501: Linux Operating System [ 2511000905044001]

Unit 3 : Shell Scripting in Linux

3.1 Creating and Executing Shell Scripts (nano, vi, ./script.sh)
3.2 Shell Metacharacters and Operators
3.2.1 Filename Expansion (wildcards: *, ?, [])
3.2.2 Input/Output Redirection (>, >>, <)
3.2.3 Pipes (|)
3.2.4 Command Substitution ($(...), ...)
3.3 Control Flow Structures (if-else, case, for, while, until)
3.4 Logical Operators (&&, ||, !)
3.5 test and [ ] command for Condition Testing (file, numeric, string)
3.6 Arithmetic Operations (expr, $(( )))

Creating and Executing Shell Scripts:

What is a Shell Script?

 A shell script is a text file containing a sequence of commands for the

shell to execute.
 It automates repetitive tasks like backups, software installation, etc.
 Written in shell languages like Bash, sh, etc.

Creating a Shell Script File

1. Create a shell script file:

vi myscript.sh

2. Press i to enter insert mode.

3. Type the script:

echo "Hello, welcome to shell scripting!"

4. Save and exit:

o Press Esc key
o Then type :wq and press Enter
5. Make script executable:

chmod +x myscript.sh

6. Run the script:

./myscript.sh

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What Are Shell Meta characters?

Metacharacters are special symbols in the shell that have specific meanings.
They help in tasks like redirection, piping, wildcards, background processes,
etc.

1. Common Shell Metacharacters :

Metacharacter Meaning / Use Example

* Matches zero or more characters ls *.txt (lists all .txt)

? Matches exactly one character ls file?.txt

[] Matches a range or set of characters ls file[1-3].txt

\ Escape a metacharacter echo \$HOME

; Separates multiple commands date ; whoami

Runs second command only if first

&& mkdir test && cd test
succeeds

` `

& Run process in background sleep 10 &

Send output of one command

` ` (pipe)
to another command

> Redirect output to a file (overwrite) echo "Hi" > file.txt

>> Append output to file echo "Hello" >> file.txt

< Take input from file wc -l < file.txt

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2. Shell Operators :

Shell operators are used in scripting for comparison, assignment, logical and
arithmetic operations.

a) Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description Example

+ Addition echo $((3 + 2))

- Subtraction echo $((5 - 1))

* Multiplication echo $((2 * 3))

/ Division echo $((10 / 2))

% Modulus (remainder) echo $((7 % 3))

b) Comparison Operators (for numbers)

Used with [ ] or test command.

Operator Meaning Example

-eq Equal to [ 5 -eq 5 ]

-ne Not equal to [ 4 -ne 2 ]

-gt Greater than [ 6 -gt 2 ]

-lt Less than [ 1 -lt 9 ]

-ge Greater or equal [ 7 -ge 7 ]

-le Less or equal [ 2 -le 4 ]

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c) String Operators

Operator Description Example

= Strings are equal [ "$a" = "$b" ]

!= Strings are not equal [ "$a" != "$b" ]

-z String is empty [ -z "$name" ]

-n String is not empty [ -n "$name" ]

d) Logical Operators

Operator Meaning Example

! NOT if [ ! -f file.txt ]

-a AND [ -f file -a -r file ]

-o OR [ -f file -o -r file ]

Example Script Using Metacharacters and Operators :

echo "Enter a number:"

read num

if [ $num -gt 10 ]; then

echo "Greater than 10"
else
echo "10 or less"
fi

Filename Expansion in Shell (Wildcards: *, ?, []) :

What is Filename Expansion?

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In the shell (like bash), filename expansion means using wildcards (also
called globbing patterns) to match multiple files or directories without typing
their full names.

Wildcards are special characters used to search or specify patterns in

filenames.

1. * (Asterisk – Match All)

Matches: zero or more characters

Examples:

Command Meaning/Matches

ls *.txt All files ending with .txt

ls a* All files starting with a

ls * Lists all files and folders in the directory

2. ? (Question Mark – Match Single Character)

Matches: exactly one character

Examples:

Command Meaning/Matches

ls file?.txt Matches file1.txt, file2.txt, etc.

ls a?b.txt Matches a1b.txt, a_b.txt, acb.txt

3. [] (Square Brackets – Match Range/Set)

Matches: any one character from the set/range inside

Examples:

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Command Meaning/Matches

ls file[1-3].txt Matches file1.txt, file2.txt, file3.txt

ls file[a-c].txt Matches filea.txt, fileb.txt, filec.txt

ls file[135].txt Matches file1.txt, file3.txt, file5.txt

Combine Wildcards

You can use multiple wildcards together.

Examples:

ls a*.sh # All .sh files starting with a

ls test??.c # Files like test01.c, testab.c (2 characters after 'test')
ls file[1-5]* # Files starting with file1 to file5
Notes :

 Wildcards work with file and directory names only, not contents.
 Shell expands the pattern before running the command.
 You can use echo to test wildcards: echo *.txt
 Use quotes to prevent wildcard expansion: echo "*.txt" prints *.txt

Example:

Assume your directory has these files:

report1.txt, report2.txt, report3.csv, result1.doc, result2.doc

 ls *.txt
 ls report?.txt
 ls result[12].doc

Input/Output Redirection in Shell :

What is Redirection?

 In shell, redirection means sending output to a file or reading input

from a file.

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  You use special symbols like >, >>, < to redirect input/output streams.

1. Output Redirection: >

 Used to redirect standard output (stdout) to a file.

 If the file already exists, it will be overwritten.

Syntax:

command > filename

Example:

echo "Hello" > output.txt

➡Creates a file output.txt and writes Hello into it (deletes previous content if
file exists).

2. Append Output: >>

 Used to append output to the end of the file.

 Keeps existing content and adds new content at the bottom.

Syntax:

command >> filename

Example:

echo "New line" >> output.txt

➡Adds New line at the end of output.txt.

3. Input Redirection: <

 Used to take input from a file instead of keyboard.

 Passes file content as input to a command.

Syntax:

command < filename

Example:

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wc -l < input.txt

➡Counts number of lines in input.txt.

Additional Examples

Command Description
cat > file.txt Creates or overwrites file.txt with typed input
cat >> file.txt Appends new text to file.txt
sort < names.txt Sorts the contents of names.txt
grep "test" < file.txt Searches for "test" in file.txt

Important Notes

 Use > carefully — it will erase existing file content.

 Use >> to safely append without removing old data.
 < is helpful when a program expects input from a user or file.
 Combine with pipes (|) for more advanced redirection.

Table:

Symbol Use Action

> Output Redirection Overwrites file
>> Append Output Adds to the end of file
< Input Redirection Reads input from file

Pipes (|) in Shell:

What is a Pipe?

 A pipe (|) is used to pass the output of one command as input to

another.
 It connects two or more commands together.
 Pipes help to chain commands for efficient data processing.

Syntax

command1 | command2

➡ The output of command1 becomes the input of command2.

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Key Points

 Used to combine commands.

 No temporary file is created.
 It works with standard output and standard input (stdout → stdin).
 Multiple pipes can be used in one line.

Key Points:

1. Connects Commands:
o Pipes allow multiple commands to be combined into a single line.
2. Used in Shell Scripting and Terminal:
o Frequently used in bash, sh, and other shells for data processing.
3. Standard Output and Input:
o Pipe works by linking the stdout (standard output) of one
command to the stdin (standard input) of another.
4. Does Not Use Intermediate File:
o The transfer of data happens directly in memory, saving time and
space.
5. Processes Streamed Data:
o Useful in working with large outputs or continuous streams (like
logs).

Examples:

1. List Files and Count:

ls | wc -l

Lists files and counts how many are there.

2. Search in Files:

cat file.txt | grep "keyword"

Searches for “keyword” in file.txt.

3. Sort and Remove Duplicates:

cat names.txt | sort | uniq

Sorts the lines and removes duplicates.

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 4. See Running Processes:

ps aux | grep chrome

Filters chrome related processes.

5. Long Listing Sorted by Size:

ls -l | sort -k5 -n

Lists files and sorts by file size.

Command Purpose

grep Filter text

wc Count lines, words, characters

sort Sort text

uniq Remove duplicates

cut Cut parts of text

tee Save and display output

Command Substitution ($(...), ...) :

 Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace the

command itself in a shell script or command line.
 It's used when you want to use the result of one command inside
another.

Write a shell script to draw following pattern.

*
**
***
****
*****

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Step :1 vi star_pattern.sh

Step :2 Press i to enter INSERT mode

Step :3 rows=5
for ((i=1; i<=rows; i++))
do
for ((j=1; j<=i; j++))
do
echo -n "* "
done
echo
done

Step :4 Save and exit:

Press Esc key (to exit insert mode)
Type : wq and press Enter
Step :5 chmod +x star_pattern.sh

Step :6 ./star_pattern.sh

Write a shell script to find all prime numbers in given range.

Step :1 vi prime_range.sh

Step :2 Press i to enter INSERT mode

Step :3 read -p "Enter starting number: " start

read -p "Enter ending number: " end

echo "Prime numbers between $start and $end are:"

for ((num=start; num<=end; num++))

do
if [ $num -le 1 ]; then
continue
fi

is_prime=1

for ((i=2; i*i<=num; i++))

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 do
if (( num % i == 0 )); then
is_prime=0
break
fi
done

if [ $is_prime -eq 1 ]; then

echo -n "$num "
fi
done

echo
Step :4 Save and exit:
Press Esc key (to exit insert mode)
Type : wq and press Enter
Step :5 chmod +x prime_range.sh

Step :6 ./ prime_range.sh

Write a shell script to find sum of digits of a number

Step :1 vi sumdigit.sh

Step :2 Press i to enter INSERT mode

Step :3 read -p "Enter a number: " num

sum=0
n=$num

# Loop to extract and add digits

while [ $n -gt 0 ]
do
digit=$((n % 10)) # Get the last digit
sum=$((sum + digit)) # Add it to sum
n=$((n / 10)) # Remove the last digit
done

echo "Sum of digits of $num is: $sum"

Step :4 Save and exit:

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 Press Esc key (to exit insert mode)
Type : wq and press Enter
Step :5 chmod +x sumdigit.sh

Step :6 ./ sumdigit.sh

Write a shell script to print fibonacci series upto entered value N.

Step :1 vi fibonacci.sh

Step :2 Press i to enter INSERT mode

Step :3 # Read the limit N from the user

read -p "Enter the maximum value N: " N

# Initialize first two terms

a=0
b=1

echo "Fibonacci series up to $N:"

echo -n "$a $b "

# Generate next terms until the value exceeds N

while true
do
fib=$((a + b))

if [ $fib -gt $N ]; then

break
fi

echo -n "$fib "

# Shift values
a=$b
b=$fib
done
echo
Step :4 Save and exit:
Press Esc key (to exit insert mode)
Type : wq and press Enter

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Step :5 chmod +x fibonacci.sh

Step :6 ./ fibonacci.sh

Command Substitution ($(...), ...) :

What is Command Substitution?

Command substitution lets you use the output of a command as input to

another command.

Examples:

1. Display current date:

echo "Today is: $(date)"
2. Save command output in a variable:
mydir=$(pwd)
echo "Current directory is $mydir"
3. Count files in a folder:
echo "Files: $(ls | wc -l)"
4. Nesting (only easy with $(...)):
echo "Time: $(echo $(date))"

Control Flow Structures (if-else, case, for, while, until) :

Control flow allows scripts to make decisions and repeat actions — essential
for automation.

1. if, else, elif — Conditional branching

Syntax:
if [ condition ]; then
# commands if true
elif [ other_condition ]; then
# commands if elif is true
else
# commands if all false
fi

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 Example:
num=10
if [ $num -gt 0 ]; then
echo "Positive"
else
echo "Zero or Negative"
fi

2. case — Multi-way branching (switch)

Syntax:
case $variable in
pattern1)
# commands
;;
pattern2)
# commands
;;
*)
# default
;;
esac
Example:
fruit="apple"
case $fruit in
apple) echo "It's an apple";;
banana) echo "It's a banana";;
*) echo "Unknown fruit";;
esac

3. for loop — Loop over a list

Syntax:
for item in list; do
# commands
done
Example:
for name in Alice Bob Charlie; do
echo "Hello $name"

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done

4. while loop — Run while condition is true

Syntax:
while [ condition ]; do
# commands
done
Example:
count=1
while [ $count -le 5 ]; do
echo "Count: $count"
count=$((count + 1))
done

5. until loop — Run until condition becomes true

Syntax:
until [ condition ]; do
# commands
done
Example:
count=1
until [ $count -gt 5 ]; do
echo "Count: $count"
count=$((count + 1))
done

Table :

Structure Purpose Ends With

if-else Conditional branching fi

case Multiple condition check esac

for Loop over values done

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 Structure Purpose Ends With

while Loop while condition is true done

until Loop until condition is true done

Logical Operators (&&, ||, !) :

Logical operators are used in shell scripting to combine multiple conditions.
They return true (0) or false (non-zero) and help control the flow of execution
(like in if, while, etc.).

1. AND Operator &&

 Syntax:

command1 && command2

 Explanation: If command1 is successful (exit status 0), then command2

runs.
 Example:

mkdir test_dir && cd test_dir

o cd test_dir runs only if mkdir test_dir succeeds.

2. OR Operator ||

 Syntax:

command1 || command2

 Explanation: If command1 fails, then command2 runs.

 Example:

cd myfolder || echo "Folder not found"

o If cd fails (folder doesn’t exist), it prints the error message.

3. NOT Operator !

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  Syntax:

if ! command; then
# do something
fi

 Explanation: Runs the block if the command fails.

 Example:

if ! grep "hello" file.txt; then

echo "Text not found"
fi

o echo runs if grep does not find the text.

test and [ ] command for Condition Testing (file, numeric, string)

test and [ ] are used to evaluate conditional expressions. Both are almost the
same:
test expression # Old syntax
[ expression ] # Preferred and more common

1. File Condition Testing

Expression Meaning
-e file File exists
-f file File exists and is a regular file
-d file File exists and is a directory
-r file File is readable
-w file File is writable
-x file File is executable
-s file File exists and is not empty

Example:

if [ -f "data.txt" ]; then
echo "File exists"
fi

2. Numeric Condition Testing

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 Expression Meaning
n1 -eq n2 Equal to
n1 -ne n2 Not equal to
n1 -gt n2 Greater than
n1 -lt n2 Less than
n1 -ge n2 Greater than or equal to
n1 -le n2 Less than or equal to

Example:
a=10
b=20
if [ $a -lt $b ]; then
echo "a is less than b"
fi

3. String Condition Testing

Expression Meaning
str1 = str2 Strings are equal
str1 != str2 Strings are not equal
-z str String is empty
-n str String is not empty
Example:
name="Jaimini"
if [ "$name" = "Jaimini" ]; then
echo "Name is Jaimini"
fi

Notes: Always quote variables in [ "$var" = "value" ] to avoid errors.

Logical Operators with [ ]

You can combine conditions:

if [ -f file.txt ] && [ -s file.txt ]; then
echo "File exists and is not empty"
fi

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Arithmetic Operations in Shell

you can perform arithmetic operations using:

1. expr command (older method)

2. $(( )) (preferred modern syntax)

1. Using expr

 expr evaluates an arithmetic expression and returns the result.

Syntax:

expr operand1 operator operand2

Example:

a=10
b=5
result=`expr $a + $b`
echo "Sum: $result"

Note: Use backticks ` ` or $( ) for command substitution.

Important:

 Spaces are mandatory between numbers and operators.

 * must be escaped with \* to avoid shell expansion.

expr $a \* $b # Multiplication

2. Using $(( )) – Recommended

 This is arithmetic expansion syntax in Bash.

 Easier, cleaner, and more powerful.

Syntax:

$(( expression ))

Example:

a=10

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b=5
sum=$((a + b))
echo "Sum: $sum"

product=$((a * b))
echo "Product: $product"

No need for escape characters or spaces.

Operators
Operator Meaning

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

% Modulus

** Power (only in some shells like Bash 4+)

Increment & Decrement

a=5
((a++)) # Post-increment
((++a)) # Pre-increment

((a--)) # Post-decrement
((--a)) # Pre-decrement

Example Script:
a=20
b=4

echo "Addition: $((a + b))"

echo "Subtraction: $((a - b))"
echo "Multiplication: $((a * b))"
echo "Division: $((a / b))"

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echo "Modulus: $((a % b))"

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