S block Elements

Elements
Poperty Fr
Li Na K Rb Cs
(Radioactive)
Atomic Number 3 11 19 37 55 87
Electronic Configuration 2s’ 3s’ 4s’ 5s’ 6s’ 7s’
Atomic Mass 6.94 22.99 39.10 85.47 13.91 223
Metallic radius (pm) 152 186 227 248 265 375
Ionic radius (M + /pm) 76 102 138 152 167 180
Ionization enthalpy I 520 496 419 403 376 –
(kJ mol –1 ) II 7298 3562 3051 2633 2230 –
Electro negativity
0.98 0.93 0.82 0.82 0.79
(Pauling Scale)
Density/g cm –3 (at 298K) 0.53 0.97 0.86 1.53 1.90
Melting point/K 454 371 336 312 302
Boiling point/K 1615 1156 1032 961 944
E°(V) at 298K for
–3.04 –2.714 –2.925 –2.930 –2.927
M+ (aq) + e – → M(s)
Occurrence in
18* 227** 1.84** 78.12* 2.6*
Atmosphere

*ppm (parts per million)

** percentage by weight

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals:

• These are soft in nature and can be cut with the help of knife except the
lithium.
• The atoms of alkali metals have the largest size in their respective periods.
• The first ionization energy of the alkali metals are the lowest as compared to
the elements in the other group.
• The alkali metals show +1 oxidation state.
• The alkali metals have low values of reduction potential (as shown in table -I)
and therefore have a strong tendency to lose electrons and act as good
reducing agents.
• The melting and boiling points of alkali metals are very low because the
intermetallic bonds in them are quite weak.
• ll the alkali metals form ionic (electrovalent) compounds.
 • The alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Alkali metals (except Li) exhibit photoelectric effect
• The alkali metals and their salts impart a characteristic colour to flame
Li Na K Rb Cs
Color Crimson Red Golden Yellow Pale Violet Violet Sky Blue
l/nm 670.8 589.2 766.5 780.0 455.5
Hydroxides of Alkali Metals:
a)All the alkali metals, their oxides, peroxides and superoxides readily dissolve in water
to produce corresponding hydroxides which are strong alkalies.

• 2Na + 2H 2 O → 2NaOH + H 2
• Na 2 O + 2H 2 O 2NaOH
• Na2O 2 + 2H 2 O → 2NaOH + H 2 O 2
• 2KO 2 + 2H 2 O → 2KOH + H 2 O 2 + O 2
b) The basic strength of these hydroxides increases as we move down the group Li to
Cs.

c) All these hydroxides are highly soluble in water and thermally stable except lithium
hydroxide.

d) Alkali metals hydroxides being strongly basic react with all acids forming salts.

• NaOH + HCI → NacI + H 2 O

• 2NaOH + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O
Halides of Alkali metals:
M2 O + 2HX → 2MX + H 2 O
MOH + HX → MX + H 2 O
M2 CO 3 + 2HX → 2MX + CO 2 + H 2 O (M = Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs)
(X = F, Cl, Br or I)

a) Standard enthalpies of formation in (kJ/mol -1 )

Element MF MCl MBr MI
Li -612 -398 -350 -271
Na -569 -400 -360 -288
K -563 -428 -392 -328
Rb -549 -423 -389 -329
Cs -531 -424 -395 -
b) Covalent Character:.
• Small cation and large anion favors covalency.

• Order: LiCl > NaCl > KCl > RbCl > CsCl & . LiI > LiBr > LiCl > LiF
 • Greater the charge on the cation greater is its polarizing power and hence
larger is the covalent character: Na + CI - < Mg +2 CI 2 < AI +3 CI 3
• Greater the charge on the anion, more easily it gets polarized thereby
imparting more covalent character to the compound formed eg covalent
character increase in the order. NaCI < Na 2 SO 4 < Na 3 PO 4
c) Lattice Energies: Amount of energy required to separate one mole of solid ionic
compound into its gaseous ions.
Greater the lattice energy, higher is the melting point of the alkali metals halide and
lower is its solubility in water

d) Hydration Energy: Amount of energy released when one mole of gaseous ions
combine with water to form hydrated ions.
• M+ (g) + aq → M+ (aq) + hydration energy
• X - (g) + aq → X - (aq) + hydration energy
Higher the hydration energy of the ions greater is the solubility of the compound in
water.

The solubility of the most of alkali metal halides except those of fluorides decreases on
descending the group since the decrease in hydration energy is more than the
corresponding decrease in the lattice energy.

Due to high hydration energy of Li + ion, Lithium halides are soluble in water except LiF
which is sparingly soluble due to its high lattice energy.
For the same alkali metal the melting point decreases in the order

fluoride > chloride > bromide > iodide

For the same halide ion, the melting point of lithium halides are lower than those of the
corresponding sodium halides and thereafter they decrease as we move down the group
from Na to Cs.

The low melting point of LiCl (887 K) as compared to NaCl is probably because LiCl is
covalent in nature and NaCl is ionic.

Anomalous Behavior of Lithium and diagonal

relationship with Magnesium:
Li has anomalous properties due to

• Very small size

• High polarizing Power

Lithium show diagonal relationship with magnesium because both elements have
almost same polarizing power.
 • The melting point and boiling point of lithium are comparatively high.

• Lithium is much harder than the other alkali metals. Magnesium is also hard
metal.

• Lithium reacts with oxygen least readily to form normal oxide whereas other
alkali metals form peroxides and superoxides.

• LiOH like Mg (OH) 2 is weak base. Hydroxides of other alkali metals are strong
bases.
• Due to their appreciable covalent nature, the halides and alkyls of lithum and
magnesium are soluble in organic solvents.

• Unlike elements of group 1 but like magnesium. Lithium forms nitride with
nitrogen.6Li + N 2 → 2Li 3 N
• LiCl is deliquescent and crystallizes as a hydrate, LiCI2H 2 O. Other alkali metals
do not form hydrates. also forms hydrate, MgCI 2 .8H 2 O .
• Unlike other alkali metals lithium reacts directly with carbon to form an ionic
carbide. Magnesium also forms a similar carbide.

• The carbonates, hydroxides and nitrates of lithium as well as magnesium

decompose on heating.

• Li 2 CO 3 → Li 2 O + CO 2
• MgCO 3 → MgO + CO 2
• 2LiOH → Li 2 O + H 2 O
• Mg (OH) 2 → MgO + H 2 O
• 4LiNO 3 → 2Li 2 O + 4NO 2 + O 2
•2Mg ( NO 3 ) 2 → 2Mg + 4NO 2 +O 2
• The corresponding salts of other alkali metals are stable towards heat.
Lithium nitrate, on heating, decomposes to give lithium oxide, Li 2 O whereas other alkali
metals nitrate decomposes to give the corresponding nitrite.
• 4LiNO 3 → 2Li 2 O + 4NO 2 + O 2
• 2NaNO 3 → 2NaNO 2 + O 2
• 2KNO 3 → 2KNO 2 + O 2
• Li 2 CO 3 , LiOH, LiF and Li 3 PO 4 are the only alkali metal salts which are insoluble
in water. The corresponding magnesium compounds are also insoluble in
water.
• Hydrogen carbonates of both lithium and magnesium can not be isolated in
solid state. Hydrogen carbonates of other alkali metals can be isolated in solid
state.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):

a. Properties
• NaOH is stable towards heat but is reduced to metal when heated with carbon

2NaOH + 2C → 2Na +2CO + H 2

• FeCl 3 + 3NaOH →Fe(OH) 3 + 3NaCl
• NH 4 Cl + NaOH → NaCl + NH 3 (pungent smell) + H 2 O
• HgCl 2 + 2NaOH → HgO (yellow powder) + 2NaCl + H 2 O
• Zn(OH) 2 ↑ + 2NaOH → Na 2 ZnO 2 + 2H 2 Oh
• Al 2 O 3 ↑ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO 2 + H 2 O
• SiO 2 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SiO 3 + H 2 O
• 3P + 3 NaOH +3H 2 O → PH 3 + 3NaH 2 PO 2
• 2Al + 2 NaOH + 2H 2 O → 3H 2 + 2NaAlO 2
b) Uses
• It is used in the manufacture of paper, soap and artificial silk.

• It is used in petroleum refining.

• It is used for mercerizing cotton.

• It is used for the preparation of sodium metal and many salts of sodium.

Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda) (Na 2CO3):

a) Preparation:
Solvay process:

Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a brine solution saturated with ammonia and
itresults in the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate.

• NH 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 → NH 4 HCO 3
• NaCI + NH 4 HCO 3 → NaHCO 3 + NH 4 CI
Sodium hydrogen carbonate so formed precipitates out because of the common ion
effect caused due to the presence of excess of NaCl. The precipitated NaHCO 3 is filtered
off and then ignited to get Na 2 CO 3 .
2NaHCO 3 → Na 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O
b) Properties
1. The aqueous solution absorbs CO 2 yielding sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate.
• Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO3
2. dissolves in acids with an effervescence of carbondioxide and is causticised by lime
to give caustic soda.

• Na 2 CO 3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + H 2 O + CO 2
• Na 2 CO 3 + Ca(OH) 2 → 2NaOH + CaCO 3
3. Fusion with silica, sodium carbonate yields sodium silicate.
 • Na 2CO 3 + SiO 2 → Na 2SiO 3 + CO 2
4. Hydrolysis – being a salt of a strong base (NaOH) and weak acid (H 2 CO 3 ), when
dissolved in water sodium carbonate. Undergoes hydrolysis to form an alkaline solution
• Na 2CO 3 + 2H 2O→ H 2CO 3 + 2NaOH
c) Uses
• It is used for softening hard water.

• A mixture of sodium carbonate & potassium carbonate is used as fusion

mixture.

• As an important laboratory reagent both in qualitative and quantitative

analysis.

• It is used in paper, paints and textile industries.

• It is used for washing purposes in laundry.

• It is used in the manufacture of glass, borax, soap and caustic soda.

Alkali Earth Metals (Group II elements of modern periodic table):

Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and Radium
(Ra).
• Physical Properties of Alkali Earth Metals:
1. Alkali earth metals are almost similar in properties to the corresponding alkali
metals.
• Higher melting points than alkali metals

• Higher boiling points alkali metals

• Higher densities alkali metals

• Harder than the corresponding alkali metals

2. Atomic and ionic radii

The atomic radii as well as ionic radii of the members of the family are smaller than the
corresponding members of alkali metals.

3. Ionization energy: The alkaline earth metals owing to their large size of atoms have
fairly low values of ionization energies as compared to the p – block elements. However
with in the group, the ionization energy decreases as the atomic number increases. It is
because of increase in atomic size due to addition of new shells and increase in the
magnitude of screening effect of the electrons in inner shells. Because their (IE) 1 is larger
than that of their alkali metal neighbours, the group IIA metals trend to the some what
less reactive than alkali metals. The general reactivity trend is Ba > Sr > Ca > Mg > Be.
 4. Oxidation state: The alkaline earth metal have two electrons in their valence shell
and by losing these electrons, these atoms acquire the stable noble gas configuration.
Thus, unlike alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals exhibit +2 oxidation state in their
compounds.
M → M+2 + 2e-
[noble gas]
5. Characteristic flame colouration:
Ion Colour
Ca 2+ Brick-red
Sr 2+
Crimson
Ba 2+
Apple green
Ra 2+ Carmine – red
Difference between alkali metals and alkali earth metals:
Properties Alkaline earth metals Alkali metals
One electron is present in the
Two electrons are present in the
Electronic valency shell. The configuration is
1. valency shall. The configuration is
configuration ns 1 (monovalent) more
ns 2 (bivalent)
electropositive
2. Valency Bivalent Monovalent
3. Electropositive nature Less electropositive More electropositive
Weak bases, less soluble and Strong bases, highly soluble and
4. Hydroxides
decompose on heating. stable towards heat.
These are not known in free state.
5. Bicarbonates These are known in solid state.
Exist only in solution.
Insoluble in water. Decompose on Soluble in water. Do not decompose
6. Carbonates
heating. on heating (LiCO 3 is an exception)
Directly combine with nitrogen and Do not directly combine with
7. Action of nitrogen
form nitrides nitrogen except lithium
Directly combine with carbon and
8. Action of carbon Do not directly combine with carbon
form carbides
Decompose on heating evolving a Decompose on heating evolving
9. Nitrates
mixture of NO 2 and oxygen only oxygen
Sulphates, phosphates fluorides, Sulphates, phosphates, fluorides,
10. Solubility of salts chromates, oxalates etc are insoluble chromates, oxides etc are soluble in
in water water.
Comparatively harder. High melting Soft, low melting points
11. Physical properties
points. Diamagnetic. paramagnetic.
12. Hydration of The compounds are extensively The compounds are less hydrated.
 compounds hydrated. MgCl 2 .6H 2 O, CaCl 2 .6H 2 O, NaCl, KCl, RbCl form non – hydrated
BaCl 2 .2H 2 O are hydrated chlorides. chlorides
Weaker as ionization potential values Stronger as ionization potential
13. Reducing power are high and oxidation potential values are low and oxidation
values are low. potential values are high.
Chemical Properties of Alkali Earth Metals:
1. Reaction with water :
• Mg + H 2 O → MgO + H 2
• or, Mg + 2H 2 O → Mg (OH) 2 + H 2
• Ca + 2H 2 O → Ca(OH) 2 + H 2
2. Formation of oxides and nitrides
• Be + O 2 (air) +Δ→ 2BeO
• 3Be + N2 (air) +Δ → Be3 N 2
• Mg + air + Δ → MgO + Ng 3 N 2
3. Formation of Nitrides
• 3M + N2 + Δ → M3N2

• Be3 N 2 + Δ → 3Be + N 2
• Ba 3 N 2 + 6H 2 O + Δ → 3Ba (OH) 2 + 2NH 3
• Ca 3 N 2 + 6H 2 O + Δ → 3Ca (OH) 2 + 2NH 3
4. Reaction with hydrogen:
M + H 2 + Δ → MH 2
Both BeH 2 and MgH 2 are covalent compounds having polymeric structures in which H –
atoms between beryllium atoms are held together by three
centre – two electron (3C - 2e) bonds as shown below:

5. Reaction with carbon – (Formation of carbides)

When BeO is heated with carbon at 2175 – 2275 K a brick red coloured carbide of the
formula Be 2 C is formed

It is a covalent compound and react water forming methane.

Be2 C + 4H 2 O → 2Be (OH) 2 + CH 4

6. Reaction with Ammonia:
Like alkali metal, the alkaline earth metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue
black solution from which ammoniates [ M (NH 3 ) 6 ] 2+ can be recovered.
Anamolous Behaviour of Beryllium:
• Be is harder than other members of its group.

• Be is lighter than Mg.

• Its melting and boiling points are higher than those of Mg & other members.

• Be does not react with water while Mg reacts with boiling water.

• BeO is amphoteric while MgO is weakly basic.

• Be forms covalent compounds whereas other members form ionic

compounds.

• Beryllium carbide reacts with water to give methane whereas carbides of other
alkaline earth metals gives acetylene gas.

• Be2 C + 4H 2 O → 2Be (OH) 2 + CH 4

• Mg 2 C 2 + 2H 2 O → Mg (OH) 2 + C 2 H 2
• CaC 2 + 2H 2 O → Ca (OH)2 + C 2 H 2
• Beryllium does not exhibit coordination number more than four as it has four
orbitals in the valence shell. The other members of this group has
coordination number

Diagonal relationship of Be with Al:

• Unlike groups – 2 elements but like aluminium, beryllium forms covalent
compounds.

• The hydroxides of Be, [Be(OH) 2 ] and aluminium [Al(OH) 3 ] are amphoteric in

nature, whereas those of other elements of group – 2 are basic in nature.
• The oxides of both Be and Al i.e. BeO and Al 2 O 3 are high melting insoluble
solids.
• BeCl 2 and AlCl 3 have bridged chloride polymeric structure.
• The salts of beryllium as well as aluminium are extensively hydrolysed.

• Carbides of both the metal reacts with water liberating methane gas.

• Be2 C + 4H 2 O → 2Be (OH) 2 + CH 4

• AI 4 C 3 + 12H 2 O → 4Al (OH) 3 + 3CH 4
• The oxides and hydroxides of both Be and Al are amphoteric and dissolve in sodium
hydroxide as well as in hydrochloric acid.
• BeO + 2HCI → BeCI 2 + H 2 O
• BeO + 2NaOH → Na 2 BeO 2 + H 2 O
 • Al 2 O 3 + 6HCI → 2AICI 3 + H 2 O
• AI 2 O 3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAIO 2 + H 2 O
• Like Al, Be is not readily attacked by acids because of the presence of an oxide film.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3 ):
It occurs in nature as marble, limestone, chalk, coral, calcite, etc. It is prepared as a
white powder, known as precipitated chalk, by dissolving marble or limestone in
hydrochloric acid and removing iron and aluminium present by precipitating with NH 3 ,
and then adding ammonium carbonate to the solution; the precipitate is filtered,
washed and dried.
CaCl 2 + (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 →CaCO 3 + 2NH 4 Cl
It dissolves in water containing CO 2 , forming Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 but is precipitated from solution
by boiling.
CaCO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 ↔ Ca(HCO 3 ) 2
Plaster of Paris, CaSO 4.1/2 H2O or (CaSO 4 )2.H2O:
It occurs in nature as gypsum and the anhydrous salt as anhydride. It is prepared by
precipitating a solution of calcium chloride or nitrate with dilute sulphuric acid.

The effect of heat on gypsum or the dihydrate presents a review of interesting changes.
On heating the monoclinic gypsum is first converted into orthorhombic form without
loss of water. When the temperature reaches 120°C, the hemihydrate or plaster of paris
is the product. The latter losses water, becomes anhydrous above 200°C and finally
above 400°C, it decomposes into calcium oxide.

2CaSO 4 → 2CaO + 2SO 2 ↑ + O 2 ↑

The addition of common salt accelerates the rate of setting, while a little borax or alum
reduces it. The setting of plaster of paris is believed to be due to rehydration and its
reconversion into gypsum.

2CaSO 4 . 1/2 H 2 O + 3H 2 O → 2CaSO 4 . 2H 2 O

Plaster of Paris Gypsum

Uses
• Plaster of pairs is used for producing moulds for pottery and ceramics & casts
of statues & busts.

• It is used in surgical bandages used for plastering broken or fractured bones.

• It is also used in dentistry

Industrial uses of lime and Limestone
Uses of lime
• Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It main industrial uses are

• It is used in steel industry to remove phosphates and silicates as slag.

• It is used to make cement by mixing it with silica, alumina or clay.(iii) It is used

in making glass.

• It is used in lime soda process for the conversion of Na 2 CO 3 to NaOH & vice
versa.
• It is used for softening water, for making slaked lime Ca(OH) 2 by treatment
with water and calcium carbide CaC 2 .
Uses of Slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2 ]
• Slaked lime is used as a building material in form of mortar. It is prepared by
mixing 3 – 4 times its weight of sand and by gradual addition of water. Its sets
into a hard mass by loss of H 2 O and gradual absorption of CO 2 from air.
• In manufacture of bleaching powder by passing Cl 2 gas.
• In making glass and in the purification of sugar and coal gas.

• It is used in softening of hard water.

Uses of lime stone (CaCO 3 )

• It is used as building material in form of marble.

• In manufacture of quick lime.

• It is used as a raw material for the manufacture of Na 2 Co 3 in solvay – ammonia

process.
• Commercial limestone contains iron oxide, alumina, magnesia, silica & sulphur
with a CaO content of 22 – 56% MgO content upto 21%. It is used as such as a
fertilizer.
 P block elements
Revision Notes on p-Block Elements:

Boron Family (Group 13 Elements )

• Members: B, Al, Ga, In & Tl
• Melting Point : Decreases from B to Ga and then increases up to Tl.
• Ionization Energies: 1 st <<< 2 nd < 3 rd
• Metallic Character: Increases from B to Tl. B is non-metal
Boron
Preparation of Boron:
• From Boric Acid: B 2 O 3 (s) + 3Mg(s) → 2B(s) +3 MgO(s)
• From Boron Trichloride
• (at 1270 k): 2BCl 3 + 3H 2 (g) → 2B(s) + 6HCl (g)
• (at 900 0 C): 2BCl 3 (g) + 3Zn (s) → 2B(s) + 3 ZnCl 2 (s)
• By electrolysis of fused mixture of boric anhydride (B 2 O 3 ) and magnesium
oxide (MgO) & Magnesium fluoride at 1100 0 C
• 2 MgO- → 2Mg + O 2 (g)
 • B 2 O 3 + 3Mg → 2B + 3MgO
• By thermal decomposition of Boron hydrides & halides:
B 2 H 6 (g) + Δ → 2B(s) + 3H 2 (g)
Compounds of Boron:
Orthoboric acid (H 3 BO 3 )
Preparation of Orthoboric acid
• From borax : Na 2 B 4 O 7 + H 2 SO 4 + 5H 2 O → Na 2 SO 4 + 4H 3 BO 3
• From colemanite : Ca 2 B 6 O 11 + 2SO 2 + 11H 2 O → 2Ca(HSO 3 ) 2 + 6H 3 BO 3
Properties of Orthoboric acid
• Action of Heat:

• Weak monobasic acidic behavior:

B(OH) 3 ↔ H 3 BO 3 ↔ H + + H 2 O +
Thus on titration with NaOH, it gives sodium metaborate salt

H 3 BO 3 + NaOH ↔ NaBO 2 + 2H 2 O
• Reaction with Metaloxide:

• Reaction with Ammonium boro fluoride:

Borax (sodium tetraborate) Na 2 B 4 O 7 . 10H 2 O

Preparation from Boric Acid
4H 3 BO 3 + Na 2 CO 3 --> Na 2 B 4 O 7 + 6H 2 O + CO 2
Properties of Borax
• Basic Nature:-
Aqueous solution of borax is alkaline in nature due to its hydrolysis
Na 2 B 4 O 7 + 3H 2 O → NaBO 2 + 3H 3 BO 3
NaBO 2 + 2H 2 O → NaOH + H 3 BO 3
• Action of heat:

Diborabe( B 2 H 6 )
Preparation of Diborane:
Reduction of Boron Trifluoride:
BF3 + 3LiAlH 4 → 2B 2 H 6 + 3 LiAl F 4
From NaBH 4 :
2NaBH 4 + H 2 SO 4 → B 2 H 6 + 2H 2 + Na 2 SO 4
2NaBH 4 + H 3 PO 4 → B 2 H 6 + 2H 2 + NaH 2 PO 4
Properties of Diborane:
• Reaction with water: B 2 H 6 + H 2 O -->2H 3 BO 3 + 6H 2
• Combustion: B 2 H 6 +2O 2 --? B 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O ΔH = -2615 kJ/mol
Compounds of Aluminium:
Aluminium Oxide or Alumina (Al 2 O 3 )
2Al(OH) 3 +Heat → Al 2 O 3 + 2H 2 O
2Al(SO 4 ) 3 +Heat → Al 2 O 3 + 2SO 3
(NH 4 ) 2 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ·24H 2 O --> 2NH 3 +Al 2 O 3 + 4SO 3 + 25 H 2 O
Aluminum Chloride AlCl 3 :
Structure of Aluminium Chloride:

Properties of Aluminium Chloride

• White, hygroscopic solid
• Sublimes at 183 0 C
• Forms addition compounds with NH 3 , PH 3 , COCl 2 etc.
• Hydrolysis: AlCl 3 + 3H 2 O --> Al(OH) 3 + 3HCl + 3H 2 O
• Action of Heat: 2AlCl 3 .6H 2 O --> 2Al(OH) 3 à Al 2 O 3 + 6HCl + 3H 2 O
Carbon Family (Group 14 Elements):
• Members: C, Si, Ge, Sn, & Pb
• Ionization Energies: Decreases from C to Sn and then increases up to Pb.
• Metallic Character: C and Si are non metals, Ge is metalloid and Sn and Pb
are metals
• Catenation: C and Si show a tendency to combine with its own atoms to form
long chain polymers
Compounds of Carbon:
Carbon Monoxide
Preparation of Carbon Monoxide
• By heating carbon in limited supply of oxygen: C + 1/2O 2 --> CO.
• By heating oxides of heavy metals e.g. iron, zinc etc with carbon.
• Fe2 O 3 + 3C → 2Fe + 3CO
• ZnO + C → Zn + CO
• By passing steam over hot coke: C + H 2 O → CO + H 2 (water gas)
• By passing air over hot coke: 2C + O 2 + 4N 2 → 2CO + 4N 2 (Producer gas)
?Properties of Carbon Monoxide:
• A powerful reducing agent : Fe 2O 3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO 2
CuO + CO → Cu + CO 2
• Burns in air to give heat and carbon dioxide: CO + 1/2O2 → CO2 + heat.
Tests For Carbon Monoxide:
• Burns with blue flame
• Turns the filter paper soaked in platinum or palladium chloride to pink or
green.
Carbon di-oxide
Preparation of Carbon di-oxide
• By action of acids on carbonates: CaCO 3 + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
• By combustion of carbon: C + O 2 → CO 2
Properties of Carbon di-oxide
• It turns lime water milky Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 → CaCO 3 ¯ + H 2 O,
• Milkiness disappears when CO 2 is passed in excess
CaCO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 → Ca(HCO 3 ) 2
• Solid carbon dioxide or dry ice is obtained by cooling CO2 under pressure. It
passes from the soild state straight to gaseous state without liquefying (hence
dry ice).
Carbides:
• Salt like Carbides : These are the ionic salts containing either C 2 2- (acetylide
ion) or C 4- (methanide ion)e.g. CaC 2 , Al 4 C 3 , Be 2 C.
• Covalent Carbides : These are the carbides of non-metals such as silicon and
boron. In such carbides, the atoms of two elements are bonded to each other
through covalent bonds. SiC also known as Carborundum.
• Interstitial Carbides : They are formed by transition elements and consist of
metallic lattices with carbon atoms in the interstices. e.g. tungsten carbide WC,
vanadium carbide VC.
Compounds of Silicon:
Sodium Silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 ):
?Prepared by fusing soda ash with pure sand at high temperature:
Na 2 CO 3 + SiO 3 → Na 2 SiO 3 +CO 2
Silicones:
Silicon polymers containing Si – O – Si linkages formed by the hydrolysis of alkyl or aryl
substituted chlorosilanes and their subsequent polymerisation.
Silicates:
Salts of silicic acid, H 4 SiO 4 comprised of SiO 4 4- units having tetrahedral structure formed
as result of sp 3 hybridization.
Nitrogen Family (Group 15 Elements)
• Members: N, P, As, Sb & Bi
• Atomic Radii: Increases down the group. Only a small increases from As to Bi.
• Oxidation state: -3 to +5. Stability of +3 oxidation state increases down the
group.
• Ionization energy: Decreases from N to Bi.
Nitrogen
Preparation of Nitrogen:
• 3CuO + 2NH 3 + Heat --> N 2 + Cu + 3H 2 O
• CaOCl 2 + 2NH 3 + Heat --> CaCl 2 + 3H 2 O + N 2
• NH 4 NO 2 +Heat --> 3H 2 O + N 2 +Cr 2 O 3
Properties of Dinitrogen:
• Formation of Nitrides (with Li, Mg, Ca & Al): Ca + N 2 +Heat → Ca 3 N 2
• Oxidation: N 2 + O 2 → 2NO
• Reaction with carbide (at 1273 K): CaC 2 + N 2 → CaCN 2 + C
Oxides of Nitrogen
 Oxy -Acids of Nitrogen :
Oxy Acids Name of oxy – acid
1. H 2 N 2 O 2 Hyponitrous acid
2. H 2 NO 2 Hydronitrous acid
3. HNO 2 Nitrous acid
4. HNO 3 Nitric acid
5. HNO 4 Per nitric acid
Ammonia (NH 3 ):
Preparation of Ammonia:
• By heating an ammonium salt with a strong alkali ;NH 4Cl + NaOH --> NH 3 + NaCl
+ H 2O
• By the hydrolysis of magnesium nitride: Mg 3 N 2 + 6H 2 O --> 3Mg(OH) 2 + 2NH 3 .
• Haber's process : N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) --> 2NH 3 (g).
Properties of Ammonia:
• Basic nature : Its aq. solution is basic in nature and turns red litmus blue.
NH 3 + H 2O ↔ NH 4+ + OH -
• Reaction with halogens :
• 8NH 3 + 3Cl 2 --> 6NH 4 Cl + N 2
• NH3 + 3Cl 2 (in excess) → NCl 3 + 3HCl
• 8NH3 + 3Br 2 → 6NH4Br + N 2
• NH 3 + 3Br 2 (in excess) → NBr 3 + 3HBr
• 2NH 3 + 3I 2 → NH 3 .NI 3 + 3HI
•8NH 3 .NI 3 → 6NH 4 I + 9I 2 + 6N 2
• Complex formation :
• Ag + + NH 3 → [Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ] +
• Cu 2+ + 4NH 3 → [Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ] 2+
• Cd 2+ + 4NH 3 → [Cd(NH 3 ) 4 ] 2+
Precipitation of heavy metal ions from the aq. solution of their salts :
• FeCl 3 + 3NH 4 OH → Fe(OH) 3 + 3NH 4 Cl
Brown ppt.
• AlCl 3 + 3NH 4 OH → Al(OH) 3 + 3NH 4 Cl
White ppt.
• CrCl 3 + 3NH 4 OH → Cr(OH) 3 + 3NH 4 Cl
Green ppt.
Phosphorus:
Allotropy of Phosphorus:
a) White phosphorus:
•

Translucent white waxy solid

• Extremely reactive

• Poisonous and insoluble in water

b) Red Phosphorus:

• Formed by heating white

phosphorus in absence of air.

• Does not burn spontaneously at

room temperature.

c) Black Phosphorus: Formed by further

heating of red phosphorus.
Compounds of Phosphorus:
a) Phosphine, PH 3 :
 Preparation of Phosphine
• Ca 3 P 2 + 6H 2 O → 2 PH 3 + 3 Ca(OH) 2
• 4H 3 PO 3 +Heat → PH 3 + 3 H 3 PO 4
• PH 4 I +KOH → PH 3 +KI + H 2 O
• P4 + 3KOH + 3H 2 O → PH 3 +3KH 3 PO 2
Properties of Phosphine:
• Formation of Phosphonic Iodide: PH 3 + HI à PH 4 I
• Combustion: PH 3 + 2O 2 à H 3 PO 4
b) Phosphorous Halides:
Preparation:
• P 4 + 6Cl 2 → 4PCl 3
• P 4 + 10Cl 2 → 4PCl 5
• P 4 + 8SOCl 2 → 4PCl 3 + 4SO 2 + 2S 2 Cl 2
• P 4 + 10SOCl 2 → 4PCl 5 + 10SO 2
Properties:
• PCl 3 + 3H 2 O → H 3 PO 3 + 3HCl
• PCl 5 + 4H 2 O → POCl 3 à H 3 PO 4 +5HCl
• PCl 3 + 3CH 3 COOH → 3 CH 3 COCl +H 3 PO 3
• PCl 5 + CH 3 COOH → CH3 COCl + POCl 3 + HCl
• 2Ag + PCl 5 → 2AgCl + PCl 3
• 2Sn + PCl 5 → SnCl 4 + 2PCl 3
• PCl 5 + Heat → PCl 3 + Cl 2
?C) Oxides of Phosphorus:

Oxo acid Name

H 3 PO 2 Hypophosphorus acid
H 3 PO 3 Phosphorus acid
H4P2O6 Hypophosphoric acid
H 3 PO 4 Orthophosphoric acid
 H4P2O7 Pyrophosphoric acid
HPO 3 Metaphosphoric acid

d) Oxy – Acids of Phosphorus:

Oxygen Family (Group 16 Elements) :
Sr. No. Property Oxygen Sulfur Selenium Tellurium Polonium
1. Configuration [He]2s 2p
2 4
[Ne]3s 3p2 4
[Ar]4s 4p2 4
[Kr]5s 5p
2 4
[Xe]6s 2 6p 4
2. Common oxidation -2 -2, +4, +6 +4, +6 +4, +6
state
3. Atomic radius (pm) 66 104 116 143 167
4. First ionization 1314 1000 941 869 812
energy (KJ/mol)
5. Electronegativity 3.5 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.0
Chemical Properties of Group 16:
Formation of volatile Hydrides:

Formation of Halides:

Formation of Oxide:
a) All elements (except Se) forms monoxide.
b) All elements form dioxide with formula MO 2 , SO 2 is a gas, SeO 2 is volatile solid. While
TeO 2 and PoO 2 are non – volatile crystalline solids.
c) Ozone: It is unstable and easily decomposes into oxygen. It acts as a strong oxidising
agent due to the case with which it can liberate nascent oxygen.
Oxyacids:
Sulphur Selenium Tellurium
Sulphurous acid H 2 SO 3 . Selenious acid H 2 SeO 3 Tellurous acid H 2 TeO 3 .
Sulphuric acid H 2 SO 4 Selnenic acid H 2 SeO 4 Telluric acid H 2 TeO 4 .
Peroxomonosulphuric acid
H 2 SO 5 (Caro’s acid)
Peroxodisulphuric acid
H 2 S 2 O 8 (Marshell’s acid)
Thio sulphuric acid H 2 S 2 O 3
Dithiconic acid H 2 S 2 O 6
Pyrosulphuric acid H 2 S 2 O 7
Allotropes of Sulphur :
Rhombic sulphur:
• It has bright yellow colour.
• It is insoluble in water and carbon disulphide. Its density is 2.07 gm cm -3 and
exists as S 8 molecules. The 8 sulphur atoms in S 8 molecule forms a puckered
ring.
Monoclinic Sulphur :
• Stable only above 369 K. It is dull yellow coloured solid, also called b - sulphur.
It is soluble in CS 2 but insoluble in H 2 O.
• It slowly changes into rhombic sulphur. It also exist as S 8 molecules which have
puckered ring structure. It however, differs from the rhombic sulphur in the
symmetry of the crystals
Plastic Sulphur:
• It is obtained by pouring molten sulphur to cold water.

• It is amorphous form of sulphur.

• It is insoluble in water as well as CS 2 .

Sulphuric Acid:
• Due to strong affinity for water, H 2 SO 4 acts as a powerful dehydrating agent.
• Concentrated H 2 SO 4 reacts with sugar, wood, paper etc to form black mass of
carbon. This phenomenon is called charring.
 • It is moderately strong oxidizing agent.

• Decomposes carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphides, sulphites, thiosulphates and

nitrites at room temperatures.

• Salts like chlorides, fluorides, nitrates, acetates, oxalates are decomposed by

hot conc. H 2 SO 4 liberating their corresponding acids.

?
Halogen Family ( Group 17 Elements)
Type XX’ 1 (n = 1) Type XX’ 3 (n = 3) (with T- XX’ 5 (n = 5) XX’ 7 (n = 7) with pentagonal
(with linear shape) shape) (with square pyramidal bipyramidal shape)
shape)
CIF ClF 3 ClF 5
BrF BrCl BrF 3 BrF 5
ICl, IBr, IF ICl 3 , IF 3 IF5 IF7
Inter halogen compounds:
 Hydrogen Halides:
Properties of Hydrogen Halides:
• All the three acids are reducing agents HCl is not attacked by H 2SO 4.
• 2HBr + H 2 SO 4 → 2H 2 O + SO 2 + Br 2
• 2HI + H 2 SO 4 → 2H 2 O + SO 2 + I 2
• All the three react with KMnO 4 and K 2 Cr 2 O 7
• 2KMnO 4 + 16HCl → 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H 2 O + 5Cl 2
• K2Cr 2 O 7 + 14HBr → 2KBr + 2CrBr 3 + 7H 2 O + 3Br 2
• Other reactions are similar.
• Dipole moment : HI < HBr < HCl < HF

• Bond length: HF < HCl < HBr < HI

• Bond strength: HI < HBr < HCl < HF

• Thermal stability: HI < HBr < HCl < HF

• Acid strength: HF < HCl < HBr < BI

• Reducing power: HF < HCl < HBr < HI

Pseudohalide ions and pseudohalogens:

Ions which consist of two or more atoms of which at least one is nitrogen and have
properties similar to those of halide ions are called pseudohalide ions. Some of these
pseudohalide ions can be oxidised to form covalent dimers comparable to halogens (X 2 ).
Such covalent dimers of pseudohalide ions are called pseudohalogens.
The best known psuedohalide ion is CN –
Pseudohalide ions Name
CN –
Cyanide ion
OCN – Cyanate ion
SCN – Thiocyante ion
SeCN –
Selenocyanate ion
NCN 2– Cyanamide ion
N3– Azide ion
OMC –
Fulminate ion
Pseudohalogen
• (CN) 2 cyanogen
• (SCM) 2 thiocyanogen
Some important stable compound of Xenon
• XeO 3 Pyramidal
• XeO 4 Tetrahedral
• XeOF 4 Square pyramidal
• XeO 2 F2 Distorted octahedral
 First rare gas compound discovered was Xe + (PtF 6 ] – by Bartlett.

Formula Name Corresponding Salt

HOCl Hypochlorous acid Hypochlorites
HClO 2 Chlorous acid Chlorites
HClO 3 Chloric acid Chlorates
HClO 4 Perchloric acid Perchlorates
Oxyacids of Chlorine
Acidic Character: Acidic character of the same halogen increases with the increase in
oxidation number of the halogen: HClO 4 > HClO 3 > HClO 2 > HOCl
Preparation
HOCl :
• Ca(OCl) 2 + 2HNO 3 → Ca(NO 3) 2 + 2HOCl
HClO 2 :
• BaO 2 + 2ClO 2 → Ba(ClO 2 ) 2 (liquid) + O 2
• Ba(ClO 2 ) 2 + H 2 SO 4 (dil.) → BaSO 4 ¯ + 2HClO 2
HClO 3 :
• 6Ba(OH) 2 + 6Cl 2 → 5BaCl 2 + Ba(ClO 3 ) 2 + 6H 2 O
• Ba(ClO 3 ) 2 + H 2 SO 4 (dil.) → BaSO 4 ¯ + 2HClO 3
HClO 4 :
• KClO 4 + H 2 SO 4 → KHSO 4 + HClO 4
• 3HClO 3 → HClO 4 + 2ClO 2 + H 2 O
The Noble Gases (Group 18 Elements):
The noble gases are inert in nature. They do not participate in the reactions easily because
they have
• stable electronic configuration i.e. complete octet.
• high ionization energies.
• low electron affinity.
Compounds of Xenon

Molecule Total electron pairs (BP + LP) Hybridisation Shape

XeF 2 5 Sp 3 d Linear
XeF 4 6 Sp 3 d 2 Square planar
XeF 6 7 sp 3 d 3 Distorted octahedral

Uses of Nobles gas

The noble gases are used in following ways:
(A) Helium
• It is used to fill airships and observation balloons.
• In the oxygen mixture of deep sea divers.
• In treatment of asthma.
• Used in inflating aeroplane tyres.
• Used to provide inert atmosphere in melting and welding of easily oxidizable
metals.
(B) Neon
• It is used for filling discharge tubes, which have different characteristic colours
and are used in advertising purposes.
• Also used in beacon lights for safety of air navigators as the light possesses
fog and stram perpetrating power.
(C) Argon
Along with nitrogen it is used in gas – filled electric lamps because argon is more inert
than nitrogen.

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