Computer Memory

Computer Memory is an electronic component that stores data and instructions for computers to access and
manipulate.
Common types of Computer Memory:
1. Random Access Memory
It is a temporary storage device that stores data and instructions for the CPU to access quickly.
→ RAM is volatile (Data is lost when power is lost)
→ It is very fast

2. Read Only Memory

It stores data and instructions permanently or semi-permanently.
The data is not intended to be modified or erased.
→ It is used to store firmware or software instructions required to bootup a computer and initialize systems.
→ ROM is non - volatile.

3. Flash Memory
It is a memory device used for portable devices and does not have moving parts.
→ It is faster than hard disk drives.
→ Flash memory includes: SSD drives, memory cards, solid state disks etc.
4. Hard Disk
It uses magnetic storage to store data on spinning disks.
→ Hard disks are slower than SSDs and they rotate when reading and writing data.

5. Cache Memory
It is a memory that stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce the time it takes for the CPU to
retrieve them from RAM.

6. Virtual Memory
Date:
It is a technique used by the operating system to allow the computer to use secondary storage (SSD and HDD) as an
extension of the RAM. This creates an illusion of a greater RAM capacity than what is actually installed.

Let me explain Memory Modules in a clearer, teacher-like way with examples:

What Are Memory Modules?
Simple Definition: Memory modules are small circuit boards that hold RAM chips. Think of them like "memory
sticks" that you can plug into your computer to give it more memory.
Real-World Analogy:
 RAM chips = Individual memory cells (like single rooms)
 Memory module = An apartment building that holds many rooms
 Motherboard slots = The foundation where you build the apartment
Types of Memory Modules Explained Simply:
1. SIMM (Single In-Line Memory Module)
What it is: Old-style memory with pins on only ONE side
Simple Explanation:
 Like a single-sided circuit board
 Pins only on the bottom edge
 Used in very old computers (1980s-1990s)
 Single row of pins = slower data transfer
Example: Think of it like a single-lane road - traffic can only go one way, so it's slower.
Key Points:
 ✅ Cheaper to manufacture
 ❌ Slower than newer types
 ❌ Mostly obsolete now

2. DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module)

What it is: Modern memory with pins on BOTH sides
Simple Explanation:
 Dual = Two sides
 Pins on front AND back of the module
 Faster than SIMM because more connections = more data paths
 Most common in desktop computers today
Example: Like a two-lane highway - traffic can go both ways, so it's faster.
Two Types of DIMM:
1. Regular DIMM - For desktop computers (longer)
2. SODIMM (Small Outline DIMM) - For laptops (shorter)
Visual Comparison:
Desktop DIMM: [========================================] (Long)
Laptop SODIMM: [=======================] (Short)

3. RIMM (Rambus In-Line Memory Module)

What it is: High-speed specialty memory (not common anymore)
Simple Explanation:
 Made by Rambus company for very fast systems
 Expensive but very fast
 Used in some high-end computers in early 2000s
 Required special motherboards
Example: Like a race car - very fast but expensive and needs special tracks.
Why it failed:
 Too expensive
 Required special chipsets
 DDR memory became cheaper alternative

4. DDR Memory Modules (Double Data Rate)

What it is: Modern fast memory that transfers data twice per clock cycle
Simple Explanation:
 DDR = Double Data Rate
 Same physical shape as DIMM
 Special notches prevent wrong installation
 Much faster than older types
DDR Evolution:
DDR1 → DDR2 → DDR3 → DDR4 → DDR5
(Old) (Older) (Common) (Current) (Latest)
Key Feature - Notches:
 Each DDR type has different notch positions
 Prevents mistakes - you can't put DDR3 in DDR4 slot
 Like having different key shapes for different locks
Example: Like having different sized USB connectors - USB-A won't fit in USB-C port.

5. ECC Memory Modules (Error Correcting Code)

What it is: Super-reliable memory that can fix its own errors
Simple Explanation:
 ECC = Error Correcting Code
 Can detect AND fix memory errors automatically
 Used in servers and workstations where reliability is critical
 More expensive than regular memory
How ECC Works:
 1. Detects if data gets corrupted
2. Fixes the error automatically
3. Continues working without crashing
Example: Like having a spell-checker that not only finds mistakes but fixes them automatically.
When to Use ECC:
 ✅ Servers (must never crash)
 ✅ Workstations (important work)
 ✅ Scientific computers (accuracy critical)
 ❌ Gaming PCs (not needed, more expensive)

Memory Module Comparison Chart:

Type Pins Speed Used In Status

SIMM One side Slow Old PCs Obsolete

DIMM Both Fast Desktops Current

sides

SODIM Both Fast Laptops Current

M sides

RIMM Both Very Fast Special Rare

sides systems

DDR Both Very Fast Modern PCs Current

sides

ECC Both Fast + Servers Specialize

 Type Pins Speed Used In Status

sides Reliable d

Key Points for Your Exam:

Remember the "3 S's":
 SIMM = Single side, Slow, Sold computers
 DIMM = Dual sides, Desktop, Dominant today
 DDR = Double Data Rate, Different notches
Common Exam Questions:
1. "Distinguish between SIMM and DIMM memory modules"
2. "Explain why DDR modules have different notch positions"
3. "When would you use ECC memory instead of regular memory?"
4. "What is the difference between DIMM and SODIMM?"
Memory Tricks:
 SIMM = SIMple (one side only)
 DIMM = DIfferent sides (both sides have pins)
 ECC = Error Correcting Code (fixes mistakes)
 SODIMM = SO small (for laptops)
Bottom Line: Memory modules are just different ways to package RAM chips, like having different sized boxes for
shipping the same product!

CMOS Chips - Simple Explanation

What is a CMOS Chip?
CMOS stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. It's a special type of memory chip on your
motherboard that stores important computer settings.
Key Features:
 Very low power consumption - Uses almost no electricity
 Separate from main RAM - It's its own dedicated memory block
 Always powered - Even when your computer is completely off
How Does CMOS Stay Alive?
CMOS Battery:
 Small, round battery (looks like a coin) on the motherboard
 Keeps the CMOS chip powered when PC is turned off
 Without this battery, CMOS would lose all settings when you shut down
 Usually lasts 3-5 years
Think of it like this: Your computer has a tiny "backup power source" just for remembering important settings.
What Does CMOS Remember? (2 Main Functions)
1. BIOS Configuration Settings
The CMOS keeps track of all your hardware information:
Hard Disk & Storage Information:
 Number of drives: How many hard drives you have (1st drive, 2nd drive)
 Type of drives: Whether they're HDD, SSD, or floppy disks
 Drive details: Size, model, connection type
Memory Information:
  How much RAM is installed (8GB, 16GB, etc.)
 Type of memory modules you have
Operating System Location:
 Which drive has your Windows/OS installed
 Where to find the operating system files
Boot Sequence (Very Important):
 What order to check devices when starting up
 Example: Check SSD first, then USB drive, then CD/DVD
 This tells your computer where to look for the operating system
2. System Time and Date
CMOS keeps your computer's clock running:
 Current time (hours, minutes, seconds)
 Current date (day, month, year)
 Continuously updates even when computer is off
Important Note: The actual time counting is done by a Real-Time Clock (RTC) chip, but CMOS stores and
remembers the time settings.
Why is CMOS Important?
Without CMOS, every time you turn on your computer:
 You'd have to tell it what hard drives you have
 You'd have to set the date and time
 You'd have to configure which device to boot from
 Your computer wouldn't remember any of your BIOS settings
With CMOS:
 Your computer remembers everything automatically
 Boots up quickly because it knows where to find the OS
 Keeps correct time even after being off for months
Simple Summary
CMOS = Your computer's "memory keeper"
 Powered by a small battery
 Remembers hardware configuration
 Keeps track of time and date
 Makes your computer start up smoothly every time
The battery is like a backup generator that keeps your computer's "brain" alive even when the main
power is off!
RTC (Real-Time Clock) = A tiny digital clock chip built into your motherboard
What it does:
 Counts time continuously (seconds, minutes, hours, days)
 Never stops - works even when computer is off
 Powered by CMOS battery when PC is shutdown
Where it is:
 Soldered directly onto the motherboard (permanent)
 Cannot be removed - it's part of the motherboard
 Located near the CMOS battery
How it works with CMOS:
  RTC = Does the actual time counting (like clock hands moving)
 CMOS = Remembers and stores the time (like clock memory)
 Work together to keep your computer's time accurate

BIOS
BIOS - Simple Explanation
What is BIOS?
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. It's a special type of ROM (Read-Only Memory) chip that contains
firmware - basically the first software that runs when you turn on your computer.
Key Features:
 ROM chip - Memory that keeps its contents even without power
 Embedded in motherboard - Permanently installed, can't be easily removed
 Firmware - Low-level software that controls basic hardware functions
Simple Analogy: BIOS is like your computer's "startup manager" - it's the first thing that wakes up and gets
everything else ready to work.
4 Main Functions of BIOS
1. Starts the Computer
What it does:
 First thing to run when you press the power button
 Wakes up the motherboard and gets basic systems running
 Prepares the computer for the next steps
Example: Like turning the key in a car - BIOS is what "starts the engine" of your computer.
2. Performs POST (Power-On Self-Test)
What POST does:
 Tests all major components to make sure they work
 Checks memory (RAM) - makes sure it's working properly
 Tests storage devices - verifies hard drives and SSDs are connected
 Checks graphics card (GPU) - ensures display will work
 Verifies other hardware - keyboard, mouse, ports, etc.
How you know POST is working:
 Beep sounds - Different beep patterns mean different things
 LED lights - Some motherboards have diagnostic lights
 Screen messages - May show "Testing memory..." or similar
If POST finds problems:
 Computer won't boot - Stops the startup process
 Error messages - Shows what's wrong
 Beep codes - Different beep patterns indicate specific problems
3. IPL (Initial Program Load)
What IPL does:
 Looks for the operating system (Windows, Linux, etc.)
 Checks boot devices in order (SSD first, then USB, then CD/DVD)
 Loads the OS from storage into memory
 Hands control over to the operating system
The process:
 1. POST finishes successfully
2. BIOS checks boot sequence (stored in CMOS)
3. Finds operating system on storage device
4. Loads OS into RAM
5. OS takes over and shows desktop
4. Store Driver Information for Basic I/O Devices
What this means:
 I/O = Input/Output (devices that get data in/out of computer)
 Basic drivers = Simple instructions for using hardware
 System settings = Configuration information
Devices BIOS knows how to control:
 Keyboard - Can detect key presses during startup
 Hard drives - Knows how to read/write basic data
 Serial ports - Old connection types
 Parallel ports - Printer connections (older systems)
 USB ports - Basic USB functionality
System settings stored:
 Hardware configuration - What components are installed
 Boot order - Which device to check first for OS
 Time and date - Basic clock settings
 Power management - Sleep/hibernate options
How BIOS Works in Startup Sequence
Step-by-step process:
1. Power button pressed → BIOS starts
2. POST runs → Tests all hardware
3. Hardware OK? → If yes, continue; if no, show error
4. Look for OS → Check boot devices in order
5. Load OS → Transfer control to Windows/Linux
6. Show desktop → BIOS job is done!
Simple Summary
BIOS = Your computer's "first responder"
 ROM chip with startup instructions
 Tests hardware to make sure everything works
 Finds and starts your operating system
 Knows basic controls for keyboards, hard drives, etc.
Think of BIOS like a building superintendent:
 First one to "unlock the building" (start the computer)
 "Checks all systems" (POST)
 "Calls the manager" (loads the OS)
 "Knows basic building controls" (hardware drivers)
Without BIOS, your computer would be like a car without an ignition system - it couldn't start up at all!

BIOS setup
→ BIOS setup utility displays system configuration status and provide options to setup system parameters.
→ The system parameters are then stored on the CMOS RAM.
→ To access BIOS setup different computers use different keys e.g F1, F2, F8, F9, ESC, Enter etc.

What Does "Clearing CMOS" Mean?

Clearing CMOS = Erasing all your saved settings and returning to factory defaults
Why you might need to do this:
 Computer won't boot due to wrong settings
 Forgot BIOS password
 Hardware changes causing conflicts
 CMOS corruption or errors

3 Methods to Clear CMOS

Method 1: CMOS Jumper (Most Common)
What is a jumper?
 Small plastic connector that slides over metal pins
 Usually has 3 pins on the motherboard
 2 positions: Normal and Clear
How it works:
1. Find the CMOS jumper on motherboard (usually labeled "CLR_CMOS" or "JBAT1")
2. Power off computer completely
3. Move jumper from "Normal" position (pins 1-2) to "Clear" position (pins 2-3)
4. Wait 10-15 seconds
 5. Move jumper back to "Normal" position
6. Power on computer
Visual:
Normal Position: Clear Position:
[●●]○ ○[●●]
123 123
Why this works: Jumper connects CMOS RAM to ground, draining all stored power and erasing settings.
Method 2: Remove CMOS Battery
How to do it:
1. Power off computer and unplug power cord
2. Locate CMOS battery (round, coin-like battery on motherboard)
3. Carefully remove battery (may have small clip holding it)
4. Wait 15 minutes to 8 hours (longer = more thorough clearing)
5. Reinstall battery
6. Power on computer
Why different wait times?
 15 minutes: Usually sufficient for basic clearing
 8 hours: Ensures complete discharge of all capacitors
 Longer wait = more thorough reset
Why this works: Without battery power, CMOS RAM (which is volatile) loses all stored data.
Method 3: Short-Circuit CMOS RAM (Advanced)
⚠️WARNING: Only for experienced technicians!
How it works:
 Temporarily connect CMOS power pins to ground
 Drains remaining power instantly
 Requires knowledge of motherboard pin layout
Why it's risky:
 Can damage motherboard if done wrong
 Easy to short wrong components
 Not recommended for beginners
What Happens After Clearing CMOS
Expected Error Message:
"CMOS Checksum Error" or "CMOS Settings Invalid"
Why this happens:
 CMOS data is gone, so checksum doesn't match
 Computer detects settings have been lost
 This is NORMAL - not a problem!
Purpose of heat sink/cooling fan and Thermal Paste
1. Distinguish between DRAM and SRAM
2. Explain the various types of ROM.
3. What is an O.S? List the functions of O.S
4. What are the differences between BIOS and UEFI
5. State the likely cost and suggest a solution to the following CMOS errors: i. CMOS display mismatch ii. CMOS
memory size mismatch iii. CMOS options not set iv. CMOS checksum failure v. CMOS date and time not set.
Maintenance Support and troubleshooting
✓ Computer maintenance ensures that Computer runs efficiently and extend its life span.
✓ It can be either hardware or software maintenance.
✓ Hardware maintenance includes:
 Keeping PC cleaning
 Checking and securing connections & cables & connectors
 Temperature management and backup server supply
✓ Software maintenance includes:
 Updates on Software and drivers
 Optimizing disk storage
 Managing startup applications

There are 4 types of PC system maintenance i.e

a) Corrective maintenance
✓ Used to fix errors and faults in a system. Examples of Corrective maintenance: i) Fixing software bugs in an
application ii) Replacing damaged hardware components iii) Resolving system crashes iv) Repairing database links
etc.
b) Adaptive maintenance
✓ It update the system to accommodate the environmental changes and newly legal requirements.
Examples of adaptive maintenance: i) Updating Software to work with new OS version ii) Adapting application to
comply with new regulatory standards iii) Modifying hardware configuration to support new devices.
c) Preventive maintenance
✓ It prevents the likelihood of system failure in the future.
Examples are: i) Regularly clean Hardware to prevent dust buildup ii) Install security patches to protect against
vulnerabilities iii) Run diagnostics to detect potential Hardware issues
d) Perfective maintenance
✓ Used to enhance the performance of a system and add new features i.e Examples: i) Adding new features to
mobile application based on user feedback. ii) Optimizing database queries iii) Upgrading CPU and RAM for faster
processing.

PC Support & troubleshooting

✓ It is offering technical support to solve user issues.
✓ Common activity done during Support include: i) User training ii) Remote support using tools like teamviewer and
any desk.
Documentation & system configuration and procedures to check and identify regular audits.
To check and

Troubleshooting
✓ The process of diagnosing and resolving Hardware and Software issues.
Common PC issues and fixes:
PC not booting - loose connection, fault RAM - Check all cables, Replace RAM
Slow performance - Bloat ware, full processes - Clear temporary files, scan antiviral
Frequent crashes - Overheating driver issues - Monitor temperature, update drivers
Installing O.S
✓ Insert the bootable USB into the Computer
✓ Access BIOS or UFI
✓ Use the BIOS settings to Change boot sequence to set USB drive as first boot device.
✓ Save the changes and exit the BIOS
✓ Restart the computer and boot from the USB
✓ Begin windows installation by setting up your language time and currency format, keyboard layout layout.
✓ Enter the product key, accept user license agreement
✓ Choose installation type (upgrade or customs)
✓ Upgrade keeps files and application from the previous windows version.
✓ Custom installation overwrites everything on the selected drive.
✓ Partition the hard disk and select the drive where the windows will be installed.
✓ Install windows following the wizard guide
✓ Configure windows - Creating system username

Explain Common errors encountered during window installation

1. Discuss some errors that window users are likely to encounter during missing system files
Having not no. bootable device detected
Requirements to consider before software installation

No display output - loose cables, faulty GPU - Check cables, replace GPU
Overheating - Dust buildup, poor ventilation - Clean fans, improve airflow
Unresponsive Software - Corrupted files, Not enough space - Reinstall Software, upgrade system resources
Internet issues - Network driver issues - Restart, update & check connection

Computer Malware
✓ These set of computer programmes that harmful to the computer.
⚠ Computer virus & computer get faults
Quiz
1. Explain tools used for troubleshooting a slow computer for windows.
2. What are the advantages of USB port & over PATA ports.
Explain the following windows startup options: a) Safemode with Command Prompt b) Last known Configuration
c) Safemode with networking Support
3. Explain default installation, customs and upgrade installation
4. Explain the difference btw impact and non-impact printers.

Windows Startup Options - Simple Explanation

What Are Windows Startup Options?
When your computer has problems starting normally, Windows provides special startup modes to help you fix the
issues. Think of these as "emergency modes" for your computer.

a) Safe Mode with Command Prompt

What it is:
A text-based startup mode where you interact with your computer using typed commands instead of clicking
icons.
How it works:
 Computer starts with only essential files loaded
 No desktop, no icons - just a black screen with white text
 You type commands to tell the computer what to do
 No graphics drivers loaded, so no pretty interface
When to use it:
 Desktop won't load properly due to corrupted graphics drivers
 Virus infections that prevent normal startup
 Need to run repair commands that require text-based tools
 System is severely damaged and normal Safe Mode won't work
What you can do:
 Run system repair tools by typing commands
 Delete infected files using text commands
 Fix corrupted system files
 Access files without using Windows Explorer
Example: Instead of clicking on folders, you type "dir" to see files, or "del filename" to delete a file.

b) Last Known Good Configuration

What it is:
A restoration option that takes your computer back to the last time it successfully started and worked properly.
How it works:
 Windows remembers the settings from your last successful startup
 Reverses recent changes to system files and drivers
 Keeps your personal files (documents, photos) untouched
 Only changes system settings back to previous working state
When to use it:
 Just installed new software or driver that made computer unstable
 Computer worked fine yesterday but has problems today
 Recent hardware installation caused conflicts
 System changes made computer unable to boot normally
What it fixes:
 Bad driver installations
 Registry changes that broke the system
 Recent software that conflicts with Windows
 System setting changes that caused problems
Example: You install a new printer driver, computer crashes. Last Known Good removes that driver installation and
makes computer work like before.

c) Safe Mode with Networking Support

What it is:
A basic startup mode that loads minimal Windows features but includes internet connectivity for downloading
fixes.
How it works:
 Starts Windows with basic features only
 Loads network drivers so internet works
 Runs minimal programs and services
 Simple desktop appearance with limited functionality
When to use it:
 Need internet access to download drivers or updates
 Computer has problems but you need online help
 Want to backup files to cloud storage before major repairs
 Need to download antivirus tools to clean infections
What you can do:
 Browse internet for solutions and downloads
 Update drivers from manufacturer websites
 Download Windows updates that might fix problems
 Access online support and remote assistance
 Run online antivirus scanners
Example: Your graphics card driver is corrupted. You use Safe Mode with Networking to go online, download the
correct driver, and install it.

Quick Comparison:

Mode Internet What You See Best Used For

Safe Mode + No Black screen with Severe system damage

Mode Internet What You See Best Used For

Command text

Yes (normal Recent changes broke

Last Known Good Normal Windows
boot) system

Safe Mode + Need online

Yes Basic Windows
Network help/downloads

How to Access These Options:

 Restart computer and press F8 repeatedly during startup
 Or hold Shift while clicking Restart in Windows
 Choose the startup option you need from the menu
Simple Summary:
 Command Prompt = Text-only mode for serious repairs
 Last Known Good = Undo recent changes that broke the system
 Network Support = Basic Windows with internet for downloading fixes
Remember: These are troubleshooting tools - use them when your computer won't start normally!