow passion fruits begin to lose moisture as soon as they fall and quickly become
quite wrinkled if held under hot, dry conditions. Juice in these fruits is wholesome, but they are
unsightly and thus unmarketable. Clean fruit can be stored in polyethylene bags at 10°C for as long as
3 weeks without loss.
- Experimentally, wire netting strung on inclined frames beneath passion vines has been used to collect
ripe fruit which falls and rolls forward to be gathered easily like eggs from a battery.
- Fruit of the giant granadilla turns deep golden when fully ripe and may be picked for local
consumption at this stage. Giant granadilla fruit to ship may be picked just as the area immediately
surrounding the fruit's stem turns yellow.

4. AVOCADOS (Persea americana)

Introduction:
 The avocado (persea americana) belongs to the family Lauraceae which comprises 47 genera with
2000-2500 species.
 Plants in this family are mostly evergreen trees and shrubs, occasionally aromatic, and native mostly
to tropical and subtropical regions. The genus Persea is the best known for the fruit called avocado.
 The fruit of most Persea species are small and worthless. Only P. americana and P. schiedeana bear
large fruit, the later species being watery and fibrous but pleasant in flavour and eaten by people in its
native habitat in Mexico and Central America.

Origin and distribution:

 It is generally agreed that the centre of origin of the Persea is in the highlands of central and east
central Mexico and the adjacent highlands of Guatemala.
 Carbon dating has indicated that Mexican avocados were used as food as early as 9000-10000 years
ago. The crop was introduced into Jamaica and the rest of the Caribbean by the Spaniards in about
1650 and was later distributed into Africa and the Asian tropics during the 1700s and 1800s.
Importation into the USA was first reported in 1833 (in Florida).
 It is now widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics with the use of the fruit varying in
different areas.

Types/Races of Avocado:

Three horticultural races of avocado are recognized. These reflect geographical area of origin, based on
abundance of each race in cultivation. They have been named as follows:

1. West Indian race- thought to be native to the lowlands of Central America and northern South
America. It is tropical in ecological requirements and is characterized by small fruit with
medium thin, leathery skin, low oil content, loose seed and maturing 160-240 days after
flowering.

2. Guatemalan race- postulated to have originated at higher elevations in Guatemala and adjacent
area, based on abundance of wild populations. Leaves of cultivated types of this race are not
scented.

3. Mexican race- Predominantly found in higher elevations of Mexico. Its leaves are anise-scented
and 60% of the essential oils content is the monoterpene estragol.

These races are not recognized as subspecies, hence P. americana var. americana (West Indian) var.
drymifolia (Mexican) and var guatemalensis (Guatemalan).

Due to the outbreeding nature of the taxa there are many inter-racial hybrids, which constitute some of the
principal commercial cultivars in production today.

Botany of avocado
 The avocado tree is variable in shape ranging from tall upright trees to widely spreading forms with
multiple branches.
 Trees can attain heights of 15-18 m.
 Leaves are dark green and spirally arranged with variable size from 10 to 13 cm wide by 20 to 25cm
long. They are entire, elliptic or ovate to lanceolate in shape.
 New growth occurs in flushes, which tend to alternate with root growth on a 30-60 day cycle. The
period between flushes varies with location and cultivar.
 Root growth continues throughout the year in subtropical areas.

Inflorescence and flowers

 The basic inflorescence in avocado is a multi-branched panicle consisting of small, pale green or
yellowish green flowers.
 One or two million are produced in a single flowering period, although only about 200-300 fruit
mature. Flowers have a single pistil with one carpel and one ovule. Avocado cultivars are grouped
into 2 classes on the basis of their flowering behaviour.

 Class A: - flowers open in the morning for 2-3 hours, functioning as females with a white stigma
while the stamens remain closed. The flowers close at approximately noon and reopen the following
day during the afternoon hours for 3-4 hours, functioning then as males with the stigmas no longer
functioning.
 Class B:-Flowers open in the afternoon as females, the stamens remaining closed. These flowers
close in the evening and reopen the next morning as males.

 This phenomenon is called Protogyny, diurnally synchronous dichogamy - common when warm
weather prevails during flowering.

Fruits:-
- The fruits of avocado are one seeded berries - mostly pear shaped and may be green, violet or black,
smooth or wrinkled.
- The pulp near the skin is green while the inner pulp is yellow.
- Fruits take 150-250 days to mature.

Seed: - The seeds are large and conical to round in shape. They have two cotyledons and a large embryo.

Cultivars:
- Intensive avocado breeding has been conducted over many years in the USA, Israel, South Africa and
other countries. However, many of the cultivars in production came up as chance seedlings. The popular
cultivars include:
Fuerte:
-most popular for export markets
-a hybrid between Mexican x Guatemalan races
-has a small bottle neck-shape with a rough skin
-has a good flavour.
Hass:
-a Guatemalan type
-most widely grown in USA and Israel.
-has a roundish fruit that turns purple when ripe
Others are:

Nabal,
 Linda,
Puebla,

Ecological Requirements
 Climate: - Avocadoes are not frost resistant even though plants of the Mexican race have been
observed to go through temperatures of -4 to -50C without serious damage. The best areas for
production should have warm to cool climate – between 1800 – 2100 m A.S.L. Warm temperatures
are essential for fruit set.

 Rainfall: - Avocadoes do well in areas with rainfall averages of 1000-1500mm per annum well
distributed throughout the year. Irrigation is essential where rainfall is not sufficient.

 Soils: - Avocadoes can be grown in a wide range of soils provided that the soil is well drained and of
at least 120 cm depth. The soil should not be saline since avocado do not tolerate it. The best soils
are medium sandy loams with pH of 5.5 – 6.5.

 Wind: - The avocado tree is easily damaged by winds due to its brittle branches. Moderately high
winds can cause severe damage. Shelterbelts around orchards in strong wind areas are essential.

Cultural Practices
Propagation:

 Rootstocks: Any cultivar can be used as a rootstock but the most preferred is ‘linda’ and some
local adaptable cultivars. Seeds for rootstock raising should only be extracted from fully mature
and ripe fruits. The mother tree for seed should be healthy, free of sunblotch and with vigorous
growth.
 Seeds can be germinated in san boxes or containers of sawdust or other suitable media. The
medium should be free from any disease organisms. Seeds are sown randomly or in distinct rows
and covered with a 2.5 cm layer of medium. The sharp end of the seed should be placed facing
downwards to encourage faster germination.
 When new shoots emerge the seeds are transplanted into suitable polythene bags. Recommended
medium for the bags comprises topsoil, farm yard manure, and sand in the ratio of 3:3:2.
Protection of young seedlings is necessary under a lath house or palm leaves. The seedlings are
ready for grafting after 3-4 months.

Grafting:

Scion selection: - Scions are collected from one year old wood of the desired variety. Scions
should be 10-12cm long with at least 5 buds. The best time for taking scions is a few days after
the beginning of rain. They should be kept moist.

Rootstock selection: - The rootstock should be of the same diameter as the scion (pencil
thickness). It should be vigorously growing and free from pests and diseases.
 Grafting methods: - Two methods are commonly used:

- The whip and tongue method and

- wedge grafting
The seedlings should be ready for transplanting after 4 months from grafting.

Orchard Establishment and Maintenance

Site selection: - The site for planting avocadoes should be free from anti-hills, level or gentle sloped and
well sheltered from strong winds.

Site preparation: - Land should be properly ploughed and harrowed to remove all perennial weeds. It is
also advisable to plant maize or sunflower one year before planting the avocadoes.

Spacing:- The square planting pattern is usually used. A spacing of 10m x 10m or 10m x 8m
(rectangular) to give plant populations of 100 and 125 trees per hectare, respectively.

Planting: - Planting holes are dug of size 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm.

Holes are filled with top soil mixed with about 30 kg of manure and 125g of DSP. The trees are delivered
in polythene bags and carefully removed to cause very little disturbance to the roots. The trees are
usually planted at a higher level than they were in the nursery to allow for settling. After planting they
are watered and mulched. The best time to plant is when the long rains are starting.

Pruning: - Normally no pruning is required besides the removal of broken and diseased branches; and
trimming those touching the ground. Sucker growth is checked to remove shoots coming out of the
rootstock.

Weeding: - The orchard should be weed free. It is recommended to have vegetables growing between
the rows of young plantations. Beans have shown better results. Nothing should be planted closer than
2m from the tree. Higher crops such as maize and sunflower should not be intercropped with the
avocado.

Irrigation: - In order to have good production of avocadoes, irrigation is necessary, especially during the
dry period. The quantity of water applied depends on the moisture characteristics of the soil and age of
the trees. It however varies from 25-35 litres per tree per fortnight.

Since avocadoes are intolerant to salinity, the water used must be free from salts.

Manuring and fertilization: - In order to obtain maximum growth and optimum yields, it is important to
supply the avocado with necessary nutrients. It is however dangerous to give excessive amounts on any
size of trees at one time as it may cause root damage, leaf burn and defoliation. The type of fertilizer to
be used depends on soil pH.

In the planting year, it is advisable not to topdress the orchard since this may retard root development
during the first 4-5 months after planting. After this period, 60g of 26% N fertilizer should be applied
after every 3 months when the soil is moist. In addition, about 25 kg of well rotten manure should be
spread around the trees after each year.
The following are recommendations for N%P fertilizers to be applied each year (CAN and SSP):

1st year after planting 60g CAN + 250g SSP

2nd year 85g CAN + 500g SSP

3rd year 500g CAN + 750g SSP

4th year 750g CAN + 750g SSP

5th year 1kg CAN + 750g SSP

6th year 2kg CAN + 1kg SSP

7th year 3kg CAN + 1.5kg SSP

8th year 4kg CAN + 2kg SSP

9th year 5kg CAN + 2.5kg SSP

10th year 6kg CAN + 3kg SSP

The use of farmyard manure is particularly strongly recommended because it improves the physical
condition of the soil and promotes the adsorption in the soil and uptake by the plant of micronutrients.
The above listed N levels should also be applied in splits.

Avocado trees also have a very high requirement for potassium, magnesium and zinc. Measures should
therefore be taken to supplement these when they fall short.

Pests and diseases:

PESTS DAMAGE CONTROL

Nematodes (Radophillus similes) Attack roots and cause growth Fumigation of the soil before
stunting planting

Fruit flies (Ceratitis capitata & Attack the ripening fruit Spray with malathion or fenthion.
Ptendarus rosa)

Thrips Attack the young leaves Spray with Rogor40 or any other
systemic insecticide.

Other pests include mites, scales and aphids.

DISEASES DAMAGE CONTROL

Sunblotch (virus) - Shows very slight symptoms of Use virus free budwoods, cut down
yellow to brown areas on young infected trees to prevent spread of
branches, leaf petioles and leaves. the disease.
 - In severe cases there can be die
back of branches, reduction of
growth, grooves on stems and
branches. Fruits develop sunken
areas and later become brown.

Phytophthora root rot This is a root rot disease which is Spray trees with copper fungicides
(Phytophthora cinnamoni) common under wet conditions (copper oxychloride) and use
resistant rootstocks.

Armillaria root rot Roots rot and the tree may be Spray copper fungicides
killed under severe infection
(Armillaria spp)

Harvesting:
- The first yields can be expected in the third year after planting.

 The avocado fruits do not soften on the trees when are mature and therefore it is not easy to determine
the time of harvest by external appearance and also the fruits do not mature at the same time.
 Maturity is determined by harvesting some fruits, which are assumed to be mature and stored at room
temperature. If they soften within a maximum period of 12 days without shriveling they are
considered ready for picking. Other indications of maturity are:

 The loss of a glossy sheen normally observed in immature fruits.

 When there is a yellowish tint to the skin and stem. The green fruit becomes smoother,
especially at the end opposite the stem and small corky areas appear on the skin.
 When the seed is examined in the ripe fruit the seed coat appears dark brown and its
tissue is very thin.

 During harvesting the fruit must be clipped with secateurs from the trees; a stalk of about 1cm should
be left on the fruit.
 Never pull the fruits because this encourages rotting. It is recommended that cotton gloves be used
during picking, grading and packing to avoid bruising.
 Fruits should never be dropped – they should be placed gently in baskets or boxes during picking.
 Fruits should be delivered to the grading and packing station as soon as possible.

Yields:
 Yields increase with the age of the tree.
 Mature trees produce 2000-3000 fruits per tree.
 A hectare can produce up to 30,000 tons per year.
Marketing:
 Local domestic market
 Export mainly to Europe and China.
4. MANGO (Mangifera indica) Family Anacardiaceae

Origin and distribution:

 The Indo Burma centre of origin around S. E. Asia.
 It has been cultivated in India for over 4000years.
 The fruit is intimately associated with the Hindu religion and there are numerous ancient Sanskrit
poems praising the blossoms of the fruit.
  It was introduced into Malaysia and other East Asian countries by traders and Budhist priests
during the 4th and 5th century BC and into the Philippines around AD 1400 -1450.
 The Portuguese introduced the fruit into East Africa and Brazil. It was taken by the Spanish from
Philippines to the west coast of Mexico before the English introduced it into Hawaii between
1800 and 1820.
 The mango is now found in all tropical areas as well as many subtropical regions of the world.

Importance and uses:

 Ripe fruits are used as desert – the fruit is 60-75% flesh.
 It is an excellent source of vitamin A and fair source of vitamin C.
 Fruits are also processed into jams, juice, marmalades, pulp, chutney, pickles etc.

Taxonomy:
 The genus Mangifera belongs to the order Sapindales in the family Anacardiaceae that is a family
of mainly tropical species with 73 genera.
 Apart from edible fruit Anacardiaceous species also yield other valuable products like wood,
gums and resins, wax and varnishes and tanning materials.
 It is also a family well known for the dermal irritation produced by some of its members,
including some Mangifera spp. whose resinous sap may induce allergic reaction.

Botanical description
Tree shapes, branching and longevity
 Mango trees, grown from seeds are known as "seedlings" have a long straight bole.
 Grafted trees on the other hand are dwarf with spreading branches.
 However, the shape of the canopy also depends on the space available for its development.
 Isolated trees, getting sufficient space for their growth may differ in tree shape with the same
variety grown in the orchard. On shallow soils the growth is stunted.
 Some Cultivars (Latra and Creeping) are spreading in growth habit thus can be trained as
creepers.
 Seedling trees live much more than 100 years whereas grafted ones live only 80 years or less.
 One of the largest trees known is in Chandigarh (India), with a trunk of 3.5m in diameter, limbs
of 75cm diameter, and the crown spreading over 2250 m2 with an annual production of about
16,000 fruits in peak years at the age more than 100 years old.
 Seedling trees measuring a spread of 125 ft. and a girth of 25 ft. have been reported to exist in
Brazil

Tree
 Tree is medium to large (10-40 m in height), evergreen with symmetrical, rounded canopy
ranging from low and dense to upright and open.
 The bark is usually dark gray-brown to black, rather smooth, superficially cracked or
inconspicuously fissured, peeling off in irregular, rather thick pieces.
 Terminal buds are small, enveloped by small, lanceolate acute bud scales. Twigs are not very
thick, smooth, apically angular, glabrous, glossy and dark green.

Root
  The tree forms a long unbranched tap root (up to 6-8 m and more) plus a dense mass of
superficial feeder roots.
 Feeder roots develop at the base of the trunk or slightly deeper; these produce anchor roots, and
sometimes a collection of feeder roots develops above the water table.
 The fibrous root system extends away from the drip line. Effective root system of an 18- year old
mango tree may grow to 1.2 m depth with lateral spread as far as 7.5m.

Leaf
 The leaves are simple, estipulate, alternately arranged, and 15-45 cm in length. The petiole varies
in length from 1 to 12 cm, and is always swollen at the base.
 The upper surface is shining and dark green while the lower is glabrous light green. The leaves
appear in flushes. They are flaccid and pendulous when young.
 The colour of young leaves generally varies from variety to variety, generally being tan-red, pink,
yellow-brown in colour. As the leaf grows, its colour changes from tan-red to green, passing
through many different shades and becoming dark green at maturity.

Inflorescence
 The inflorescence is pseudo-terminal, originating from a bud, together with the new leafy sprout;
there are cultivars with lateral inflorescences.
 The inflorescence is a narrowly to broadly conical panicle up to a 45 cm long depending upon
cultivar and environmental conditions during its development.
 The panicle bear 500-6000 flowers of which 1-70% are bisexual, remainder are male depending
on the cultivar and temperature during its development.

Flowers
 Hermaphrodite and male flowers are produced in the same panicle, usually with a larger number
of the later.
 The size of both male and hermaphrodite flowers varies from 6 to 8 mm in diameter. They are
sub-sessile, rarely pedicellate, and have a sweet smell.

Fruit
 The fruit is a more or less compressed, fleshy drupe (outer fleshy part surrounded by a single
shell of hardened endocarp with a seed)
 It varies considerably in size, shape, colour, presence of fibre, flavour, taste and several other
characters. The most characteristic feature of the mango fruit is the formation of a small conical
projection developing laterally at the proximal end of the fruit, known as the beak.
 It may be quite prominent in some, less so in others, while in some varieties it is represented
merely by a dot.
 The shape of the fruit varies from rounded to ovate-oblong or longish, with the length varying
from 2.5 to 30 cm in different varieties.
 The base may be depressed or elevated or may be intermediate. The skin is gland-dotted and at
maturity its colour exhibits different mixtures of green, yellow, and red shades. It may be smooth
or rough.
 The peel (exocarp) is thick and the flesh (mesocarp) of ripe fruit is yellow or orange-yellow and
juicy.
 The pericarp can be separated int exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp just 14 days after anthesis.
  A period of 9-14 weeks after fruit set when growth decreases exists; this is associated with the
hardening of the endocarp and accumulation of starch and sugars. The endocarp is hard, with
fibres that may extend into the flesh.
 The period between fruit set and maturity ranges from 10-28 weeks depending on the cultivar.

Cultivars and development:

 Breeding in mangos is difficult because of the small number of seeds obtained, the complex
nature of the panicle and flowers, excessive fruit drop, long life cycle and heterogenesity of the
crop.
 The general objectives in breeding are to develop regular bearing, dwarf tree size, extended
cropping season, good cropping in wet tropics, attractive fruit of good size (300-500g), freedom
from internal breakdown and good keeping and eating quality, without fibre.
 Many of these have been developed through introduction and selection by cooperation between
researchers, growers, nurserymen and hobbyists.
 Common commercial cultivars in Kenya include Van dyke, Kent, Haden, Apple, Ngowe,
Sabine, Sensation, Boribo, Batawi and Dodo.
 Other unnamed local varieties also exist. Some commercial mango cultivars grown in Kenya

Table : Important mango cultivars in major producing countries.

Country Cultivars

Australia 'Kensington Pride', 'Banana', 'Earlygold', 'Glenn',

'Haden', 'Irwin', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Zill'
Van Dyke
Apple we aden
Rwanda Like Kenya? Find out

Israel 'Haden','Tommy Atkins','Keitt', 'Maya', 'Nimrod',

'Kent', 'Palmer'

Kenya 'Boribo', 'Ngowe', 'Batawi', ‘Dodo’, ‘Kent’,

‘Haden’, ‘Apple’, ‘Sabine’, ‘Sensation’, ‘Van
dyke’

Ecological requirements:

Temperature:
 Cold temperatures limit growth and may influence flowering and ripening. The minimum
tolerable is 120C. Frost can severely damage young trees, with older ones being able to endure -
40C for a few hours. The optimum range is 24-300C, but the tree can endure up to 480C during
fruit development if sufficient irrigation is available.
 Pollen viability declines if it develops at temperatures higher than 35 0C or below 150C.
  Flowering is strongly mediated by temperature in mangos. For each degree of latitude north or
south of the tropics flowering is delayed by 4 days. In the subtropics, cold conditions with
temperatures below 150C may advance flowering. Panicle growth occurs at 12.50C, when no
vegetative shoots are produced; but low temperature can lead to flower deformation and loss of
pollen viability.

Rainfall:
 Mangoes are very draught tolerant and can withstand occasional flooding.
 Good rainfall distribution rather than total rainfall is crucial for production. A dry spell, or even
more effective, a cool period preceding flowering is necessary for reliable production.
 Flowers are susceptible to anthracnose under moist conditions – low rainfall is preferred during
flowering. Under long dry periods, irrigation is required, especially in grafted trees.

Soils:
 Mangoes are not exacting in their soil requirements, although flat alluvial soils which are light to
medium textured, well drained, with a pH of 5.5-7 and a depth of 1 m.

Light: Full sunlight exposure is crucial. Shading can prevent flower bud formation.

Altitude:
 Mangos can be grown from 0 – 1200 m ASL in the tropics even though the best production is
experienced below 800m ASL.
Photoperiod: Flowering in mangoes occurs at all photoperiods as long as inductive temperatures
(180/100C) prevail.

Wind: Strong winds will reduce yields if they occur during flowering and early fruiting.

Cultural Practices:
Propagation:

 Mangoes are raised from seed or propagated vegetatively.

 Propagation from seed, though easy and cheap, is unable to perpetuate characters of the parent
tree because most commercial varieties are cross-pollinated and monoembryonic.
 Seedling plants also take more time to bear fruit. Accordingly, several methods of vegetative
propagation have been tried with varying degree of success. However, it is essential to raise
seedlings to be used as rootstocks.
 For this purpose, stones (seeds) should be sown in beds mixed with well-decomposed farmyard
manure at the rate of 8-10 tonnes per hectare. Alternatively, 25 kg nitrogen (N) per ha may be
applied in the form of urea, CAN or any other available inorganic source in two split doses at
about two months interval after the leaves have become green.
 When the seedlings attain the age of 2-3 months, they should be transplanted well in prepared
beds or pots. Proper care should be exercised in irrigating the young transplanted seedlings.
 The seedlings should also be protected from frost by putting the pots under big trees or thatching
the young seedlings in the field.
 Plants are generally propagated using random seedling rootstocks. The polyembryonic
rootstocks, however, have shown a promise in producing plants of uniform size and vigour.
  Moreover, these rootstocks have indicated possibility of inducing dwarfing and earlier bearing
and are under test.
Various methods employed in vegetative propagation of mango are described below:
a) Inarching:
 The method of inarching or approach grafting is quite cumbersome and time consuming, but it is
still the leading method for commercial propagation of mango plants.
 The method consists of uniting the selected shoot (scion) of a desired parent tree (mother plant)
with the potted or transplanted seedling (rootstock) by approach grafting.
 For this purpose, about one-year-old seedlings are most suitable when they attain a height of
about 30-45 cm and thickness ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 cm.
 These seedlings are either grown in pots or under the mother plant from which the grafts are to be
prepared, depending upon the availability of suitable branches. Generally, a one-year-old twig of
the scion tree about 60 cm in length and nearly of the same thickness as that of the stock is
chosen for grafting. Young and non-bearing trees should not be selected as mother plants.
 Inarching should be done during the growing period when the tree is in active sap flow condition
termed as active growth period. A hot and very dry period, as well as heavy rainfall during the
inarching period is not suitable.
 A thin slice of bark and wood, about 5 cm in length, 7.5 mm width and 2 mm deep, is removed by
means of a sharp grafting knife from the stem of the stock as well as from the scion branch.
 The dimensions can be proportionately increased or decreased according to the thickness of the
stock and scion. The cuts thus made should be absolutely flat, clean, boat shaped, even and
smooth.
 The ends of these cuts should be round and not angular. The cut surfaces of both, i.e., stock and
scion are made to coincide facing each other so that there remains no hollow space between the
two. These are then tightly tied by polythene / alkathene strips of about 1.5 cm in width and
preferably of 200 gauge thickness, which has proved to be a good tying material.
 After about one month of operation, the scion below the graft union and stock above the graft
union should be given light ‘V’ shape cuts at weekly intervals such that grafts can finally be
detached while giving the fourth cut. In the last stage, the top of the stock above graft union
should also be removed completely.

b) Veneer grafting:

 This method of propagation possesses promise for mass scale commercial propagation.
 The method is simple and can be adopted with success.
 The rootstocks as mentioned, for inarching are suitable for this method also. For conducting this
grafting operation, a downward and inward 30-40 mm long cut is made in the smooth area of the
stock at a height of about 20 cm.
 At the base of cut, a small shorter cut is given to intersect the first so as to remove the piece of
wood and bark. The scion stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and a small short cut on
the other so as to match the cuts of the stock. The scion is inserted in the stock so that the
cambium layers come on the longer side.
  The graft union is then tied with polythene strip as recommended for inarching. After the scion
takes and remains green for more than 10 days the rootstock should be clipped in stages.
 The scion wood to be used for veneer grafting requires proper preparation. The desired shoots
should be defoliated at least one week prior to grafting so that the dormant buds in the axis of
leaves become swollen. The best time for this method is the same for different regions as for
inarching.

c) Budding:

 Although success of budding in mango was reported in the beginning of this century, budding
still continues to remain in experimental stage as far as commercial mango propagation is
concerned.
d) Stone Epicotyl grafting

 Mango is generally propagated by inarchig and veneer grafting.

 These methods are time consuming. Stone epicotyl grafting is a new technique of mango
propagation. This method is simple, cheap and quick.
 Fresh mango stones are sown in the nursery beds. After germination, seedlings with tender stems
having coppery leaves are lifted with stones still attached.
 The roots and stones are dipped in 0.1 per cent Bavistin solution for 5 minutes after washing the
soil. The seedling stems are headed back leaving 6-8 cm long stem.
 A 4-6 cm longitudinal cut is made running down through the middle of the stem. A wedge
shaped cut starting on both sides is made on the lower part of scion stick.
 The scion stick should be 4-6 months old and 10-15 cm long containing plumpy terminal buds.
The scion stick is then inserted in the cleft of the seedlings and tied with polythene strips.
 The grafts are then planted in polyethylene bags containing potting mixture. The bags are then
kept in the shade protecting from heavy rain.
 When the scion sprouts and the leaves become green, the grafted plants should be planted in
nursery beds. July is the most suitable month for stone grafting.
e) Soft-wood grafting:

 The technique of soft-wood grafting is similar to that of cleft or wedge grafting.

 In this case, grafting is done on newly emerged flush having bronze coloured leaves and stem.
 This method is useful in in-situ grafting.
 The scion wood to be used should be defoliated 10 days prior to the grafting and having same
thickness as that of terminal shoot.
 The graft should be secured firmly using 1.5 cm wide and 4.5 cm long, 200 gauge polythene strip.
 July and August are the best months for soft-wood grafting.

f) Air layering:

 Air layering can be done successfully in mango using IBA or NAA 10,000 ppm in lanolin paste.
 Success up to 50 per cent has also been obtained by using Seradix-B as root promoter.
 The air-layers can be used for permanent planting or for raising uniform rootstocks.
Transplanting and spacing:

 Transplanting should be done just before or early in the wet season if no irrigation is available.
 Organic matter (FYM) and phosphatic fertilizer should be added to the planting hole (size 60 cm
x 60 cm x 60 cm) before planting.
 Spacing is largely dependent upon the environment and the vigour of the cultivar. In general
spacings ranging from 7 to 15 m by 7 to 15 m are adopted.

Irrigation:

 In rainfall deficient areas, irrigation is required. Generally, young transplants require 20-30 litres
of water every 4-5 days for about 2-3 months during establishment.
 For the remainder of the first year rates may be increased to 40-50 litres at 10-day intervals. In
the second year, rates are increased to about 100-150 litres every 10 days. In the third year, rates
of 200-300 litres per tree at 15-day intervals may be adequate.
 Grafted trees begin to bear fruits in their third year; irrigation management should then be
adjusted to reflect this change, especially in the tropics. It is then desirable to have a 3-4 month
dry period prior to flowering for reliable production and to reduce vegetative flush growth.
 Irrigation should be resumed when flowering is complete and fruit set has occurred. As the fruit
approaches maturity, irrigation should be completely cut off – dry conditions favour higher sugar
contents in fruit.
 Heavy irrigation is again resumed immediately after harvest to promote a new vegetative flush
and again reduced to mature the flush.

Training and pruning:

 Normally, mango trees require very little or no pruning.

 However, the training of the plants in the initial stages is very essential to give them proper shape,
especially when the graft has branched too low, the process of training becomes very important.
 At least 1 m of the main stem should be kept free from branching and the first leader / main
branch may be allowed after that. The main branches should be spaced in such a way that they
grow in different directions and are at least 20-25 cm apart, otherwise there are chances of
breakage due to smaller crotch angles and a heavy top.
 The branches which exhibit tendency of crossing and rubbing each other should be removed in
the pencil thickness stage, otherwise they break by rubbing each other at a later stage and create
complications. Secondly, if the centre is closed the fruits produced are of poor quality having
less colouration in the absence of sufficient sunlight.
 By following the above practice and after giving proper shape to the trees, there will be very
minimal scope for future pruning except removal of diseased, pest infested or dried shoots /
wood. An occasional light thinning in the plant can be done if the tree becomes too dense to
facilitate light penetration, air movement, and pesticide application. Some pruning to achieve
height control can also be done.
 In cultivars with biennial (irregular) bearing, shoots that have flowered can be removed after
harvest to pave way for those that will form flowers in the next season.
  Flowering shoots that do not set fruit should also be removed. Also the removal of apical buds
after each flushing cycle to increase the number of terminal shoots can lead to better fruiting and
limits tree size.

Fertilizer application:

 Fertilization schedules should be worked out based on the growth and flowering cycles of the
trees. In the first three years, ~113-227 g per tree of complete NPK fertilizer should be applied
three time a year. From the fourth year trees are mature and fertilizer is applied twice a year.
 One application is made when the first inflorescence begins to appear and the second immediately
after harvesting to promote new vegetative flushes.
 Proper application is essential as the feeder roots are located about 90-175 cm away from the
trunk at a depth of 20 cm. Irrigation must be applied when trees are fertilized.
 NPK 15:15:15 is recommended; the schedule should be 4 kg/tree in the first application and
6kg/tree immediately after harvest.

Weed management:

 Weed control is essential during orchard establishment.

 Young trees can be grown under clean cultivation or sod with ring weeding. Intercropping is also
practiced with papaya, pineapple or vegetables to nurse the crop.
 In mature trees canopy closure tends to prevent weed growth.

Harvesting:
 Harvest maturity is determined by using criteria such as colour changes, fullness of cheeks and
hardened endocarp.
 A good indicator of maturity is the hardening of the endocarp and the presence of yellowing
tissue near the seed – destructive test.
 Mangos are harvested by hand wherever reachable from the ground or from ladders.
 They can also be harvested by use a long pole with a cloth bag to hold two or three large fruit
attached to the tip.

Post-harvest handling and treatments:

 Any form if injury should be avoided during harvesting and transport to the packing shed.
 At the packinghouse, fruit are placed in a water-bath or hand-washed to remove the stem sap
from the surface of the fruit – this is essential to avoid sap burn and should be done within 24
hours.
 Hot (520C for 5 min) water dips can be done to control fruit anthracnose. A combination of hot
water and fungicide or chlorine may also be used.
 Grading is based on size, colour and freedom from injury and defects. Fruit is packed single- or
double-layer cartons with adequate protective material.
 At ambient temperatures the shelf life of mango is short – 7-14 days to fully ripe. Fully ripe fruit
can be stored at 8-100C with the length of storage varying with cultivars, maturity at harvest,
injury, calcium sprays and exposure to ethylene.
 A dip in 4-6% CaCl can significantly increase shelf life of some cultivars.
  Controlled atmosphere storage is also applicable in mangos: 5% O2 and 5% C02 is possible for
upto 20 days.
 Waxing is widely and successfully used in mangos to reduce water loss.
 Treatment to control and eradicate fruit flies in export grade fruit is required.
 Alternatives to the banned fumigant, ethylene dibromide, include cold and heat treatments,
irradiation (250 Gy), immersion of fruit in hot water (46.10C) for 65 minutes, vapour heat and
forced air treatments.

Post-harvest disorders:
1. Chilling injury: A storage disorder occurring at temperatures below 12.50C; the extent of injury
being dependent on the storage temperature and duration. At 00C it occurs within 4 days, at 50C in 8
days and at 100C in 12 days. Symptoms include skin-scalding, failure to ripen and increased disease
susceptibility.
2. Sap burn: Caused by fruit skin contact with sap exuded from the cut or broken pedicel. This reduces
consumer acceptance because of the browning and blackening of the skin after lenticel penetration.
The sap component thought to be responsible for the burn is a non-aqueous terpene component,
terpinolene in ‘Kensington’ and in ‘Irwin’ the predominant terpene is car-3-ene.
3. Internal breakdown: Also called spongy tissue or soft tissue disorder. The lower half of the fruit is
the most affected.
4. Lumpy tissue: The mesocarp contains white starchy lumps and the fruit surface develops
indentations. Its cause is unknown.
5. Internal fruit necrosis: First appears as a brown area in the mesocarp and endocarp of the rapidly
growing fruit. It later extends to the skin and a brown-black gummy exudation occurs. These areas
later collapse and are surrounded by corky tissue. This disorder is associated with boron deficiency.

Diseases

1. Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae):

 Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties.
 The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on
leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits.
 The affected flowers and fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might
even prevent the fruit set.
 Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease
spread.

Control: Alternate spraying of Wettable sulphur (0.2 per cent, 2 g Sulfex/litre), Tridemorph (O.1
per cent, 1 ml Calixin/litre) and Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval can effectively control of the
disease. The first spray should be applied at the panicle emergence stage.
2. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides):
 It is of widespread occurrence in the field and in storage.
 The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favorable climatic
conditions (high humidity, frequent rains and the temperature range of 24-32°C).
 The disease produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withered tip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms.
Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause die back of young branches.
 Older twigs may also be infected through wounds, which in severe cases may be fatal. Black
spots develop on panicles.
 Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in failure of fruit setting. Young
infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off.
 Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during
storage, transit and marketing.

Control: The diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves. Spraying twice
with Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering controls blossom
infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar
infection. Post-harvest disease of mango caused by anthracnose could be controlled by dip
treatment of fruits in Carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 52° C for 15 minutes.

3. Die Back (Botryodiplodia (or Lasiodiplodia) theobromae):

 Die back is one of the serious diseases of mango.
 The disease on the tree may be noticed at any time of the year but it is most conspicuous during
October-November.
 The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation,
which gives the tree an appearance of scorching by fire.
 Initially it is evident by discoloration and darkening of the bark. The dark area advances and
extends outward along the veins of leaves.
 The affected leaf turns brown and its margins roll upwards. At this stage, the twig or branch dies,
shrivels and leaf falls. This may be accompanied by exudation of yellowish brown gum.

Control: Pruning of the diseased twigs 2-3 inches below the affected portion and spraying
Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) on infected trees controls the disease. The cut ends of the pruned
twigs are pasted with Copper Oxychloride (0.3%).

4. Phoma Blight (Phoma glomerata):

 The symptoms of the disease are observed only on old leaves. Initially, the lesions are angular,
minute, irregular, yellow to light brown, scattered over leaf lamina.
 As the lesions enlarge, their colour changes from brown to cinnamon and they become almost
irregular.
 In case of severe infection such spots coalesce forming patches resulting in complete withering
and defoliation of infected leaves.

Control: Spraying Benomyl (0.2%) just after the appearance of the disease followed by 0.3%
Miltox (Copper Oxychloride + Zineb) at 20 day interval provides good control.
5. Bacterial Canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae):
 Canker is a serious disease in India.
 The disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5-100%).
 Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari, Arnrapali, Mallika and
Totapuri are susceptible to this disease.
 The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits. The disease first appears as
minute water soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf lamina.
 Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. In severe infections the
leaves turn yellow and drop off.
 Cankerous lesions also appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also
develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black.
 They often burst open, releasing highly contagious gummy ooze containing bacterial cells.

Control: Three sprays of antibiotics, Streptocycline (0.01%) or Agrimycin-100 (0.01%), after

first visual symptom at 10 day intervals and monthly sprays of Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) or
Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) are effective in controlling the disease.

6. Red Rust (Cepbaleuros virescens):

 The disease attack causes reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation of leaves thereby
reducing the vitality of the host plant.
 The disease is evident by the rusty red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on petioles and bark
of young twigs.
 The spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later, they turn reddish brown. The
circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form larger and irregular spots. The
affected portion of stem cracks.
 In case of severe infection, the bark becomes thick, twigs get enlarged but remain stunted and the
foliage finally dries up.

Control: Two to three sprays of Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) is effective in controlling the
disease.

7. Sooty Mould (Meliola mangiferae):

 The disease is common in the orchards where mealy bug, scale insects and hoppers are not
controlled efficiently.
 The disease in the field is recognized by the presence of a black sooty mould on the leaf surface.
 In severe cases, the trees turn completely black due to the presence of mould over the entire
surface of twigs and leaves.
 The severity of infection depends on the honeydew secretion of the above insects. Honeydew
secretions from insects stick to the leaf surface and provide necessary medium for fungal growth.
 Although the fungus causes no direct damage, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely
affected.

Control: Pruning of affected branches and their prompt destruction followed by spraying of
Wettasulf (0.2% )+ Metacid (0.1 %)+ gum acacia (0.3%) helps to control the disease.
8. Diplodia Stem-end Rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae):
 The fungus enters through mechanically injured areas on the stem or skin. The fungus grows
from the pedicel into a circular black lesion around the pedicel.

Control: Careful handling to minimize mechanical injuries. Post-harvest dip of fruits in

Carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 52 ± 1°C for 15 minutes controls the disease in storage and
transit.

Pests:

Common name Causal organism Parts affected, symptoms

Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens Larva damage to fruit.

South American fruit fly Anastrepha fraterculus Larva damage to fruit.

Caribbean fruit fly Anastrepha suspense Larva damage to fruit.

Queensland fruit fly Batrocera tryoni Larva damage to fruit.

Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata Larva damage to fruit.

Marula fruit fly Cratitis cosrya Larva damage to fruit.

Natal fruit fly Ceratitis rosa Larva damage to fruit.

Oriental fruit fly Dacus dorsalis Larva damage to fruit.

Mango seed weevil Sternochetus mangiferae seed

Mango blossom midge Erosomyia indica Sucking sap from floral parts.

Dasineura mangifera

Mango hopper Idioscopus sp. Sucking sap from flowering shoots.

Red banded thrips Selenothrips rubrocintus Sucking on undersides of young

leaves.

Coconut bug Pseudotheraptus wayii Sucking sap from the young fruit,
watery spot on fruit, fruit drop.

Pack house Operations

Grading:
 If the fruits are graded according to their size, weight, colour and maturity, both the producer and
consumer are benefited.
  It has been observed that bigger size fruits take 2-4 days more time in ripening than smaller ones.
Hence, packaging of smaller fruits with larger ones should be avoided to achieve uniform
ripening. Immature, overripe, damaged and diseased fruits should be discarded.
 For exports, the stem of the fruits is cut approximately at a length of 1 cm from the fruit with the
help of sharp scissors. Then the fruits are kept upside down for two hours so that the latex flows
out from the fruit completely.
 For this operation special knitted pallets should be prepared to keep the fruit upside down.
Utmost care should be taken while cutting the stem of the fruit so that latex drop does not fall on
the fruit.
 The export quality mangoes are categorised into three grades according to the fruit weight viz.,
Category-I (200-250 g), Category-II (251-300 g) and Category-III (300-350 g).
 Mangoes do not normally need any post-harvest treatment for local marketing. It is a general
practice to harvest fruits early in the season (premature stage) to capture early market. These
fruits do not ripe uniformly without any ripening aid. Such fruits could be ripened uniformly by
dipping in 750 ppm Etherel (1.8 ml/litre) in hot water at 52±2°C for 5 minutes within 4-8 days
under ambient conditions.
 Mature fruits can similarly be ripened with lower doses of Etherel for uniform colour.
 Fruits for urban supermarkets may need to be washed if they are heavily contaminated with latex
or dust.
 On a commercial scale, mangoes for export are sometimes dipped in hot water containing
fungicide for the control of this disease. The treatment is not appropriate for small-scale
operations.
 The post-harvest losses in mangoes have been estimated in the range of 25-40% from harvesting
to consumption stage.
 If proper methods of harvesting, transportation and storage are adopted, such losses could be
minimized.

Packaging:
 Usually, fruits are placed in layers one above the other, with a straw padding in-between.
 Temperatures between 19-21°C during ripening improve the quality of fruits.
 Wooden boxes are commonly used for packaging and transportation of mango fruits.
 Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow, has designed and developed CFB Boxes
of 5 kg and 10 kg capacity for packing and shipping of mango fruits successfully as an alternative
to traditional nailed wooden boxes.
 The use of CFB boxes for packaging for the domestic market is also the need of the hour due to
scarcity of the wood and environmental concerns of the country. For export purposes, CFB boxes
are already in extensive use.
 Paper scraps, newspapers, etc., are commonly used as cushioning material for the packaging of
fruits which prevent them from getting bruised and spoiled during storage and transportation.
 Polythene (LDPE) lining has also been found beneficial as it maintains humidity, which results in
lesser shrinkage during storage. Wrapping of fruits individually (Unipack) with newspaper or
tissue paper and packing in honeycomb nets helps in getting optimum ripening with reduced
spoilage.
Storage:
 Storage is essential for extending the consumption period of fruits, regulating their supply to the
market and also for transportation to long distances.
 The mature green fruits can be kept at room temperature for about-4-10 days depending upon the
variety.
 For exports, the harvested fruits are pre-cooled to 10-12°C and then stored at an appropriate
temperature. The fruits of Dashehari, Mallika and Amrapali should be stored at 12°C, Langra at
14°C and Chausa at 8°C with 85-90% relative humidity.
 The fruits could be stored for 3-4 weeks in good condition at low temperature.
 Controlled atmosphere (CO2 3-4 % and O2 4-5%) storage of Alphonso mango, under a
continuous flow system held at 13-15° C indicated that Alphonso could be kept for 30 days with a
post storage ripening period of 4 to 5 days.

Transport:
 For local market the harvested fruits are packed in wooden boxes/CFB and transported by trucks.

Cool Chain:
 Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the
farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low
level as in the cold storage.

The various stages of the cool chain are:

1. Cold store at the farm

2. Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
Cold store at the airport
Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport
Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time
Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold
3. Offloading direct into a cold store in the receiving country
4. Refrigerated truck to the customer
5. PAPAYAS (Carica papaya)

Introduction
 The papaya belongs to the family Caricaceae – a small family of dicotyledonous plants with four
genera:
 Carica, Jarilla, Jacaratia (tropical American origin) and Cylicomorpha (Equatorial Africa).
 30 species of Caricaceae are now identifiable, with the following distribution:
 Carica, 21 species;
 Cylicomorpha, 2 species;
 Jacaratia, 6 species; and
 Jarilla, one species.

 Papaya (C. papaya) is the most important economic species of the 21 species of Carica.
 Common names include: papaya, papaw or pawpaw (English), papai (Swahili), papayer (French),
mugua (Chinese).
 Most species are herbaceous single stemmed and erect plants.

Carica species are dioecious, except for the monoecious C. monoica and the polygamous C. papaya.

 Monoecious - having male and female reproductiveorgansin the same plant/animal

 Dioecious – having male and female reproductive organs in separate plants
 Polygamous – More than one kind of flowers (male and female) – bisexual

Origin and Distribution

 All Carica species are native to tropical America.
 The greatest diversity is found in the Yucatan-san Ignacio-Peter-Rio Motagua area of Central
America. Wild populations have a greater diversity than domesticated populations.
 In the eighteenth century the crop spread to the Caribbean, India, Philippines and the south pacific
region. Papaya is now grown in all tropical countries and in many subtropical regions of the world.
 Early distribution was enhanced by the abundance of seeds in the fruit and their long viability.

Utilization of papaya
1. Papayas are consumed fresh as breakfast fruit or dessert or in salads.
 In Asia the green fruit are served in salads, as vegetables or made into preserves.

2. Papayas are also processed into various products – dehydrated slices, chunks and slices for
tropical fruit salads, or processed into purees for juices and nectar base.

3. A proteolytic enzyme (papain) is extracted from the sap and used as a meat tenderizer, digestive
medicine in the pharmaceutical industry, in brewing and tannin industries and in the manufacture
of chewing gum.

4. A salad dressing is made from ground papaya seeds

Papaya composition:

Amount Minerals Amount per Vitamins Amount

per 100g 100g edible per 100g
edible portion edible
portion portion

Water 87g Ca 30mg Ascorbic 84mg

acid

Energy 192kJ Fe 0.2mg Thiamine 0.03mg

Protein 0.39g Mg 21mg Riboflavine 0.04mg

Lipids 0.06g P 12mg Niacin 0.33mg

CHOs 12.2g K 183mg Vitamin A 1093mg

Fibre 0.58g Na 4mg

Ash 0.57g

Botanical Characteristics
Stem
 The papaya is a large herbaceous plant, with a single erect stem (occasionally branched), which can
attain heights of up to 9 m, terminating in a crown of large leaves.
 A natural proliferation of axillary branches occurs when the trees are 5 – 10 years old.
 The stem is semi-woody and hollow, with a smooth greyish bark bearing large, prominent leaf scars.
 A thin milky sap oozes out of the stem when it is wounded.

Leaves

 The foliage of the tree is made up of a cluster of leaves at the apex and along the upper part of the
stem.
 New leaves are constantly formed at the apex as old leaves senesce and fall.
 Plants will have approximately 15 mature leaves at any one time.

Flowers

 Flowers of papaya are borne on modified inflorescences, which appear in the axils of leaves.
 The inflorescence type depends on the sex of the tree.
 Two races of male trees are recognized – one that rarely produces fruit and another that fruits from
normal hermaphroditic flowers during cool months.
 Female trees produce only female flowers (on short 4 – 6 cm peduncles) with a functional pistil
devoid of stamens. .
 The hermaphroditic form is between the two unisexual flower types – the flower, on a short peduncle,
is characterized by an elongated pistil with five stigmatic rays and five petals which are fused to form
a corolla tube.
 Sex expression is closely linked to the genotype x environmental interactions, which have resulted in
a wide array of modified forms.
 In papaya, stamen carpelloidy (Disorder that resultsinmishapen fruits caused by abnormal
development of the ovule –bearing part of the flowerin angiosperms) is expressed under cool
temperatures, with increasing severity at lower temperatures in the 40 days before anthesis.(the
flowering period of a plant from the opening of the flower bud)
 Female sterility occurs at warm temperatures, again with increasing severity at higher temperatures in
the 40 days before anthesis.

Pollination and fruit set

 No pollination problems are experienced in mixed plantings of pistillate and hermaphroditic trees or
in purely hermaphroditic stands.
 However, problems occur when dioecious cultivars are planted with an inadequate number of male
trees.
 The recommended ratio of female to male trees is 8:1.
 However, one male tree per 15 – 20 female trees provides adequate wind pollination, if males are
located appropriately with respect to prevailing winds.
 Fruit set is not a problem under open pollination in a well-managed orchard.
 Annual fruit set depends on the length of the female-sterility period in hot weather and with one fruit
per leaf axil, the range is 85 – 95%.

Fruit

 The fruits of papayas may be spherical, oval or elongated in shape and the fruit is basically a berry.
 Fruits from female trees are spherical and those from hermaphroditic trees can show diverse shapes
depending upon modifying factors affecting flower morphology during ontogeny.
 Fruit size ranges from 255 g to 6.8 kg with flesh thickness from 1.5 to 4 cm.
 Flesh colour is white in immature fruit and turns to pale orange, yellow, pink or red, depending upon
cultivar, in ripe fruit.
 Total fruit starch declines from 0.4% to 0.1% during the first 80 days of fruit development and sugars
begin to accumulate at 110 days postanthesis (during the last 28 – 42 days of fruit development).
Flesh total soluble solids can be as low as 5% up to 19%. Fruit development takes 150 – 164 days
under tropical conditions and may vary from 190 to 270 days in subtropical regions.
 Green fruit contains milky latex in the pericarp, which contains the protease enzyme, papain.
Commercially, the fruit is scarified to induce latex flow, which is allowed to dry then collected to be
later processed into papain.

Seeds

 The seeds are dark grey to black when mature and are enclosed in a sarcotesta (the shiny membrane).

Ecological Requirements of papaya

Temperature – Optimum temperature for growth of papaya is between 21 and 330C.

 The plant is extremely sensitive to frost and, if temperature falls below 12 – 14 0C for several hours at
night, growth and production are severely affected.
 Dioecious cultivars are more suited to low temperatures (<21 0C), as female trees do not exhibit the
sex changes shown by the more sensitive bisexual cultivars.
 At higher temperatures (> 350C) there’s a tendency of bisexual cultivars to form functional male
flowers with poorly developed and non-functional female parts.
 Net photosynthetic rate also declines rapidly at temperatures above 30 0C.
 Temperature also influences fruit growth and development from the normal 120 – 150 days – this
effect is more pronounced in subtropical areas where temperatures are lower and fruit does not occur
in winter.
 In these conditions fruit growth may be extended by up to 90 days. Fruits developed during cooler
parts of the year also have lower total soluble solids.

Sunlight – Direct sunlight is preferred in the growth of papaya, promoting rapid development in the early
stages of growth.
  Under shade, the plant is shorter, having a small leaf area, lower stomatal density, increased
internode and petiole length, and chlorophyll content – thus regarded as a shade avoiding species.
 Partial stomatal closure and opening occurs rapidly with cloud-related changes in irradiance,
thereby maximizing plant water use efficiency. No photoperiodic effects have been reported in
papaya.

Rainfall – In areas with a minimum precipitation of approximately 100 mm per month, papayas will grow
and produce substantial yields without supplementary irrigation.

 However, such distribution of rainfall is rarely found in the production areas, thus irrigation
becomes necessary in areas with defined dry and wet seasons. Drought frequently leads to the
rapid shedding of older leaves and poor fruit set.
 Flooding also leads to abscission of fully exposed leaves which is preceded by chlorosis.
 This eventually leads to plant death due to root rots. Recovery from non-lethal flooding is slow
due possibly to the low root growth rate in fruiting trees.

Wind – Papaya trees are delicate and their root systems are quite shallow, making them to be easily
uprooted by strong winds (up to 64 Km/h), especially when the soil has been softened by rain.

 Thus protection from strong winds is essential. This can be provided by establishing high tree
shelter belts in the direction of prevailing winds. Care should be taken to avoid any shading on
the crop plants.

Soils – A porous loam or sandy loam soil with a pH range of 5.0 to 7.0 (optimum is 5.5 – 6.5), is the most
preferred for papaya production.

 Papayas can grow in a variety of soil types – the most critical requirement is drainage. Poor
drainage leads to the development of root rot problems.
 Papaya has been ranked from extremely sensitive to moderately tolerant to salt stress, with
germination and early seedling growth being the most sensitive stages.

Cultivars of papaya
 A wide variability is shown by the papayas grown in various countries.
 With a few exceptions, most types cannot be classified as pure cultivars since they originate from
heterogeneous plantings and the seeds are obtained from open pollinated fruit selected from trees with
desirable characteristics.
 Stabilizing characteristics in dioeceous cultivars is made difficult by the fact that the genotype of the
with respect to fruit characteristics is unknown.
 In hermaphroditic cultivars, proper selection and self-pollination can stabilize characteristics at a
more rapid rate. However some cultivars have been described with distinct characteristics.

Some papaya cultivars (most are variable and may not qualify as true cultivars).
 Region Country Cultivar Sex type Flesh colour

Africa South Africa Hortus Gold Dioecious Yellow

Kaapmuiden - Yellow

Honey Gold Dioecious Yellow

Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda Kiru, solo, Hermaphrodite Orange, red

Cultural Practices in Papaya

Propagation – Papayas are propagated by seeds obtained from fruits of open pollinated hermaphroditic
trees with desirable characteristics. These produce uniform progenies if they are from a single cultivar.

 Fresh seeds are normally washed and air-dried under shade before germination. Seeds germinate
earlier and with a higher germination percentage if the sarcotesta is removed during seeds
washing. Seeds may be stored at 7 – 10C and 50% RH for several years.
 Seeds of papaya may be sown in trays filled with formulated media or in peat pots or directly in
the field. Germination occurs within 12 – 20 days and tray-raised seedlings are pricked out into
10 cm plastic bags at the two-leaf stage. Container grown seedlings are ready for transplanting in
the field 1.5 – 2 months after germination when they have attained heights of about 20 cm.
 In direct field planting, up to 15 seeds are sown in each hole and upon germination seedlings are
thinned out to leave three to five seedlings to grow to flowering. At flowering, a vigorous plant
of the desired sex is kept and the others removed.
 Clonal propagation of papayas by grafting, air layering or rooting of side shoots has been done
but does not suit commercial planting.
 Tissue culture is feasible and very valuable in the production of disease free stock.

Transplanting and spacing – In rain-fed crops transplanting is done at the beginning of the rainy season,
if this is not the cool season.

 Peat pot seedlings are planted directly and buried without removing the pot while polybags have
to be removed. Transplanted plants must be watered soon after planting to settle the soil around
the root system.
 Plant spacing for papaya orchards vary widely depending on the cultivar types.
 Universally, single row spacings ranging from 1.8 to 3m between plants and 1.8 to 3.6m between
rows are adopted depending upon the degree of mechanization.
  The most frequently used spacing is 2 – 2.5m within row X 2.5m, giving a plant population of
1600 – 2000/ha.
 A double row system, with 2m between a set of rows and 3.5m between double rows, is also
used. Polyethylene mulch over the beds helps prevent moisture loses and greatly minimizes weed
growth within beds. Organic mulches may also be beneficial.

Seedling management

 Hand weeding, especially around young seedlings is beneficial. Mowing and mulching are often
practiced on mature trees.
 Plastic mulch is very effective against broad-leaved weeds but ineffective on perennial grasses
and sedges.
 Post-emergence herbicides such as paraquat and glyphosate are used to good effect.
Covercropping can also be done in papaya.

Irrigation – Low soil moisture regimes in papayas tend to shift the sex type to male resulting in lower
fruit yields, while high moisture levels can lead to excessive production of misshaped carpelodic fruit
with rapid tree growth.

 Under rain-fed conditions, a minimum of 100 mm per month is needed. Where rainfall falls
short, irrigation is required to curtail the sex reversal tendencies of the plant.
 Good production occurs with 60 – 90 L/tree/week immediately after planting or during the wet
season and 120 – 240 L/tree/week during the dry period.
 Water supply may be by flooding between the row spaces by furrows running along both sides of
the rows of trees or via microsprinklers, jets, or drip.
 Overhead sprinklers are not recommended in papaya as the crop is cross pollinated – sprinkling
reduces pollen dissemination. Irrigation intervals of 10 – 15 days are adequate to maintain
production.

Prunning – Since papaya is a monoaxial tree (single pane of symmetry), normal tree pruning is not
practiced.

 Side shoots are normally removed as early s possible to leave a single trunk. If the apex is
damaged or destroyed, one shoot nearest the terminal is maintained to re-establish the tree.
 Some lower leaves and senescent leaves are removed to facilitate harvesting, improve penetration
of sprays, and prevent the petiole of senescent leaves from rubbing on maturing fruit and
generally to increase marketable yields.
 No significant differences have been found in total soluble solids, fruit size, number of fruits and
marketable yield after a year of leaf pruning when only 15 fully expanded leaves are retained on
the plant.
Fertilization – Fertilization regimes for papaya should be based upon soil analysis and preferably foliar
analyses.

 In general production in sandy loam soils requires a pre - plant application of 0.5 kg of 5:7:4
compound fertilizer and 0.25 kg of superphosphate per plant.
 Post plant application of 100 g per plant of 10:2:16 fertilizer can also be given at 2-3 month
intervals. In the second year about 250 g/plant can be given.
 Critical nutrient levels have been established based on tissue analysis as follows:
N = 1.1-1.4%; P = 0.15 – 0.18%; K = 2.5 – 3.5%.

Harvesting

 On shorter trees it involves simple picking of fruits.

 As trees grow harvesting aids may be required e.g. poles and ladders.
 Growers use a rubber cup or chisel-shaped metal with a V-shaped notch attached to long poles.
This is placed against the bottom of the fruit or peduncle and pushed upwards to snap the fruit at
the peduncle. The falling fruit is caught by the picker with the other hand or removed from the
cup.
 Fruits are collected in a picking bag and emptied into wooden bins or big boxes on field roads.
With experience, one can harvest 360-450 kg of fruit in a day (8 hrs).
 Some hydraulic mechanical harvesters are now available. They have a platform for the operator
and can be driven from that point.
 The degree of maturity at harvest depends on the distance to the markets. For long distance
marketing fruits are harvested at the colour break to one-quarter ripe stage. Standards require that
the fruit have 11.5% total soluble solids at this stage.

Disease management
1. Phytophthora root rot

 This is a major concern in papaya production especially in areas repeatedly used for the crop. It
can cause seedling mortality of up to 45% in fields that had a previous infestation. Thus
continuous production on the same piece of land should be avoided, with at least a 3-year break
under an alternative crop.

 Planting resistant cultivars (e.g. ‘Waimanalo’) can also help alleviate losses due to Phytophthora
root rot.

2. Seedling dumping off

  Seedling dumping off immediately after germination is caused by a complex of
organisms.

 This can be controlled by seed treatment with sodium hypochlorite and the use of
sterilized germination medium with good aeration and moisture control.

3. Fruit diseases

 These usually occur post-harvest but their incidence can be minimized with good
field sanitation and application of appropriate fungicides while others can be
prevented with careful handling of fruits since the organisms infect through wounds.
a) Anthracnose – pre-harvest infection.
b) Fruit surface rot and stem-end rot – post harvest rots.

4. Papaya ring spot virus (PRSV)

 The most limiting factor for commercial production in many areas. It is also referred
to as the papaya mosaic virus or distortion ring spot virus.
 The disease has no cure but can be avoided by:

- Eradication of vectors (aphids) and sanitation methods.

- Isolation of papaya growing fields with papaya-free buffer zones far enough from
disease sources. This makes the aphids non-infective by the time they reach the clean
fields; the virus is non-persistent.
- Growing papaya under mesh cloth sizes that keep out any aphids and the introduction
of aphid predators in the structures. – Method used in Taiwan.
- Cucurbit plants should never be intercropped with papaya as they an alternate hosts
of the virus.
- Inoculation of plants with a milder strain of the virus reduces the establishment rate
of the virulent strain and enables the production of a crop despite heavy virus
pressure.
- Genetic modification - Transformation of papaya with the coat protein gene of the
virus has been successful; however each virus strain has its own coat protein genes,
hence different coat protein genes are needed in different areas.

5. Bunchy top disease

  Serious disease in the Caribbean, Florida and some Latin American countries.
 It is caused by a bacterium and is characterized by stunting, yellowing and stiffening of the leaves
– symptoms close to PRSV.
 A major differentiating factor is the lack of latex in the affected parts in the bunchy top. The
bacterium is spread by a leaf hopper (Empoasca sp.).

Insect pests, mites and nematode management

There are many pests reported on papaya, but most are unimportant and the damage is negligible or easily
controlled. Some may be obnoxious and need to be dealt with.

1. Fruit flies
 Various species and types of fruit fly infest papayas.
 Thus fruits need to be disinfested as they can be a problem in the export trade. Fruit
fly eggs and larvae are usually found on mature yellow fruits and should be removed
before attempting export.
2. Aphids
 These are important as vectors of PRSV. Two species (Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae)
give positive results for the virus.

3. Leaf hoppers
 These can cause severe damage and also are vectors of the bunchy top disease
bacteria.
 Control: Most of these insect pests can be controlled by good sprays of malathion.

4. Mites
 Several mites damage papaya. The most important is the broad mite (Hemitarsonemus latus).
 These attack the undersides of young leaves causing stunting and distortion.
 They are too small to see with the naked eye and damage is usually done by the time their
presence is known.
 They multiply rapidly and are prevalent during the cool months.
 Carmine mites (Tetranychus cianabarinus) are found on the undersides of mature leaves.

 Mites are controlled using wettable sulphur. The recommended rate is 2.7kg of 95%W
sulphur in 380 litres of water.

5. Nematodes:
 Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.) and reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis).
 These two can cause problems if not controlled.
 Nematodes can be controlled with a pre-plant fumigation with furadan.
Post-harvest treatments
 Overseas markets requires disinfestations treatments to remove fruit fly eggs and larvae before
shipping. To do this fruits are subjected to the vapour heat method in which fruit are heated at
greater than 93% relative humidity for about 4 hours.
 With this treatment the fruit core temperature reaches 47.20C.
 Alternative methods include irradiation at low doses (250Gy) which sterilizes the fruit fly eggs
and larvae, preventing them from completing their life cycle. Irradiation coupled with a hot water
dip (490C) is used for disease control.
 Fruits are graded for size and colour and packed into cardboard cartons of about 4.5-6.0 kg.
 These are held at 10-120C to delay ripening before shipping. Some packers pre-ripen the fruit at
22-250C before cooling and shipping.
 A fungicide-wax coating is applied before packing to reduce storage diseases. However, a field
spray and proper care during harvesting to avoid bruises and wounds on fruits can help reduce
diseases in storage.

Papaya Pack House Operations

Grading:

 The fruits should be graded as per the size and colour while discarding the damaged and
diseased fruits.

Packaging:

 For local market the fruits should be stored in a single layer of straw until they become
soft. However for distant transport, the individual fruits are wrapped in newspaper/tissue
paper to avoid bruising injuries during transport.
 The fruits are then packed in single-layer fiberboard containers with packing materials
between the fruits.
 Storage for local markets optimum temperature of 20°C was found both for ripening and
satisfactory storage for two weeks. Storage below 10°C has been known to cause chilling
injuries greater in mature- green than ripe papayas.
 Chilling injury symptoms include pitting, blotchy coloration, uneven ripening, skin scald,
and increased susceptibility to decay. More than half ripe papayas (at least 50% yellow)
can be stored at 4-10°C without developing symptoms of chilling injuries. Exposure of
papayas to temperatures above 30°C for more than 10 days result in heat injury.
 The symptoms include uneven ripening, blotchy ripening, poor color, abnormal
softening, surface pitting and accelerated decay.
 For exports of papaya, hot water treatment is given by dipping the fruits for 30 minutes at
42°C immediately followed by a 49°C dip for 20 minutes.
  Quick cooling to 13°C after heat treatments minimizes heat injury. Controlled-
atmosphere (CA) storage (2% O2 and 5-10% CO2 ) at 10°C has been found beneficial for
delayed ripening, firmness retention and avoid chilling injuries.

Transport:

 For local markets the fruits are transported in trucks while for distant markets it should be
preferably sent through railways. Transportation through railways is faster and economical.

6. CITRUS

Introduction
 Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae.
 Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including crops such as oranges, mandarins,
grapefruits, pomelos and limes

Origin:

 Southeastern Asia.
 The crop was spread west to Arabian areas e.g. Oman, Iran, and Palestine long before Christ.
 The major edible types of citrus include:

Citron (Citrus medica) – South China,

Sour orange (C. aurantium) - India,

Lime (C. aurantifolia) – east India,

Lemon (C. limon) – Unknown origin, possibly a hybrid between citron and lime,

Sweet orange (C. sinensis) – South China and Indonesia,

Pummelo (C. grandis) – Malaysia and India

Grapefruit (C. paradisi) – Mutation or hybrid of pumelo

Mandarins/Tangerine (C. reticulata) – Indo-China and South China

Kumquat (Fortunella margarita) – South China

Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) – central and northern China.

Uses of citrus fruits:
1. Early uses included the prevention of scurvy due to their high vitamin C contents. This is the basis of
the term ‘Limy’ for British sailors.
 Scurvy is a condition caused by severe lack of vitamin C in the diet.
 Symptoms – bruising, bleeding gums, weakness, fatigue, rash
2. Fresh fruit or juices
3. Peel oils are incorporated into perfumes
4. Processed into marmalades ( sweet food made from Citrus fruit(especially bitter oranges and sugar
boiled to a thick consistency, usually eaten spread on toast)
5. Preserved as sweet pickles (jams made from one type of fruit/vegetable, while marmalades must use a
citrus fruit in its preparation)
6. Preserved as canned sections
7. Juice extraction by-products:
 Oils and juice flavours used in soft drink flavouring
 Peel extracts – used in pectin production
 Dried peels pellets – used in cattle feed production

Botany of Citrus
 Citrus are a group of plants that grow into either large bushes or small trees of up to 10m x 10m and
are highly branched.
 Young branches are angled and spiny depending on the cultivar and species and also the age.
 The position on the tree where a branch is growing will also determine the spine density; branches in
the center of the tree are spinier.
 Trees raised from seedlings are more vigorous than budded trees; nucellar seedlings are also more
vigorous than budded trees.

Roots:
 Seedling plants have a prominent taproot that can grow up to 4 m deep.
 However, the root system is usually disturbed during transplanting leading to a shallow extensive
lateral root system.
 Most feeder roots are found on the top 50-60cm depth of the soil.

Leaves:
 Ovoid in shape.
 They are sessile when young and develop pedicels as they mature. In some varieties petioles
have wings.
 Leaves remain green throughout their life and can keep on the tree for up to 3 years.

Flowers:
  Flowers of citrus are borne continuously in the tropics as long as there is sufficient water.
 Flowers are borne on racemes or singly. The flower colour is usually white but other colours also
appear e.g. pink and purple.
 Flowers have a characteristic sweet lemon scent due to the abundance of flavanoids and essential
oils. The common flavanoids include:
 Hesperidin,
 Neohesperidin,
 Limonin, and
 Tangeritin.
 In the subtropical and mild temperate climates, plants flower seasonally.

Fruits:

 The fruits of citrus are hesperidiums.

 They have a leathery peel consisting of an outer coloured exocarp (flavedo) and an inner white
spongy mesocarp (albedo).
 The edible portion (endocarp) comprises the interior portion of the carpels, which expands into
segments containing juice vesicles (sacs) emanating from the carpellary membranes.
 Fruits vary in colour, size and shapes depending on the species and cultivar.

Seeds:

 Usually cream coloured.

 They consist of a seed coat surrounding a much-reduced nucellus and endosperm (exalbuminous).
 The seed contains 2 cotyledons and from one to as many as seven embryos.
 Only one embryo is derived from sexual fusion of the sperm and egg cells.
 The additional embryos originate from nucellar tissue which is genetically the same as the diploid
maternal tissue.
 The seeds generally have low viability and need to be planted immediately after extraction.

Parthenocarpy
 The development of fruits without fertilization and in some cases without pollination.
 It is a common phenomenon in many citrus varieties e.g. ‘Washington navel’, ‘Satsuma
mandarins’ ‘marsh seedless’ grapefruit, ‘Eurecka’ lemons and ‘lisbon’ lemons.

Crop physiology
Temperature: Minimum temperature for growth is 130C.

 Lower temperatures result in slow growth and may lead to leaf fall. Frost can be damaging to
citrus.
 At 30C growth stops altogether and fruits on the plant get injury; flowers are shed as well as
leaves.Above 130C developmental rates increase. The optimum temperature for citrus production
is 20-300C.
 Some areas receiving 40 and 500C have also reported good citrus production.
 For good rind colour development night temperatures should be low (10-130C). These low night
temperatures also facilitate the accumulation of sugars in the fruit, hence good fruit quality.
  In the humid tropics where we have temperatures during the day and night we end up with the
development of large fruits with high juice content but with low soluble solids/ sugars.
 No net photosynthates are deposited in the fruit. At these high temperatures net respiration
bypasses net photosynthesis due to high night temperatures.

Skin condition in the tropics – Rinds are coarse and poorly coloured.

 In the subtropics fall and winter temperatures are low and very little growth may occur.
 However, spring/ summer temperatures are adequately high and are accompanied by cool
nights.
 These conditions facilitate the development of good colour on the fruit and the deposition of
high sugar levels even though the fruits are smaller.

Altitude has an indirect effect on citrus by modifying temperature.

 Above 1800m ASL temperature regimes become limiting because of the possibility of frost.
 Strong dry, hot or cold winds can be a problem in citrus production.
 Hot winds cause excessive evapotranspiration and lower fruit quality.
 Cold winds cause chilling injury on both fruits and young growing shoots – scorching and die-
back.

Moisture and relative humidity – In the tropics, moisture deficits can adversely affect citrus production.
 Also under high moisture/ relative humidity and high temperatures the incidences of fungal
disease increase.
 However, sufficient moisture is needed that is well distributed. A minimum of 900mm is needed.
Rainfall requirement is 1250-2000mm.
 A 2-3 month dry spell is needed to initiate flowering.

Soils – Citrus is cosmopolitan in soil requirements.

 It survives a wide range of soils e.g. –Heavy clays, coarse sandy loams, and fine sands.
 An important requirement in the soil is sufficient aeration and drainage due to the extensive
feeder rooting system of citrus, which requires high O2 levels.
 Soil pH should be 5-6. pH lower than 5 may cause phytotoxicity due to the presence of metals
e.g. Al, Fe and Cu. These tend to solubilize under low pH. pH above 6 cause nutrient element
fixation e.g. Zn, Fe, P2O5 etc.

Salinity – Citrus is sensitive to salinity in the soil. It cannot tolerate Ecs of 4 mmohs.

Citrus taxonomy:
 Family = Rutaceae
 Rutaceae is further subdivided into 6 subfamilies with citrus belonging to the subfamily
Aurantioideae – characterized by hesperidium berries.
Hesperidium - Single enlarged ovary surrounded by a leathery peel and contains juice vesicles/sacs.
 The general taxonomy of citrus is still controversial, complex and somewhat confusing owing to the
ease with which species can hybridize and the difficulty arising from polyembryony ( a condition in
which two or more embryos develop from a single fertilized egg -twins as in human)

 However, modern chemotaxonomy and plant morphology studies have defined 3 affinity groups
within citrus.

1. C. medica, C. aurantifolia and C. limon = the Medica group.

2. C. reticulata, C. sinensis, C. paradisi, C. aurantium = the reticulate group.
3. C. maxima = the maxima group.

Thus, only
 Citron (C. medica),
 Shaddock (C. maxima) and
 Mandarin (C. reticulata) are true commercially important species.

 The other common citrus fruits are hybrids between the various types within the larger citrus groups.
 E.g.
 Sweet orange (C. sinensis) = C. reticulate x C. maxima
 Grapefruit (C. paradisi) = Sweet orange x C. maxima.
 Lemon (C. limon) = C. medica x C. maxima
 Lime (C. aurantifolia) = complex hybrid of C. medica x C. maxima and microcitrus.

 Despite the accuracy of the chemotaxonomic systems, horticulturists still have a bias for the
classification developed by Hodgson (1967); this classified citrus into five commercially important
species:
 Mandarins (C. reticulata)
 Sweet orange (C. sinensis)
 Grapefruits (C. paradisi)
 Lemons (C. limon),
 Limes (C. aurantifolia)

Sweet oranges:
 There are four groups of sweet oranges based on fruit morphology, chemical constituents and
convenience:
1. Common round oranges
2. Navel oranges
3. Pigmented/blood oranges
4. Acid-less oranges

Other minor classifications:

Season of maturity
 Early = 6-9 months
Mid=season = 9-12 months
Late season = > 12 months

Seediness
Seedless (0-8 seeds/fruit)
Moderately seedy (9-15 seeds)
Very seedy (>15 seeds)

1. Navel oranges
 They are characterized by a secondary, tertiary or quaternary fruit (navel) at the stylar end of the
fruit.
 Fruits are mostly seedless due to complete pollen and partial ovule sterility.
 They are generally larger than other oranges and are grown primarily for fresh market.
 Common cultivars include
 Washington navel- a bud mutation from Brazil.
 Atwood
 Fisher
 Newhall – from California.

2. Pigmented/Blood oranges
 These are commercially important in the Mediterranean countries – Italy, Spain, Morocco,
Algeria, and Tunisia.
 Grown under the Mediterranean climate – hot days and cool nights, the fruits develop deep red
flesh colour, which may also appear on the peel.
 The red colour is due to anthocyanin pigment.

Nucellar embryony
 This is the development of apomictic embryos (nucellar embryos) from the nucellar tissue of the
embryo sac.
 They give rise to nucellar seedlings on germination.
 This phenomenon is common in citrus and mangoes; it leads to the expression of polyembryony.
 The percentage of nucellar seedlings in citrus ranges from zero in C. maxima to almost 100% in
mandarins. In most cases zygotic seedlings give rise to weak plants; observations have shown
that nucellar seedlings are more vigorous.
 Early detection of nucellar embryony utilized visual ratings but in some instances it is difficult to
detect with accuracy the distinction between sexual and nucellar seedlings through morphological
genetic markers.
  Seedlings from nucellar embryos are usually virus free because most viruses (viroids) are not
translocated to the developing embryo.

Breeding objectives for citrus

 Despite the difficulties in citrus breeding several breeding programmes continue to endeavor to solve
important problems limiting citrus production worldwide.
 The programmes are separated into: rootstock breeding and scion breeding.
 Because the objectives for each are different even though some combine objectives for both, e.g.
freeze hardiness or virus resistance.
Scion breeding objectives:

o Fruit quality improvement – high colour, TSS, seedlessness

o Early maturity or late maturity – to expand market seasons
o Improvement of fruit structure and storability – to expand distribution
o Freeze hardiness – breeding deciduous trees to avoid freezing in extreme cold in the
subtropics.

Rootstock breeding objectives:

o Improved freeze hardiness

o Tree size control
o Salinity and drought tolerance
o Resistance to soil-borne organisms
o Tolerance or resistance to viruses e.g. the CTV
o High seededness to facilitate seed propagation and high nucellar embryony to provide
uniform seedlings.

Breeding techniques
Involve:

o Traditional/ conventional-crossings and selections

o Biotechnology – using genetic transformation
o Mutation and selection
o Natural mutations

 Induced mutations e.g. gamma radiation of seeds (LD50 = 0.1 -0.15 Gy) and buds (LD50 =
0.05-0.09 Gy). E.g. ‘Star ruby’ grapefruit was selected from mutation breeding.

o Chimeras – mixture of tissues of genetically different constitutions on the same part of

the plant.
Common Citrus Cultivars
1. Sweet oranges – Valencia, Hamlin, Natal, Pineapple, Washington navel
2. Grape fruits – Duncan, Thompson, Star ruby, Red blush, Marsh seedless, Foster, Ruby red etc.
3. Limes – Two groups of limes
 Tahiti types – Persian, Bears etc, And – West Indian, Mexican types etc.
 Lemons – 3 groups of lemons exist:
(a) Ferniminello group,
(b) Verna (Berna) group and
(c) Sicilian group
 Ferniminello and verna groups – mostly produced in North Africa and Europe.
 Sicilian group – Eureka, Lisbon

4. Mandarins/ Tangerines – Clementines (China), Satsuma (Japan), Dancy (Florida), Ponkan

(India), Kara, Emperor, Mineola.
5. Pumelos/ Shaddock – 3 groups of cultivars divided according to where they were developed.
 Thai, Chinese, Indonesian.
 Thai – Chandler, Kao panna, Kao phuang
 Chinese – Goliath, Mato, Shatinyu
 Indonesian – Ban peiyu, Djeroek Deleema Kopjar.

Hybrid pumellos also exist:

Melogold
Pumello x Grapefruit
Oroblanco

 These have intermediate characteristics between the two.

Citrus Propagation
 The establishment of a reliable source of planting material is essential to the success of a citrus
industry.
 The dissemination and use of diseased or genetically inferior trees can be catastrophic on the
productivity of the citrus industry for many years.
 Consequently, many citrus producing countries have stringent nursery regulations.

 Citrus trees are normally started with seed selected from true to type source trees. These seeds are
used to grow rootstocks that will later be used for grafting/ budding selected scion cultivars.
 Under large scale commercial production validated true to type seed is purchased from reputable seed
companies or nurseries OR the seed may be extracted by the grower from rootstock mother trees
 Seed should be inspected to ensure it is very well developed and a seed lot should contain uniform
seed.
 Common rootstock seeds are from:
 Rough lemon – most common in Kenya
  Cleopatra mandarin
 Sour orange
 Swingle citrunelo

 Fruits for seed extraction are collected when fully mature and ripe.

Seed treatment:
 Extracted seed has a mucilaginous coating, which should be removed by washing or using
enzymes.
 During washing all off-types or underdeveloped seeds can be removed by floatation. After
washing 2 fungicidal treatments should be applied:

1. A hot water dip (510C for 10 min) to remove Phytophthora.

2. Seed treatment fungicide to control other fungi.

 Good storage is essential to ensure preservation of germination potential. Seeds should be dried
thoroughly and placed in sealed plastic bags that permit gaseous exchange but which limit
desiccation.
 Seeds can store at 4-50C for up to 6 months (Mexican lime) or 2 years (sour orange) – without
serious loses in germination potential.
 Freezing will kill seeds – temperature below –40C should be avoided.
 Rootstocks can also be raised from cuttings or by layering.
 For commercial production citrus trees are propagated by budding choice scions on
recommended rootstocks.

Raising Rootstocks
 Seeds of desirable rootstocks are planted at the beginning of the rainy season or any time with
irrigation. Presoaking seeds in water results in more uniform germination. Seeds are planted
about 0.5cm deep at a spacing of 0.5-1.0 cm in the row. Spacing between rows is 15-30 cm.
 Optimum moisture levels should be maintained – avoiding over-watering. Germination occurs
within 2-3 weeks depending on soil temperature and moisture (optimum = 25-300C). Seedlings
should receive frequent fertilizations with low analysis fertilizers: N, P, K – should be applied in
the ratio of 1:1:1.
 Disease and pest control should be carried out adequately.
 When trees reach a diameter of 4-8 mm they are transferred to the field nursery in readiness for
budding. In the field nursery they are planted out in rows in a process called ‘lining out’. The
trees at this stage are called liners. Liners are placed 15-6- cm apart within the rows and 1-2 cm
between rows.

Budding
 Most citrus are budded using the T- or inverted T-bud methods.
  Bud wood from scion cultivars is collected when the buds are dormant. Budding can be done
immediately after scion wood collection or the bud wood can be stored at 4-5 0C in moist peat
moss contained in plastic bags.
 Budding should be done when the rootstocks are actively growing.
 This ensures that there is active cambial cell division and the bark slips easily.
 If the bark is not slipping budding should be done using the chip budding method.
 Commercial propagators can bud 1000-5000 seedlings per day depending on the condition of the
plant.
 The budding height varies from 5-80 cm above the ground level depending on the growing
region.
 Buds generally take 2-3 weeks after budding. The position of the bud on the bud stick affects
percentage take. Buds located in the apical portion of the shoot have a higher percentage take
than those from the basal end.

Other methods of propagating citrus include:

 Seed propagation,
 layering and
 cuttage.
Management of budded growing seedlings involves:
o Fertilization using soluble forms of NPK (20:20:20 or 8:0:8 or 9:3:6)
o Irrigation – supply about 20 mm of water per application at a frequency of 1-2 times per
week.
o Disease and pest control – orange dog moth, spider mites, mealy bugs, grasshoppers, and
root weevils.

Citrus Orchard Establishment

1. Site considerations – refer to the principles.
2. Site preparations – Should be done in good time – at least a month before field planting. De-stumping
and root removal should be done well and land tilling be thorough.
3. Holing – In semi-arid areas large holes should be prepared (90 cm x 90 cm x 90 cm). In high potential
areas with deep soils hole size can be 30 cm x 30 cm 30 cm. Holes should be filled with top soil mixed
with manure and/ or phosphatic fertilizer.
4. Transplanting – The time of transplanting is critical under arid or rain fed conditions. It should be
done to ensure about or at least 2+ months of continuous and regular rain. Plants should be placed to
have the bud union about 30 cm from the ground level. Mulching can be done to consume moisture but it
sometimes causes localized feeder root growth.
5. Spacing – Spacing depends on the rootstock effect on the scion, the prevalent moisture regimes and the
soil fertility/ characteristics on the site.
6. Irrigation – Is necessary where rainfall falls short. Mature citrus trees require about 10 litres of water
per week. General irrigation recommendation is to supply about 100 mm of water per month. A
minimum period of 4-6 weeks drought should be provided under irrigated culture – to encourage flower
initiation. At fruiting stage irrigation should be carefully controlled to ensure quality preservation in the
fruit.
7. Pruning – Two forms of pruning are employed in citrus.
a) Frame formation – involves stopping upward growth at some point to encourage lateral
branch spreading. This is started once a convenient height is attained by the leader shoot in
the field OR in the nursery on advance trees.
Shoots below the bud union and also those below the required skirting level are also
removed.
b) Maintenance pruning – This is meant to encourage a balance between reproductive growth
and vegetative growth. Overmature wood, broken twigs or diseased and dead branches are
removed. Maintenance pruning is best done when the tree has just come out of the
reproductive season.

8. Fertilizer application – There are no rules of thumb or blanket guidelines on fertilizers.

 Application should be guided by soil/ tissue analysis results. Nutrition and fertilization practices
strongly affect quality in citrus.
 N, P and K have the greatest influence on fruit quality and yield. Their effect also varies with species
and cultivars. Sweet oranges show greater response than lemons. Minimum requirements of NPK
recommended in Kenya are as follows:
Nitrogen:
 100 g CAN/ tree 1st year
 Add 150 g to the above rate per year from Y2 to Y5.
 Thereafter 1 – 2.5 kg/ year/ tree CAN should be applied depending on the yield
performance, rainfall and soil conditions. Tissue analysis safe range is 2-3% N
Phosphorus:

 Applied early in the establishment stage:

 250 g SSP per tree for the first 3 years.
 Y4 – Y5 give 500 g/tree/ year.
 Y6 onwards give 1 - 1.5 kg/tree/ year.

Potassium:

 Can be a concern in acidic soils where it is fixed. Extra K may be needed.

 Y1 give 0.5 – 0.75 kg K2O/tree /year.

Micronutrients should be supplied based on tissue analysis. These are applied as foliar feeds.

9. Weed control – weed competition is not critical in mature citrus. Nevertheless, severe weed pressure
may reduce yields and impede harvesting operations.
 Viny weeds may especially be a big problem because they may cover the whole canopy. Weed
control is a major expense in the tropics where high temperatures prevail. Methods of control
include:
o Young trees – clean weeding is necessary.
o Mature trees – ring weeding accompanied by orchard slashing may be sufficient.
o Herbicide use is becoming a common practice in the major citrus growing regions.

Problems in Citrus Production

1. Citrus Greening

 A common problem in Kenya and the south of Africa. It generally refers to green colour retention on
the fruit and the failure of the fruit to develop normally.
 The condition was first identified in 1929 in S. Africa and was originally referred to as citrus yellows.
Sweet oranges are the most vulnerable species while lemons, grapefruit and citrons appear to be
tolerant.
 The causal organism is a mycoplasma-like organism that is transmitted through the saliva of sucking
insects such as while flies and more frequently the citrus psyllid. This vector survives well under
cool climates.

Symptoms -

General tree appearance – open growth, shoot die back, scanty foliage on trees, stunted
growth, severe fruit drop, and sectorial yellowing.

Fruit symptoms – very small underdeveloped fruits, low juice content, low soluble
solids, high acidity, ridging and lopsidedness of fruits, aborted seeds in seed
producing varieties and the oozing of grayish exudates on pressing the fruit.

Leaf symptoms – strong yellow veining, upright growth orientation, and Zn deficiency
symptoms.

Management: - 3 approaches may be employed:

1. Uprooting and destruction of all affected trees to stop further spread in localized
situations.
2. Control of vectors using proper pesticide schedules.
3. Use of clean grafting materials. Use scions and rootstocks that are certified clean.

2. Physiological Disorders:
a) Fruit Splitting – A common problem in navel oranges.

 Fruits start splitting open from the stylar end and may proceed around the fruit.
 The condition renders the fruits unmarketable.
  The condition is usually caused by differential (irregular) growth between the interior and
exterior tissues of the fruit. It is exaggerated when there’s Ca deficiency or excessive or
irregular irrigation is done.

Management – Organized irrigation programmes to effect regular tissue growth.

b) Granulation – Common in oranges (granulation) and grapefruits (ricing).

 Development of enlarged, hard, colourless and juiceless vesicles in fruits.

 An increased amount of pectic substances is observed that causes thickening of vesicle
walls.
 Increased levels of insoluble alcohol intermediates with decreased sugars, organic acids
and carotenoids. The condition is caused by high tree vigour, late fruit picking, high soil
moisture and some genetic factors.

c) Endoxerosis – Also called internal decline or tip deterioration.

 A condition where the blossom end of the fruit decays.

 It’s common in lemons. It is thought to be caused by water stress. Symptoms include:
formation of cavities near the vascular bundles; exudation of a colourless gummy
substance; loss of water and collapse of juice vesicles beginning at the stylar end; and
fruit drop when the effect is on 1/3 to ½ of the fruit.

d) Creasing – Common problem in oranges.

 Manifested by random grooves on the peel surface. The creased areas are severely
depressed such that they break into the mesocarp.
 Fruits become fragile to handle and are unattractive. The problem more amplified late in
the season. There is no established cause for the problem.

Pests and Diseases:

Pests
i. Aphids – appear as clusters of black or green tiny insects around tender parts of twigs.
 They suck sap from these tissues and may transmit viral diseases.
 They are not a problem during wet weather as they usually washed off the plant by rain.

Control – Frequent sprays with malathion, diazinon, or dimethoate easily control the insect.
Detergent sprays can also be used effectively.

ii. Citrus Psyllid – Found on the underside of leaves.

 The nymphs cause damage notiveable as pimples on the upper leaf surfaces.
  The leaves appear distorted and photosynthetis surface may be reduced to almost 50%. In many
cases leaves turn yellow leading to poor yields.

Control – As in aphids but sprays should be aimed to the lower leaf surfaces.

iii. Systates weevil – A beetle that is severe in the nursery stage.

 They are defoliators and can also ring bark the seedlings in the nursery.

Control – Sprays with endosulfan and fenitrothion are effective chemical controls.

iv. Scales – The most common scales found on citrus are the red scales, soft green scales, soft brown
scales and the muscle scale.
 They cause damage by sucking fruits, leaves and twigs. Severe attacks lead to heavy honeydew
deposition on fruits - a good medium for mould growth, which lowers fruit quality.
 Severely attacked branches display a rosette shape (internodes don’t elongate sufficiently).

Control – Sprays with diazinon, fenitrothion, malathion or dimethoate mixed with white oil.

v. False coddling moth – The caterpillar parasitizes the fruits.

 Adults lay eggs on leaf and fruit surfaces. The caterpillars enter the peel through minute holes.
 The insect is not noticeable until the fruits show premature ripening and fall – hence the name
false codling moth.

Control – Pesticide sprays described above can kill the larvae or the adult moth. All infested
fruits should be buried at least 15 cm below soil level.

vi. Rust mite – A serious pest that if not carefully controlled can lead to total crop quality loss.
 It is also ver inconspicuous. The mite feeds on both fruit and leaves.
 Fruits become small and severely disoloured (brown rusty appearance and hard). They also
become sweeter than normal.

Control – Spray with acaricides e.g. dicofol.

Other pests:

Fruit flies, orange dog moth

Diseases:
1. Tristeza virus (Quick decline) – One of the earliest observed citrus viral diseases.
 The symptoms include necrotic spots and swelling of the rootstock. The disease is transmitted
and spread by insects.

Control – Careful vector control (aphids, mites etc). Use of clean budding materials – both
scions and rootstocks.

2. Psorosis – Also a viral disease manifesting as leaf chlorosis and bark becoming scaly and peeling off.
It is common in South America but reported to be spreading in various producing regions. It is also
transmitted through bud or scion wood.
 Control – Proper quarantine measures during nursery practices will keep out the disease.

3. Stubborn disease – A viral disease. Makes trees appear tail-like (branches don’t spread out).
 Also transmitted through bud wood.

Control – quarantine measures.

Other diseases: Bacterial canker, phytophthora root rot, excortis virus.

Citrus Harvesting
Maturity determination – done by colour, size, juice content, taste (acid/ sugar ratio), tenderness and citic
acid level (tartness).

 Citrus fruits are harvested any time after 7 months of flowering.

 Trees can be in fruit throughout the year as long as there is sufficient water in the soil.
 For export trade fruits are harvested individually and selectively by hand.
 For the processing market machine harvesting can be done with the aid of tree shakers after the
application of abscission hormones.

Yields – Depending on management average yields range from 13 – 26 tons/ha/year in Kenya. Elsewhere
up to 63 tons/ha/year have been recorded.

Longevity – The economic life of an orchard depends on the species, cultivars and management practices.

 However in the tropics, longevity of 30-40 years is common.

 In other countries up to 70 years can be attained.

Citrus Pack House Operations

Grading:
 The fruit are inspected and unripe, immature, undersized, damaged or decayed fruits are
discarded.
 For local markets, the citrus fruits are graded as per the size into small, medium and large
grades. The differences between categories will depend on the type of fruit.

Packaging:
 Citrus fruits are packed in sacks, bags, bamboo baskets and wooden boxes for sending to
local markets.
 For urban markets, citrus fruits are packed in telescopic cardboard boxes.
 Corrugated trays are equally effective as packaging material while transporting the fruits.
Use of such trays is cost effective due to its reusability.
 For export of Nagpur mandarin, usually 2 piece, telescopic, corrugated fibreboard boxes
of three ply or five ply should be used.
 The size of the box may vary according to the requirement of the importing country.
Normally a box size of 49.5 x 29.5 x 17.5 cm having 10 kg capacity is recommended.
  The boxes must have 5% area punched as holes for ventilation. To immobilize the
movement of fruits inside the box, three ply wax treated dividers having ventilation holes
are used.

Storage:
 After the fruits are harvested, they should be treated with wax to reduce post-harvest
damage. Treatment of fruits with Bavistin (1000 ppm) can reduce post-harvest losses and
extend the shelf life to 25-26 days even at room temperature.
 Shelf life of Nagpur mandarin can be extended by three weeks on wrapping the fruits
with heat shrinkable polythene and Cryovate film (D 955 and BDF 2001).
 The ideal storage temperatures for Nagpur mandarin is 6-70C at 85-90% relative humidity
while lime & lemon are stored at 10-120C with 90-95% relative humidity.

Transport:
 Citrus fruits are transported by rail or road as ordinary cargo and without refrigeration,
which often leads to heavy loss due to decay and fungal infections.

Cool Chain:
 Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from
the farm to the customer.
 This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low level as in the
cold storage.

The various stages of the cool chain are:

 Cold store at the farm.
 Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
 Cold store at the airport.
 Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport.
 Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time.
 Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold.
 Offloading direct into a cold store in the receiving country.
SUB TROPICAL FRUITS

1. STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION

Introduction
Straw berries (Fragaia spp)

 The most grown strawberry species in Kenya is Fragaria vesca variety Ananassa and is the most
popular small fruit grown in the garden.
 Straw berry is attractive and flavoring rich in vitamin C, K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, foliate and
other vitamins
 It is a low perennial growing above the ground with short crown, leaves, flowers, trusses and runner
(stolons) with runner plants. They propagate vegetatively by producing runners /stolons. Runners
arise from buds at the base/axils of the leaves.
 Roots arise from the short underground part of the stem (rhizome). They are either semi-permanent
lasting more than one season or temporally lasting only days or weeks. They occur in the upper 3-6
inches of soil or up to 12”.

Uses
• The fruits are eaten fresh or canned.
• They are used in cakes, ice screams or in jam.
• The fruit is very rich in vitamin c and iron with a distinct and pleasant aroma and delicate flavour.
Ecological requirements:
Altitude
 Can grow at altitudes of 1500-2200m. Production is however limited by distance to the market
due perishability.
Temperature
 Requires temperate to warm temperatures. Lower temp below 150c will induce flower bud
formation and will be inhibited when day/night temp exceed 220c.
Rainfall or irrigation
 Require well distributed rainfall of 1200mm where rainfall is less than this irrigation is necessary
25mm/week as the crop does not tolerate drought. Moisture at the time of berry expansions
determines its size which affect enlargement of cells.
Soils
 Are shallow rooted and grown on wide range of soils however deep sandy loams which are well
drained and rich in humus are ideal
 pH should 5.5 to 6.5 in alkaline conditions tend to exhibit signs of iron deficiency (inter-veinal
chlorosis of younger leaves)
 Avoid growing in saline conditions causes stunting, marginal leaf scorch, and severe yield
reduction apply enough water to leach excess salts to below its root zone.

Varieties
 Should be disease free –buy healthy, virus free plant from a reliable nursery
 There are 3 types;
• June bearers,
• ever bearers and
• day neutrals
 Differing in their response to day length which affects berry and runner production.
 In Kenya (tropics) only day neutrals produce fruits which produce runners and fruits simultaneously
and temperature above 22oc inhibit flower bud formation.

Kenyan Varieties include;-

i. Tribute: medium large, short, cone to wedge-shaped bright red berries, pleasant flavor, good
dessert and processing qualities, resistant to red stele.
ii. Tristar: medium size, symmetrical, short, conic deep red fruit, good desert and freezing
qualities, resistant to verticillium wilt and red stele.
iii. Domanil: late crop, mid-season, large fruits
iv. Rabunda: late season and high yields
v. Chandler
vi. Douglas
vii. Aiko
 Varieties based on fruit shape

Propagation
 Splitting is the common method.
 Runners can be used especially in temperate regions.
 Before planting, work the soils so that there is a deep and reasonable loose planting bed and
incorporate organics manures.
 Spacing is 45cm by 40-30cm to give a plant population of 74,000 plants/ha vigorous varieties are
spaced at 90* 30 cm (55,000plants/ha).
 The crown is very short and do not tolerate deep planting.
 Roots should not be allowed to dry out and should be carefully spread in the planting hole.
 Avoid planting them after peppers (capsicums), tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant or okra because all are
susceptible to verticillium wilt.
 Seeds can be used for propagation but difficult in using.
 Prepare planting holes on raised beds.
 Seedling spacing of 20’’ apart and 4ft between rows.
 Roots covered but crown maintained at soil surface.

Collecting stolon/runners for propagation

 Indoor/Greenhouse production (Vertical and ground)

Vertical gardens

Fertilizers
• At planting apply 200kg/ha of DSP and 150kg/ha of Ammonium sulphate nitrate (26%) at
flowering.
• High soils organic matter increases yields, therefore manure should applied during land
preparation.
• NB: Proper soil testing should be done before planting and soil nutrient checked regularly

Field Management
Deflowering or pinching
• Necessary to control premature cropping which is induced by short day conditions occurring in
Kenya i.e the flowering starts before the plant is established.
• It should be carried out for a few months until the plants has established itself.
• Prune flowers immediately they appear. This reduces chances of early exhaustion of the plant.

Stripping or pruning
• During rest period, all old and dozed leaves are removed off the plant to reduce source of
infection from disease or pests and to allow re growth of foliage.
• Removed leaves should be removed and burnt outside the field.
• Cut off runners regularly except for those needed for planting. One or 2 runners from the runner
type can be rooted for the planting.

Diseases
i. Leaf spot (mycosphaerella spp)
• Grey spots with purple margins on leaves are seen
Control
• Destroy crop residues after harvest, practice crop rotational,
plant clean seed
 • Spray with Bayleton and Benlate alternately

ii. Verticillium wilt

• Yellow and wilted leaves
• Stunted plant
Control
• Crop rotation and avoid areas where potatoes, tomatoes,
eggplant have been previously grown
• Fumigation

iii. Grey mould (Botrytis rot)

• Caused by Borytis cinerea
• Soft rot of fruit and grey mould on infected plants
• Fungus continues to grow even at 0oc i.e. after storage
Control
• Spray with thiran and benomy

Pests
1. Red spider mite (Tetranchus spp)
• Greyish brown mite found on the lower surface of leaves
Control: Spray with Dicofol Actetellic
Others:
2. Beetles
3. Mites
4. Ants
5. Thrips
6. Nematodes

Mites beetles Nematodes attack

Maturity
• Maturity of strawberry is a function of the temperature prevailing during growth period.
 • Maturity period ranges from 18 – 40 days from flowering but optimum period is 30 days from
flowering indicated by colour 1/2 or3/4 berry surface show red or pink colour depending on
grade.
• Generally takes 70 days from planting. 4 – 6 weeks after blooming.

Harvesting
• Berries should be picked when they are completely red or nearly red.
• Partly coloured berries become red after picking but do not develop full flavor.
• All ripe berries should be picked otherwise they will become over-ripe or rotten by the next
picking.
• At picking hold only 2-3 berries in the hand at one time to avoid crushing them.
• Harvested berries should be taken to the packing shelter as quickly as possible as to enhance
cooling in order to reduce dehydration and deterioration

• For fresh market are sold in punnettes and in other cases they are solid on per weight basis.
• They lose quality rapidly and continuously after harvest .This is due to chemical changes in the
berries and because of growth of decay causing organism. Therefore fruits should be picked every
2 days as the fruits ripens quickly and breaks down.
• Deterioration can be slowed by cooling down the berries and storing at temperatures below 4 0c.
• Harvest continually up to 3 weeks.
• Handle carefully.
• Keep refrigerated 5 – 7 days shelf life
Quality Indices
• Appearance –coluor size, shape, freedom from defects
• Firmness
• Flavor –soluble solids -7%, acidity (0.8%)
• Nutritional value –vitamin C

Yield
• 1/8 plot will give 30 – 50kgs/ week
• 10,000kgs/acre in the first year
• 7,500kgs in the second year
• 5,000kgs in the third year
• The plants should be renewed with disease free plants by the end of the third year
2. TREE TOMATOES Tamarillo
  Tamarillo, best known by the name Tree Tomato in Kenya is a fast-growing tree belonging to the
Solanaceae family, which grows up to approximately 5meters.
 The tree usually forms a single upright trunk with lateral branches and flowers and fruits hang
from the lateral branches.
 The leaves are large, simple and perennial and have a strong pungent smell while the flowers are
pink-white and form clusters of 10-50 flowers. They produce 1 to 6 fruits per cluster.
 In Kenya, tree tomato is grown in Migori, Kisii, Kakamega, Meru, Murang’a, Embu, Nyeri,
Nyandarua, Kericho, among others.
 Areas, where citrus are cultivated, provide good conditions for tree tomatoes.
 The fruit is a many-seeded berry and egg-shaped, which looks like a medium-sized tomato,
although it is not a true tomato.

Uses
 Fruits can be eaten fresh by scooping the flesh from halved pieces.
 For other uses, the skin must be removed which is easily done by pouring boiling water over the
fruits and letting it stand for about 5 minutes before peeling.
 The tree tomato flesh can be added to stews to make unique flavor and the fruits are tasty and
decorative in salads making appetizing desserts.
 Fresh tree tomato is often blended with sugar and water to make refreshing juice.
 Peak production is reached after 3-6 years depending on the cultivar, and the life expectancy of
the crop is about 12 years.

Varieties
 There are various tree tomato varieties which are mostly distinguished by their color.
 Red fruits variety – mostly used for fresh market fruit due to their appealing color.
 Yellow fruits variety – these fruits have a superior flavor and hence good for preserving.
 Dark-red or Black variety - the fruits are large and of higher quality.

Ecological requirements
Tree tomatoes prefer subtropical climate.
Soil - Tree tomatoes grow naturally on soils with a pH of 5 - 8.5 and do not tolerate tightly
compacted soil. For vigorous growth, they require well-drained fertile soil which is rich in
organic matter. The soil must be permeable since the plants are not tolerant to water-logging.

Rainfall - Although they can be planted under irrigation, rainfall between 600 and 4000
millimeters is suitable.
The crop cannot survive in areas with prolonged drought and must have ample water during the
dry season. Application of mulch retains moisture in a tree tomato plantation and also reduces
weed growth.

Temperature - Annual temperatures between 15 and 20 °C are ideal for tree tomato production.
It is intolerant to frost (below -2 °C) and drought stress

Altitude - Tree tomatoes grow well in altitude of between 1,500m to 3,000M above sea level.
Field operations

Propagation
 Is by seeds or cuttings. However, the easiest way to grow tree tomato is through seedlings.
 Seedlings first develop straight, about 1.5 to 1.8 meters tall trunks, before they branch out, while
cuttings develop into shorter bushy plants with low-lying branches.
 Selection of planting site is very important

Planting
 Seeds should be treated against soil-borne pests, soil-borne fungal infections and seed dormancy.
This is achieved through drenching the nursery with a mixture of PYRAMID 700WP 100g
+LOYALTY 700WDG 10g+ OPTIMIZER 20ml in 20litres of water.
 Spacing - The distance from one plant to the next should be 4 feet and space between one row
and the next should be 5 feet.
 Cuttings should only be got from plants which are 1-2years old with a thickness of 1.5 to 2.5 cm
and a length of 45 to 75 cm. They are sown directly at a spacing of 3×3m.
 Plants grown from cuttings branch out earlier and result in more shrub-like plants that are more
suitable for exposed sites. They should not be allowed to bear the first year.

Cultural practices

Weeding
 It is essential to keep the fields free from weeds. This is because weeds compete for growth
factors like nutrients, space, water, sunlight as well harboring pathogens and these greatly
affect crop performance
 CLAMPDOWN 480SL 200ml/20l is a recommended non-selective herbicide.

Mulching
 This has several benefits to the crop, e.g. conservation of moisture, suppression of weed
growth, nutrient supply, and improvement of soil structure and water infiltration, checking of
soil erosion and topsoil temperature as well as reduction of pests’ incidence.
Watering
 To maximize and stabilize production, water and nutrient inputs should be provided when
needed.
 The plants need a continuous supply of water due to their shallow root system. Water stress
results in a decrease in plant growth and production.
Shelter
 The plants should be protected from strong wind because their shallow root system does not
provide enough stability and the lateral branches are fragile and break easily when carrying
fruits.
Pruning
 When the tree is about 1 to 1.5 meters in height, it is advisable to cut the roots on one side
and lean the tree to the other (in the direction of the midday sun at about 30 to 45 degrees).
 Pruning helps to control fruit size, plant size and harvest date.
 It allows fruiting branches to grow all along the trunk rather than just at the top.
Support
  At fruit bearing stage, tree tomatoes need support to prevent branches from breaking off when
laden with fruits.
 The trees can easily be blown over by the wind as they are shallow rooted.

Pests and diseases management

Pests
 Tree tomatoes are generally pest resistant.
 The main pests that attack the tree include the aphids, thrips whiteflies, and nematodes

Aphids
 These are small black or greenish soft-bodied sap-sucking insects and members of the
superfamily Aphidoidea.
 They feed by piercing and sucking sap on tender shoots, especially on the lower leaf surface.
The attacked shoots become stunted and the leaves are curled and twisted.
 As they feed, aphids excrete honeydew which favours the growth of sooty mold which affects
photosynthesis.
 Spray KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or PENTAGON 50EC 10ml/20l or PRESENTO
200SP 5g/20l

Whiteflies
 They are tiny sap-sucking white-winged insects which cause damage by inserting their stylets
into leaf veins and extracting nourishment from the phloem sap.
 The affected plant loses its vitality resulting in yellowing, downward curling and an eventual
drying of leaves.
 Spray TAURUS 500SP 10g/20l or KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or PROFILE 440EC
30ml/20l

Nematodes
 These are microscopic parasites found in the soil, and whose infestation leads to wilting of
the plant.
 When the infested plants are pulled from the soil, the roots can found to be distorted, swollen
and bearing knots or galls. These roots eventually rot causing an eventual death of the plant.
 Drench the planting holes with ALONZE 50EC 6ml/20l or always mix 2kg ADVENTURE
5GR with 50kg of basal fertilizer during planting or top dressing.
Diseases
 If not controlled at early stages, these diseases cause significant yield losses.
 CADILLAC 800WP is a preventive fungicide which should be applied before disease invasion
for protection purposes.

Powdery Mildew
 Infection is characterized by the development of gray-white powdery growth majorly on
leaves and stems, which causes them to become distorted.
 The plant may eventually wilt as disease severity increases.
 Spray RANSOM 600WP 15g/20l or DISCOVERY 400SC 10ml/20l or DUCASSE 250EC
20ml/20l
 Blight
 Initial infection occurs in older leaves with concentric dark brown spots developing on the
leaves. As infection advances, infected leaves turn yellow and fall off. On stems, spots
without clear contours are seen. The lesions enlarge as severity increases.
 Spray EXEMPO CURVE 250SC 15ml/20l or FORTRESS GOLD 40g/20l or MEGAPRODE
LOCK 525WP 15g/20l

Mosaic
 This is a viral disease, and the virus is mechanically transmitted and also spread by several
species of aphids in nonpersistent mode.
 Attacked leaves have reduced size and patches of dark-green tissue alternating with yellow-
green. Generally, the plant becomes stunted and the quality of fruits is greatly reduced.
 Control aphids (vectors) with KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or PENTAGON 50EC
10ml/20l or PRESENTO 200SP 5g/20l

Nutrition & nutritional deficiencies

 In order to maintain a healthy growth, tree tomatoes require continuous fertilization
 This should include the supply of both macro and micronutrients which are provided through
application of basal and foliar fertilizers.

For instance;
 At planting, soil should be mixed with manure and/or DAP and top dressing done using CAN.
 To promote rapid root development and stimulate plant growth, GOLDCHANCE SUPER
START 50g/20l or LAVENDER 20ml/20l should be sprayed.
 For a robust vegetative growth, GOLDCHANCE SUPER GROWTH 50g/20l or LAVENDER
20ml/20l are sprayed to supply enough Nitrogen which is highly required in the development of
foliage, important for photosynthesis, besides other elements.
 During flowering and fruiting stages, spray GOLDCHANCE SUPER FLOWERS & FRUITS
50g/20l, VITABOR GOLD 60ml/20l, and DIMIPHITE 10ml/20l. These provide nutrient
elements needed to induce flowering and fruiting, prevent flower abortion as well as ensure
production of good quality fruits.

NB; Application of OPTIMIZER 10ml/20l boosts the crop’s immunity, manages stress and
improves the general performance of the crop. This can be done at any growth stage of the crop.

Deficiencies

Nitrogen deficiency
 The growth rate of deficient trees is highly reduced and leaves turn yellow, starting with the
older ones.
 Correction; spray LAVENDER 20ml/20l or GOLDCHANCE SUPER GROWTH 50g/20l

Phosphorous deficiency
 The deficient plants become stunted, internodes shorten, leaves turn purplish and there’s
production of poor quality flowers which bear low-quality fruits.
  Correction; spray DIMIPHITE 30ml/20l or GOLDCHANCE SUPER START 50g/20l or
LAVENDER 20ml/20l

Potassium deficiency
 The young leaves become small, dull and cupped while the older ones develop marginal
chlorosis. In severe cases, leaves dry.
 Correction; spray DIMIPHITE 30ml/20l or GOLDCHANCE SUPER FLOWERS & FRUITS
50g/20l or PLANT SOUL 30ml/20l

Boron deficiency
 The growing points of the affected trees die and leaves become chlorotic, then necrotic.
 Fruit quality is greatly reduced.
 Correction; spray VITABOR GOLD 20ml/20l or BOND CHANCE 50ml/20l

Maturity, harvesting & post-harvest handling

 The tree grows very quickly and is able to carry fruits after 1.5 to 2 years though in some favorable
conditions they carry fruits in a lesser span of time. The plant is day length-insensitive.
 Fruits do not mature simultaneously unless the tree has been pruned.
 Tree tomatoes are ready for harvesting when they develop the red or yellow color and harvesting is
achieved through simply pulling the fruits from the shrubs with a snapping motion leaving the stalk
attached.
 The fruits can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 10 weeks, but temperatures below 38°F can cause
the skin to discolour.

Tips!
 Whenever doing any foliar spray, the product (insecticide, fungicide, foliar feed or herbicide)
should be mixed with INTEGRA 3ml/20l. This is a sticker, spreader, and penetrant, which
improves the efficacy of the product.
 All basal fertilizers and manure should be mixed with HUMIPOWER at the rate of 1kg
Humipower into 50kg fertilizer or 1 ton of manure. Humipower helps to improve the nutrient
uptake by the crop, stimulates growth, and improves soil structure, among other benefits.
 Timely application of pesticides and fertilizers is very important.

3. GUAVA
 Guava farming has gained immense
popularity in Kenya due to its
adaptability, high yield potential,
and nutritional value.
 Photo Credit: Daily Monitor

Choosing the Right Guava Varieties:

 When selecting guava varieties for farming in Kenya, it is essential to consider factors such as
climate, market demand, and disease resistance.
Here are some popular guava varieties in Kenya:
 Red Ruby: Red Ruby is a widely cultivated guava variety in Kenya. It is known for its sweet and
flavorful fruit, which has a red to pinkish flesh. Red Ruby guavas are highly aromatic and have a
good shelf life, making them suitable for both fresh consumption and processing into various
products.
 White Flesh: The White Flesh guava variety is highly sought after for its creamy, white-colored
flesh. It has a mild and sweet flavor with a hint of acidity. The fruit is medium-sized and typically
used for fresh consumption. White Flesh guavas are valued for their unique taste and pleasant
aroma.
 Pink Supreme: Pink Supreme is another popular guava variety in Kenya. It is known for its
large-sized fruits, which have a pinkish flesh. The flavor is sweet and slightly tangy, with a
tropical aroma. Pink Supreme guavas are often used for fresh consumption, juicing, and making
desserts.
 Fahari: Fahari is a guava variety that was developed in Kenya by the Horticultural Research
Institute (HRI). It is a high-yielding variety with medium-sized fruits. Fahari guavas have a red to
pinkish flesh and offer a sweet and aromatic flavor. This variety is known for its disease
resistance and adaptability to different agro-ecological zones in Kenya.
 Kaari: Kaari is a guava variety that was also developed by the Horticultural Research Institute in
Kenya. It is a dwarf variety, meaning it has a compact growth habit and smaller tree size
compared to other guava varieties. Kaari guavas have a pinkish flesh with a sweet flavor and
pleasant aroma. This variety is suitable for small-scale farming or backyard gardens.
 Cali: Cali is a guava variety that originates from Colombia but has gained popularity in Kenya. It
has medium to large-sized fruits with a green skin and pinkish flesh. Cali guavas offer a unique
flavor profile, combining sweetness with a hint of acidity. This variety is known for its high yield
potential and resistance to pests and diseases.
Variety Fruit Color Fruit Size Flavor Yield Disease Resistance

Cali Green Medium to Large Sweet, Tropical High Moderate

Kaari Yellow Medium Sweet, Aromatic Moderate High

Fahari Yellow Large Sweet, Tangy High Moderate

Pink Supreme Pink Medium to Large Sweet, Floral Moderate Moderate

White Flesh Green/Yellow Medium to Large Mild, Subtle High Moderate

Red Ruby Red Small to Medium Sweet, Tangy Moderate High

Land Preparation and Planting:

 Guava plants thrive in well-drained soil with a pH range of 5.5 - 7.5.
 Land preparation involves clearing the area of weeds and debris and incorporating organic matter
into the soil.
 Proper soil testing is crucial to determine nutrient deficiencies and adjust fertilizer
recommendations accordingly.
 Guava can be propagated through seeds, cuttings, or grafting, with grafting being the preferred
method for ensuring desirable traits.
 Spacing depends on the variety and growth habit, but a general guideline is to maintain a distance
of 6 to 8 meters between plants.
 Adequate irrigation and drainage systems should be established to ensure optimal plant growth.
Here is a step-by-step guide for planting guava trees:
 Site Selection:
 Choose a site that receives full sunlight for at least 6 to 8 hours a day.
 Ensure good air circulation and protection from strong winds.
 Select well-drained soil with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5.
 Land Preparation:
 Clear the planting area of weeds, rocks, and debris.
 Incorporate organic matter into the soil, such as compost or well-rotted manure, to
improve soil fertility and structure.
 Perform a soil test to assess nutrient deficiencies and adjust fertilization accordingly.
 Variety Selection:
 Choose a guava variety suitable for your climate, market demand, and disease resistance.
  Consult with local agricultural experts or nurseries for guidance on the most suitable
varieties for your specific region.
 Propagation:
 Guava trees can be propagated through seeds, cuttings, or grafting.
 Seeds can be collected from ripe guava fruits and planted in a nursery bed. However,
keep in mind that seed-grown guava trees may not retain the exact characteristics of the
parent tree.
 Grafting is the preferred method for ensuring desirable traits and maintaining variety
characteristics. Obtain healthy rootstock and scion material from reputable nurseries.
 Planting:
 Dig a hole that is wide and deep enough to accommodate the guava tree’s root system.
 Place the guava seedling or grafted tree in the center of the hole, ensuring that the bud
union (for grafted trees) is above the soil level.
 Backfill the hole with soil, gently firming it around the roots to remove air pockets.
 Water the newly planted tree thoroughly.
 Spacing:
 The spacing between guava trees depends on the variety and growth habit.
 A general guideline is to maintain a distance of 6 to 8 meters between plants to allow for
proper airflow and growth.
 Irrigation:
 Guava trees require regular and adequate irrigation, especially during the dry season and
the flowering and fruiting stages.
 Establish an irrigation system such as drip irrigation to deliver water directly to the root
zone efficiently.
 Monitor soil moisture levels and adjust irrigation frequency and duration based on the
plant’s needs and weather conditions.
 Mulching:
 Apply a layer of organic mulch, such as straw or wood chips, around the base of the tree.
 Mulching helps suppress weeds, conserve soil moisture, and regulate soil temperature.
 Pruning and Training:
 Prune guava trees during the dormant season to remove diseased or damaged branches
and to shape the tree.
 Pruning helps improve airflow, sunlight penetration, and fruit quality.
 Train the tree to a desired shape, such as an open center or modified central leader
system, by selectively pruning and tying branches.
 Fertilizer application:
  Conduct regular soil tests to determine nutrient deficiencies and adjust fertilization
accordingly.
 Apply organic fertilizers, such as compost or well-rotted manure, before planting and as
top-dressing during the growing season.
 Use balanced inorganic fertilizers according to recommended dosage rates and timing,
ensuring a balanced nutrient supply.

Nutritional Requirements and Fertilizer application:

 Guava plants have specific nutritional requirements for optimal growth and fruit production.
 Soil testing helps determine the nutrient composition and allows for targeted fertilizer
applications.
 Key nutrients for guava include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.

 Organic fertilizers such as compost and

manure can be incorporated into the soil before
planting.
 Inorganic fertilizers should be applied in balanced proportions, following recommended dosage
rates and timing.
 Splitting the fertilizer applications throughout the year ensures steady nutrient availability for the
plants.

Here’s a general fertilization program for guava farming:

 Pre-Planting:
 Before planting guava trees, it is recommended to incorporate organic matter into the
soil, such as compost or well-rotted manure, to improve soil fertility and structure.
 Basal Application:
 Apply a balanced fertilizer at the time of planting or shortly after. Use a formulation with
an equal ratio of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), such as 10-10-10 or
14-14-14.
 Apply the fertilizer in a circular band around the tree, starting about 15-20 cm away from
the trunk and extending beyond the drip line.
 The amount of fertilizer applied depends on the age of the tree and soil fertility. As a
general guideline, apply 200-400 grams of fertilizer per tree during the first year.
 Annual Fertilizer application:
 Guava trees typically require three to four applications of fertilizer per year, depending
on the age and growth rate of the trees.
a. First Application:
 Apply a balanced fertilizer in early spring, just before the onset of
the rainy season or during active growth.
 Use a formulation with an NPK ratio of 16-16-16 or similar.
 Apply 500-800 grams of fertilizer per tree during the second and
third year. Increase the amount gradually as the tree matures.
b. Second Application:
 Apply a nitrogen-rich fertilizer in late spring or early summer to
support vegetative growth and flowering.
 Use a fertilizer with a higher nitrogen content, such as 20-10-10 or
25-5-5.
 Apply 500-800 grams of fertilizer per tree.
c. Third Application:
 Apply a balanced fertilizer in early autumn to promote fruit
development and ripening.
 Use a formulation with an NPK ratio of 10-10-10 or similar.
 Apply 500-800 grams of fertilizer per tree.
d. Fourth Application (Optional):
 In some cases, a fourth application of a balanced fertilizer may be
beneficial during late winter or early spring to support new growth
before the onset of the rainy season.
 Use a formulation with an NPK ratio of 10-10-10 or similar.
 Apply 500-800 grams of fertilizer per tree.
 Splitting Fertilizer Applications:
 It is generally recommended to split the fertilizer applications into multiple smaller doses
throughout the year rather than applying the full amount at once.
 This ensures a steady nutrient supply and reduces the risk of nutrient leaching or wastage.
 Nutrient Monitoring and Adjustments:
 Regularly monitor the nutrient status of the soil through soil testing. This helps identify
any nutrient deficiencies or imbalances.
 Based on the soil test results, adjust the fertilizer application rates and ratios as
recommended by agricultural experts or local extension services.
  Consider incorporating micronutrients, such as zinc, manganese, and boron, into the
fertilization program if deficiencies are identified.
 Organic Fertilizers:
 In addition to inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers, such as compost, well-rotted
manure, or organic-based fertilizers, can be used to supplement nutrient requirements.
 Apply organic fertilizers as top-dressing or incorporate them into the soil during land
preparation or as mulch.


 Remember that specific fertilization requirements may vary based on soil conditions, guava tree
age, and local factors.
 It is advisable to consult with local agricultural experts, extension services, or agronomists

Crop Management:
 Pruning and training techniques are essential for shaping guava trees, improving airflow, and
enhancing fruit quality. Pruning should be done during the dormant season to remove diseased or
damaged branches and maintain an open canopy.
 Weed control is crucial, especially during the early stages of guava growth. Mulching with
organic materials helps suppress weeds and conserve soil moisture. Guavas are susceptible to
various diseases and pests, including anthracnose, fruit rot, fruit flies, and nematodes.
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, including cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods, can effectively manage these threats.
Irrigation and Water Management:
 Guava plants require adequate and consistent moisture, especially during the flowering and
fruiting stages. Irrigation systems such as drip irrigation are highly recommended for guava
farming. Drip irrigation ensures efficient water usage, reduces weed growth, and minimizes
disease risks associated with overhead sprinklers.
 Proper scheduling of irrigation, considering factors such as climate, soil moisture, and plant
requirements, is crucial. Farmers should monitor soil moisture levels regularly and adjust
irrigation practices accordingly.

Harvesting and Post-Harvest Management:

 Guava fruits should be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage to ensure optimal flavor,
texture, and shelf life. Harvesting is typically done when the fruits start to change color and
become slightly soft. Special care should be taken to avoid damaging the fruits during harvesting.
Proper handling, grading, and packing techniques are essential to maintain fruit quality.
 Guavas should be handled gently to avoid bruising or mechanical damage. Grading helps sort the
fruits based on size and quality, enabling farmers to meet specific market requirements. Packing
should be done in clean and sturdy containers to protect the fruits during transportation and
minimize post-harvest losses.
  Post-harvest treatments, such as hot water treatment, can be applied to control fruit fly infestation
and extend the shelf life of guavas. Hot water treatment involves immersing the fruits in hot water
for a specific duration to kill any insect larvae present.
 Storage conditions should be optimized to maintain fruit freshness. Guavas can be stored at cool
temperatures with high humidity to reduce water loss and prevent shriveling. Proper ventilation in
storage areas is crucial to minimize the risk of fungal infections.

Marketing and Value Addition:

 Successful guava farming involves understanding the market demand and consumer preferences.
 Conducting market analysis helps identify potential buyers, wholesalers, and retailers. Building
strong market networks and collaborations can ensure a consistent market supply and facilitate
direct sales. Value addition offers opportunities to increase profitability.
 Guavas can be processed into various products such as juice, jams, jellies, purees, and dried fruit,
providing additional income streams.
 Exploring export opportunities requires compliance with international quality and safety
standards, along with necessary certifications and documentation.

Financial Planning and Management:

 Farmers should estimate the costs involved in establishing a guava farm, including land
preparation, seedlings or grafting materials, irrigation systems, fertilizers, labor, and
infrastructure. Profitability analysis should consider factors such as market prices, expected yield,
and production costs.
 Accessing financial support, such as loans or grants, from government institutions or agricultural
programs can aid in the initial investment.
 Effective financial management practices, including record-keeping, budgeting, and cost control,
are vital for the long-term success and sustainability of guava farming.

Challenges and Potential Solutions:

 Guava farming may face challenges such as unpredictable weather patterns, pests and diseases,
market fluctuations, and limited access to quality inputs. Farmers can mitigate risks through
climate-smart practices, such as mulching, micro-irrigation, and rainwater harvesting.
Implementing integrated pest and disease management strategies helps minimize crop losses.
 Diversifying the market, exploring value-added products, and establishing long-term contracts
can reduce the impact of market fluctuations. Engaging with agricultural extension services,
joining farmer cooperatives, and attending training programs can enhance knowledge and provide
access to resources and support.
TEMPERATE FRUITS

1. APPLES (Malus domestica)

Introduction
 It is a round edible fruit fruit produced by an apple tree.
 It belongs to the family Rosacea
 Apple is a hardy deciduous temperate fruit tree, generally standing at a height of 2 - 4.5m tall, which
has high potential in most highlands where temperature is low enough to break its dormancy.
 There are varieties good for dessert whereas others are for cooking.
 Their production is seasonal and fruits cannot keep for long unless pickled or carefully handled
during transportation and storage.
 Its production is confined to a few scattered farmers in the highlands of Kiambu, Kitale and Nandi.
 Apple is low in fats and oils while rich in vitamin C (help form and maintain bones, cartilage and
blood vessels an antioxidant- supports the immune system.)

 Apples grown from seed tend to be very different from those of their parents, and the resultant fruit
frequently lacks desired characteristics.
 For commercial purposes, including botanical evaluation, apple cultivars are propagated by clonal
grafting onto rootstocks.
 There are more than 7500 cultivars of apples. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses,
including cooking, eating raw and cider or apple juice production.
 The apple is prone to fungal, bacterial and pest problems which can be controlled by a number of
organic and non-organic means.
 As of 2023, China is the leading producer of apples with nearly half of the world’s total production of
78M tonnes.

Ecology
 Temperature:
 Requires low night temperatures for breaking dormancy.
 Day temperature of 180c and night temperature of above 13oc are needed.
 Optimum night and day temperature of 6-8oc would enable complete bud breaking.
 If grown in areas that do not experience low temperature, chemicals such as winter tar oil (tropical
mortegg) & thio urea (NH3)2 are used to supplement inadequate chilling.

 Soil
- Soils should be well drained soils, fertile whose pH is 5.5 for sandy soils and 6.5 for clays.

 Altitude
- Grows well in high altitudes ranging from 1800-2800 m ASL like Transnzoia, Nyandarua,
Uasingishu, Nakuru, Kiambu,Muranga, Meru & Taita Taveta
Varieties
Bleinhein orange
 Does well in altitudes of 2300-3000m ASL
 A heavy cropper with large fruits.
Winter banana
 Does well at altitudes of 2000-3000m ASL
 Grows vigorously and bears large fruits of good quality
 Recommended for pollination and production.
Scoops early
 Grows at altitudes of 2500- 3000m ASL
 Good early bearing that requires a vigorous root stock
Rome beauty
 Altitude is 2000-2500m ASL
 Suitable for lower altitudes
 Needs a vigorous root stock for good performance.
Jonathan
 Altitude of 2300-3000 m ASL are needed
 Has good quality fruits but susceptible to the blight disease.
 Recommended for pollination.
 Grows vigorously in the higher altitudes.
Bramley seedling
 Grows at altitudes of 2300-3000m ASL
 A late cultivator which bears good fruit and requires a pollinator.
King of Thompkin County
 Grows at altitudes of 2000-3000m ASL
 A vigorous desert for cooking quality.
 Low yielder but has large quality fruits
Anna
 Good sweet flavor but poor keeping quality.
 Early ripening and requires a pollinator.
Golden Dorset
 Early maturing cultivar normally planted with Anna for pollination.
 Fruits are yellow with a slightly pink bluish and the flesh is firm and sweet.
Grunny Smith
 Has medium to large fruit with a bright green color and purple bluish turning to light
Golden Delicious
 Early maturing small fruited cultivars.
 Has a good dessert quality.
Red Delicious
 Medium red fruit with distinctive conical shape
 Has good dessert qualities

Abundance
 Has good quality fruit which can stand storage.
 Mayan Shlomit michal
 Requires low chilling

Others: Enterprise, Liberty, Goldrush, Jonafree, Pristine (resistant to apple scab) & William
pride

Root stock
- Necessary for apple tree growing and should be tolerant to conditions which would otherwise hinder
the proper growth of scion cultivar.
- It gives uniformity of production in the orchard.
- It gives dwarfing characteristics of the tree when desired.
- Trees come early into bearing.

Propagation:
- By seed (sexual) for whole tree apart from production of rootstock is only done for breeding
purposes.
- Established rootstock is budded or grafted with the selected cultivar when in vigorous growth.
- Methods for good take off are T-budding or wedge grafting.

Clonal root stock

 It is got by stooling the suckers. Stumps of desired variety are earthened up and resultant shoots are
removed and rooted in the nursery.
 Also multiplied from layering or root cutting.
 Should be virus tested materials to produce virus free trees. E.g. common varieties M (malling) and
MM (malling maton) and we have m4, m9, m11, m26, mm104, MM106, mm107.

Seedling rootstock
- It is also got by seed. Seeds are germinated to produce the rootstock.
- The seeds are stratified for 60-90 days at 2-7oc.
- Good varieties include: Rome Beauty, Golden Delicious, Malus, Baccata, Browinska, Antanorca,
and Immure 411 are most vigorous.

Land preparation
- Clear the land of all tree and bushes
- In forest first ring bark all trees to eliminate the possibility of fruit trees being attacked by the fungus
Armillaria melea

Spacing
- Varies according rootstock, variety, and altitude.
- Small varieties have closer spacing while large varieties have wider spacing.
- It ranges from 3mby 2m to 3m by 3m to 4m by4m to 4m by 5m
Planting
- Done during long rains and seedlings should be dormant, if done during hot season, irrigation,
mulching and shading are necessary.
- Dig holes 60cm by 60cm separate top soils from sub soil.
- Then 250g Triple super phosphate per tree plus 5-10 ton/ha manure is mixed with top soil.
- Sub- soil is used to fill the holes and make basin around the seedling.
- Seedlings planted at the same level it was in the nursery or polybag.
- At planting include pollinator varieties in the orchard for adequate pollination and should have
overlapping bloom period with the main variety.
- Pollinator main variety ratio is 1:8 or1:4.

Field operations
Mulching
- Maintains moisture around the seedling and also checks weed growth.
Staking
- It is done to steady them when they are still young.
- Trees used should be placed on the wind ward side
Pruning
 Prune young trees in the first four years of growth in order to establish structure and form. It is done
as follows:

i. First year; formative pruning

- After planting prune back the central shoot to 1m from the ground in order to
encourage branching below the point of cutting.
- 3-4 strong shoots are selected from the new shoots which should be distributed along
and around the central axis
- The lowest branch should be 70cm from ground level
- These forms future scaffold (strong frame work of structurally sound main branches)
ii. `Second year;-shaping for production
- About a third to half the length of the scaffold branches is cut back to stimulate
secondary or lateral branching.
- The laterals that grow are also selected and 3-4 are recommended per scaffold
branch.In this way the tree is shaped for production.

iii. Third year:-Induction

- The scaffolds and main laterals are tipped off to induce more laterals.

iv. Fourth year: - Maintenance pruning

- Cut back the scaffold branches and laterals.
- Laterals growing too close to the main laterals and scaffolds are cut.
- Those showing the upright growth should be removed together with those
crisscrossing plus dead and weak ones. Then paint all the surfaces to prevent
infection.
Training
  Apples produce fruits on the branches that are horizontal to the ground and less fruits are
produced on upright growing branches.
 Therefore apple branches should be well spread out by bending them to horizontal position.
 This too encourages fruit growth, more productivity, light penetration and aeration.
 Also reduces the chance of creating microclimate conducive to disease development.

Wind brakes
 Planted during or before establishment to protect young seedlings from wind damage and the
recommended trees are Grevillea rubusta or Eucalyptus spp

Intercropping:
 Essential to utilize the space in the orchard and use vegetables, beans, pea’s e.t.c.
 Done during the first three years of orchard establishment

Fertilizer and manures

- Apply one debe of manure per tree per year when trees start producing.
- Apply 100g of C.A.N three months after transplanting.
- This should be worked into the drip lines of each tree at the onset of rains. Then afterwards applied in
two splits.

The tentative fertilizer recommendation

Year CAN kg/ha TSP kg/ha Year CAN kg/ha TSP kg/ha
1 100 - 6 400 225
2 150 100 7 500 250
3 200 125 8 600 275
4 300 175 9 700 300
5 350 200 10 800 300

Dormancy breaking
- Done to induce bud/flower production in which low temperature or chilling is required.
- Dormancy period starts in the months of July and august.
- Naturally possible in altitudes above 3000m ASL, therefore in lower altitudes needs to be induced by
either:-

i. Chemicals are sprayed in the first week of September and when the cool season is
over like tropical mort-egg 6% tar oil) or Dinitro aerosol (2.4%).
 Due to their toxicity timely sprays should be done to avoid injury to
flowers and leaves. Therefore spraying is done during high
temperatures when there effects is high not in the cold times of the
day.

ii. Hand defoliation four weeks after harvesting and before it goes into dormancy. This
helps lateral buds to break after dormancy and increase blossoming.
 iii. Also reduction of irrigation water.

iv. Pruning of branches and roots.

Pollination
- Apples are cross pollinated and insects such as bees play a vital role.
- Therefore 3-4 beehives are needed per hector to ensure pollination.

Fruit pruning
- Excessive fruits may lower the quality of the fruit if not pruned.
- Natural flower and fruit drop may prevent excessive fruit set.
- Where necessary thinning is done leaving 2-3 evenly spaced fruits per spur.
- This is done around October.

Diseases
i. Apple scab;Venturia inequalis
- It is a fungal disease that attacks leaves and fruits.
- Pale green patches on fruits and leaves are first seen on the tree.
- On the fruit are usually misshapen and may crack and drop prematurely.
Control;
- Use resistant varieties
- Use fungicides

ii. Apple crown rot: Phytophthora cactotum

- It is observed in orchard in low lying areas with heavy poorly drained soils.
- Causes delayed bud break, leaf distortion, premature leaf drop, reddish brown water soaked areas of
necrotic tissues located at the base of the rot.
Control:
- Use resistant root stock like M4 & M9
- Avoiding heavy poorly drained soils.
- Chemical spray with fungicides like Ridomil.

iii. Bitter pit: Cicomerella cingulata

- Small spots appear on the fruits surface and enlarge bearing concentric rings.
- They appear with brownish spots on the inside giving the fruit a bitter taste.
Control:
- 1-2 weekly spraying with fungicides.
- Apply calcium chloride to correct Ca deficiency.

iv. Bacterial cankers Pseudomonas syringae

- Affects branches, twigs, buds, leaves and fruits leaves, and shoot growth beyond the canker may wilt
and die during growing season when canker girdle a branch or the trunk.
- It is spread by rain and pruning tools.
- There are distinct callus rings.
Control:
- Sanitation:-remove infected parts and burn
- Cut diseased woods around the canker and apply wound dressing mixed with
fungicides.
v. Root rot;- Armillaria mellea
- Soil borne disease attacking roots causing sudden death.
- A layer of white fungal growth under the bark of roots and trunk is observed.
Control:
- uproot and burn affected trees.
- Leave the planting holes open for a year.
- 2-3 applications of copper sulphate at four months intervals.

vi. Powdery mildew: Padasphaera lencotrica

- Are always carried through vegetative or fruit buds
- Fungal growth on upper side of leaves especially on new shoots reducing the vigor of the plant. Fruit
infection results to web like cracks.
- It occurs when R.H is more than 90% at temperatures between 10-25oc.
Control:
- Use fungicides.

Pests
i. Wooly aphids: Eriosoma lanigerum
- Galls on branches and roots
- Die back of young shoots.
- White wooly secretion on branches and leaves
Control:
- Spraying with insecticides like fenitrothion, endosulfan.
- Clean out old canker to minimize spreads.

ii. Red spider mites: Tetranychus spp

- Reddish mites on underside of leaves and are able to cling tenaciously to leaf surface and are not easily
washed off by rains or heavy sprays.
- They feed by sucking sap even chlorophyll and causes leaves to turn bronze and in severe infestation
causes defoliation.
- Greyish spots on upper sides of leaves.
- Causes small fruit size,
- Thin leaved apple varieties are more susceptible.
Control:
-Spray with chemicals weekly.

Harvesting
 They are easily bruised and hence should be handled carefully during harvest and transportation as
they reduce marketability.
  Maturity is indicated by change of color to yellow and when fruits are easily removed from the tree.
 After picking fruits are placed in a cushioned crates or cartons.
 Marketed both locally in major towns and in neighboring countries.
 Stored in low temperature if fruits are to be transported for long distance in tropics is limited because
of high temperatures which might induce secondary infections to bruised fruit.

Yields
 Vary from year to year depending on variety; season and management. Mature tee can yield up to
20kg/yr at the age of seven. Production can continue for 20 years after which yield starts declining.

Quality indices:
 Firmness; crispness, lack meatiness
 Flavor including soluble solids, titratable acidity and flavor volatiles
 Freedom from defects such as bruising, decay, stem or blossom end rot cracks, cracks in the skin,
bitter pit, insect injury etc.
 % blush on the apple.

Physiological disorders of apples

i. Superficial scald:
- It is a common disorder affecting susceptible varieties like Grany Smith and Red Delicious during
storage and marketing.
- Also caused by hot dry weather before harvest, immature at harvest, high N & low Ca levels of fruits
and inadequate ventilation in storage.
Symptoms:
 Browning of skin of affecting fruit in patches especially on the shaded side and may become
rough only the surface is affected but fruit remains firm and of eating quality.
 Incase fruit had been stored, brown irregular patches of dead skin develops within 3-7 days due
to warming of the fruit after removal from storage to room temperature.
Control:
 Harvest at correct maturity stage.
 Proper ventilation in cold storage.
 Application of anti-oxidant one week after harvesting like ethoxyquine and
diphenylamine (DPA).

ii. Jonathan spot/lenticels breakdown

 Affects surface of apples and is characterized by superficial spotting of lenticels
Symptoms:
 Appear as dark brown pits on the fruits skin around the lenticels.
 Early symptoms appear as small dimples and as the firmness reduces pit growth in size and
depth.
 This reduces marketability of apples.
iii. Chilling injury
 This disorder occurs to fruit stored below their safe minimum storage temperatures.
 Characterized by browning of skin and flesh.
 Dry internal cavities and flesh browning may also develop fruits they have a bitter or a fermented
taste when cut open.

iv. Brown heart

 It is common in large and over mature fruits. Also when concentration of co2 in storage increases
above 1%.
Symptoms
 Appear as brown discoloration in the flesh originating near or in the core of the fruit. The brown areas
have well developed margins and cavities may develop due to desiccation.
NB: Symptoms range from small spots of brown flesh to entire browning of flesh with a margin
of healthy white flesh remaining just below the skin.
Control
 Avoid harvesting over mature fruits
 Co2 concentration in CA storage should be maintained at less than1%.

v. Bitter pit
 Begins in the orchards and is associated with low calcium levels.
Symptoms
 Disorder is characterized by small lesions 2-10mm in diameter which develop into the flesh of the.
The tissues below later become dark and corky.
 Symptoms appear in the lower half of the fruit.
 Initial external symptoms are slightly water soaked spots/patches.
Control
 Calcium sprays before harvesting
 Calcium dips before storage

vi. Water core

 It is favored by;-
 High leaf: fruit ratio
 High levels of boron and nitrogen; low levels of calcium.
 Excessive thinning and exposure of fruits to high temperature.
 Large size fruits are susceptible.
Symptoms
 Characterized by development of water soaked regions in the flesh before harvesting.
 These regions are hard, glossy in appearance and only visible externally when an infection is severe.
 Fruits may also develop fermented taste.
Control:
 Avoid delayed harvesting.

vii. Russeting:
 Occurs in humid environment and when petals fall varieties with thin cuticle are susceptible.
 Frost during blossoming or early fruit formation causes russeting leading to rapture of the fruit or
development of cracks.
Control
 Selection of less susceptible cultivars.
  Adequate irrigation
 Manuring and effective pest management.

viii. Sunburn scald

 Occurs due to intense heat of the sun and water stress.
 Initial symptoms are white, tan or yellow patches on the fruit these areas become spongy and sunken.
Control
 Avoid exposure to intense heat.
 Careful sorting before packing.
 Proper free training and pruning especially summer pruning.

ix. Senescent scald

 Appears as brown patches on the skin that may become sunken and rough with distinct margins often
ribbon like.
 Unlike superficial scalds, this appears on the sun exposed side of the fruit and on late harvested fruit.
Internally fruit may have brown flesh and have internal breakdown

x. Core flush (brown core)

 It is a form of senescent breakdown in which the core area turns pink then brown.
 The discoloration starts near the core and extends in brown tissue outward.
 The affected tissues are moist and softer than non-affected tissues.

xi. Brea burn browning (BBD)

 It is very serious on Brea burn variety at harvest.
 The disorder has the appearance of light to dark brown areas.
 Similar in nature to water core but occur without pattern in the flesh.

2. PEARS
 Important fruit crop of temperate region.
 It belongs to the family Rosaceae.
 It can be grown at 1,700-2,400m above sea-level.
 Pear fruit is rich source of Protein and Vitamins.
 Due to its wider adaptability of climate and soil pear can be grown in subtropical to temperate
regions.
 A blooming pear tree bunch of flowers.
Where do pears grow in Kenya?
 In Kenya, Limuru in Central Province is a major pear growing zone due to the cold season that
dominates the area.
 Other regions include Meru, Naivasha, parts of Nyeri, and most parts of western Kenya.
 Different cultivars have different chilling requirements. Cultivars with low chilling effect are desired
especially in the tropics.

How Long Do Pears Take To Grow In Kenya?

 Pears take 3 to 5 years for the tree to start fruiting.
 Thinning is desirable if the cultivar used is a heavy producer, removing the excess fruit will allow the
rest to develop into a good marketable size.

Pears Varieties in Kenya

 Most pear cultivars are self-non-fruitful making cross pollination an important factor that will
determine good fruit production.
 Two different varieties should be planted to facilitate cross-pollination to ensure a commercial crop.
 Plant trees of different varieties within 40 to 50 feet of each other to enable cross-pollination.

Pears Production per Tree

 The fruits should be hand-picked to avoid any damage; a mature tree can produce up to 180
kilograms.
 For good fruit quality preventative control of pests and diseases is required.

Pears Seedlings in Kenya

 Pears seedlings can be purchased at Fruit Africa nurseries or by contacting 0724-559286 / 0790-
509684 or 0752-452939

Ecological requirements

Climatic Conditions
 Temperatures: Pears flourish in cool regions with temperatures ranging from 150C to 320C. In warm
and dry regions, pear farming requires regular irrigation, fertilization, and continuous optimization of
pollination.

 Rainfall: The plants require moderate and well-distributed rainfall. However, they can be grown
under irrigation in dry areas.

 Sunshine: Pears require at least 6-8 hours of sunlight especially during flowering and fruit ripening.
 Soil requirements: The pear tree can do well in different soil types and conditions. One can easily
modify soil fertility to attain optimum conditions. Pears are reasonably tolerant to drought and wet
soils but cannot withstand flooding which can injure the root system. Good drainage and soil depth
will greatly determine if your fruit tree will develop well.
 A soil pH of about 6.0 - 7.0 is ideal, due to the fact that the pear tree can tolerate slightly acidic soil.
 Any fertilizer application program should be done based on soil and leaf analysis.

Propagation and planting

 Pears belong to the genus pyrus.
 The cultivars are not true to type when grown from seed, hence the need for vegetative
propagation, most common methods being budding and grafting.
 Pears can be grown in temperate zones, subtropics and even in the tropics; it all depends on the
type of cultivar used and its adaptability.
 Pears do require adequate chilling effect for successful fruit bud development.
 A spacing of five by six metres, 4 by 6metres or 8 by 4metres is ideal.
 Upon land preparation, planting holes with a diameter of 60cm by 60cm and two feet deep should
be made. The topsoil should be mixed with well-decomposed manure to enhance soil fertility and
aeration.
 Thinning is desirable if the cultivar used is a heavy producer. Removing the excess fruit will
allow the rest to develop into a good marketable size.

Pears Spacing and Planting

 Spacing of pears is an important factor, especially in commercial pears farming.
 Poor spacing ruins the entire investment especially the growth and productivity of the trees.
 A spacing of 5m x 6m, 4m x 6m or 8m x 4m. Upon land preparation, planting holes with a
diameter of 60cm by 60 cm and 2 feet deep should be made. The topsoil should be mixed with
well-decomposed manure to enhance soil fertility and aeration.
 An acre can accommodate between 120 – 200 trees.
Fertilizer Requirement

Age of the crop Well decomposed cow UREA SSP MOP

dung
(Year) (in gm) (in gm) (in gm)
(in kg)

First to three year 10-20 100-300 200-600 150-450

Four to six 25-35 400-600 800-1200 600-900

Seven to nine 40-60 700-900 1400-1800 1050-1350

Ten and above 60 1000 2000 1500

Irrigation
 A well distributed average rainfall of 75–100cm is required throughout the year for pear cultivation.
 It needs regular irrigation after transplantation. In summer irrigate crop with 5-7days interval whereas
increased irrigation interval to 15days in winter months.
 In January month stop irrigating trees.
 Give flood irrigation to bearing tree in summer month it will help to increased fruit quality and size.

Pest and diseases of pears

 For good fruit quality, preventative control of pests and diseases is required.
 The common diseases and pests include; scab, rust, black spot, fire blight, root rot, powdery
mildew, fruit flies, aphids and red spider mites.
 Diseases include powdery mildew, collar rot, crown and root rot and fire blight.
 If the diseases are not controlled, the infected trees become weak and unproductive. It is advisable to
contact your extension officer for proper diagnosis and recommendation.

Maturity and harvesting

 Pears take three to five years for the tree to start fruiting.
 However, grafted varieties can start bearing two years after planting.
 The fruits should be hand-picked to avoid any damage.

Output
 The average yield for a mature tree varies depending on the ecological conditions and its
management.
 A mature tree can produce up to 180 kilograms of fruit.

Pears success story

 The tall tree spreads its dark green-leafed branches wide, outgrowing its stem to form a broad
base with a pointed top looking like a gigantic hut in the middle of a garden.
 Its enormity exerts such magnetic pull on countless plants that jostle for space under the warmth
of its caring wings.

The 80 pears trees surrounded by thick undergrowth on Karanja Mirari’s eight acres at Bibirioni near
Limuru make the farm ever-green.
“Unlike other huge trees suffocating smaller plants, pears flourish interdependently with other crops,
especially napier grass, maize, potatoes, vegetables and carrots,” Mirari tells me as we savour the beauty
of the farm.

Pears, the deciduous tree that grows up to 60ft tall and produces brownish fruit with sweet fleshy white
inside with small hard seeds, was first introduced in Kenya from the UK in the cool climatic area of
Limuru by Christian missionaries in the 1920s.

“We grew up seeing, eating it and feeding the cows with it only to realise its real value beyond the
homestead about 10 years ago,” recalls Mirari.

But as urban population grew, its demand increased, yet land demarcation into smaller plots stood on the
way of the farmers who would have grown it in plenty. Community lost interest in growing it, leading to
slow decline and in some areas near-extinction of the once ubiquitous pear tree because need for money
saw most of the land set aside for carrots and cabbages that take shorter time to harvest.

The price of a fruit that weighs 250g has risen from 50 cents to Sh10 in the last five years and it can fetch
up to Sh15 in warmer areas like Kajiado, Machakos and Mombasa, a fact which the Kimende agricultural
extension officer Alex Njenga says is not acknowledged by local farmers who have formed cooperatives
to cut off brokers who handle 90 per cent of their produce.

From each of the 80 trees, Karanja, 62, harvests between 100 and 200 quality fruits between February and
April. He is a direct beneficiary of the rising demand for the fruit in Nairobi, Nakuru and other towns
which has seen aggressive buyers roaming the farms “even before the fruits ripen offering varying
prices”. But Karanja calls various contacts to get the prevailing prices before settling on any offer.

Like other farmers, Karanja offers wholesale price to cut down on the costs of labour for pickers,
packaging the transport to towns and the headache of looking for the market or having to return the fruits
to farm if they are not bought.
“I get about Sh100,000 per harvest from all the trees. The harvests come after every five or so weeks
within February to April. We agree with the buyer to select only the ripe fruits,” says Karanja, who has
been growing the crop for 10 years.

Apart from Bibirioni, pears also do well in Kimende, Molo, Limuru, Buchi and some parts of Murang’a.

Mirari, a retired education officer who worked at the Museums of Kenya and the author of Biological
Techniques published by ICIPE Press and Appreciating Evaluation (Kenya Institute of Education), says
pears have opened the eyes of the local community to fruit farming.

The former member of the board of the Commonwealth Museums, now in full-time farming, grows other
crops and keeps dairy cows on the farm but rates pears highly “for offering me the much-needed
consistent income every year after retirement”.
Bibirioni is also a beehive of activity for the youth who get casual jobs to harvest pears at Sh400 per day.
“Over 2,000 youth converge in Bibirioni in the harvest period to earn a living,” says Mirari.

Pears, which are planted from seedlings and take four years to mature, can remain productive for 40
years. They require little care. They only need occasional spraying to control bacteria.