Chapter 7
Inside the Cell
BIOL1306
Chapter Outline
• 7.1 – Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and their Functions
• Differentiate the structure and function of prokaryotic cell components
• 7.2 – Eukaryotic Cell Structures and their Functions
• Differentiate the structure and function of eukaryotic cell components
• 7.3 – Putting the Parts into a Whole
• Explain how diverse cellular activities are correlated with the function of organelles
• 7.4 – Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
• Analyze the process of transporting molecules across the nuclear envelope
• 7.5 – Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and
Recycles Cargo
• Analyze the process of transporting molecules into and through the endomembrane
system
• 7.6 – Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
• Differentiate the structure and function of the three major components of the
eukaryotic cytoskeleton
• Differentiate the roles of the three types of skeletal motor proteins
Inside the Cell
Cell theory states that call organisms
consist of cells. (Ch.1, Sect. 1.2)
All cells have:
1. Proteins—perform most of the cell’s
functions (Ch. 3)
2. Nucleic acids—store, transmit, and
process information (Ch. 4)
3. Carbohydrates—provide chemical
energy, carbon, support, and identity (Ch.
5) Biologydictionary.net
4. Plasma membrane—serves as a
selectively permeable membrane barrier
(Ch. 6 – Lipids)
How Are Cells Classified?
Cell types are classified into two
groups based on their morphology
1. Eukaryotes – membrane-bound
nucleus
2. Prokaryotes – lack membrane-bound
nucleus
Based on phylogeny, or
evolutionary history, organisms are
divided into three domains:
1. Bacteria—prokaryotic technologynetworks.com
2. Archaea—prokaryotic
3. Eukarya—eukaryotic
7.1 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and
Their Functions
Prokaryotic cells have an array of distinctive structures
and functions:
• Contain at least one chromosome
• Many protein-synthesizing ribosomes
• Phospholipid components differ:
• Bacterial phospholipids consist of fatty acids bound to glycerol
• Archaeal phospholipids used branched isoprenoid chains bound
to glycerol
Cytoplasm: All contents of cell inside membrane
View of prokaryotes dramatically changed with invention
of transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
How Is The Cell Organized?
The Chromosome is
Organized into a Nucleoid
• Nucleoid – space within a prokaryotic cell
where the circular chromosome is stored
• Chromosome:
• Most prominent structure inside prokaryotic cell
• Most bacterial and archaeal species have single,
circular chromosome:
• Consists of large DNA molecule associated with proteins
• DNA molecule contains information
• Proteins give DNA structural support
• Prokaryotic cells may contain circular,
supercoiled DNA molecules called plasmids
• Auxiliary genetic elements
Ribosomes Manufacture Proteins
Prokaryotes also have
ribosomes:
• Macromolecular machines
• Have large and small Ribosomes
subunit
• Consist of RNA molecules
and protein Plasmid
• Used for protein
synthesis Cytoplasm
• Ribosomes in bacteria and
archaea similar in size and Chromosome
function: Plasma
• Primary structure of RNA membrane
and protein components Cell wall
different
The Cytoskeleton Structures the Cell’s Interior
and Its Shape
Bacteria and archaea contain
long, thin protein filaments in Ribosomes
cytoplasm:
• Protein filaments form basis of Plasmid
cytoskeleton
• Serve variety of roles Cytoplasm
• In bacteria, cytoskeleton Chromosome
essential for cell division Plasma
• Maintains cell shape membrane
Cell wall
Photosynthetic Species Have Internal
Membrane Complexes
• Many prokaryotes have
internal photosynthetic
membranes:
• Convert energy in sunlight to
chemical energy
• Multiple membranes passing
through internal region of
cell observed in
photosynthetic bacteria
• Develop as infoldings of
plasma membrane
• Contain enzymes and
pigment molecules required
for reactions to occur
Certain Species Have Organelles for
Specialized Functions
• Always exceptions
• Some bacteria have internal compartments called organelles:
• Membrane-bound compartments
• Perform specialized tasks:
• Store calcium ions
• Hold magnetite crystals to serve as a compass
• Concentrate enzymes for building organic compounds
The Cell Wall Forms a Protective “Exoskeleton”
• Most prokaryotes have cell wall:
• Composed of tough, fibrous layer
• Surrounds plasma membrane
• Protects shape and rigidity of cell
• In bacteria:
• Primary structural component of cell wall is polysaccharide peptidoglycan
• Some have outer membrane made of glycolipids
Table 5.1
Certain Species Have External Structures that
Enable Movement and Attachment
• Many prokaryotes interact with
their environment via structures
that grow from their plasma
membrane and allow movement
• But how?
• Flagella and fimbriae:
• Structures found on bacterial
surfaces
• Flagella—long filaments that
rotate to propel cell
• Fimbriae—needlelike projections
that promote attachment to other
cells or surfaces
Which of these statements describes a major
difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells?
A. Prokaryotes are a more homogenous group of organisms than
are eukaryotes, which include protozoa, plants, and animals.
B. Prokaryotes, not eukaryotes, have cell walls.
C. Eukaryotic cells tend to have much more extensive inner
membrane systems and larger numbers of intracellular
organelles than do prokaryotes.
D. Prokaryotes are unable to carry out aerobic respiration, a
process that requires a complex inner-membrane system.
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7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their
Functions
• Eukaryotes range in size from
microscopic algae to 100-meter-
tall redwood trees:
• Protists, fungi, plants, and animals
are eukaryotes
• May be multicellular or unicellular
• Most eukaryotic cells are larger
than most prokaryotic cells:
• Prokaryotic cells measure 1 to 10
µm in diameter
• Eukaryotic cells measure 5 to 100
µm in diameter
7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their
Functions
• Organelles compartmentalize volume
inside eukaryotic cells into small bins:
• Fluid portion of cell, cytosol, has small
volume
• Offsets effects of low cell surface-area-to-
volume ratio
• Compartmentalization offers two
advantages:
1. Separation of incompatible chemical
reactions
2. Increasing efficiency of chemical reactions
Eukaryotic Cell Structure: A Parts List
• Nucleus • Peroxisomes
• Ribosomes • Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic Reticulum • Chloroplast
• Golgi apparatus • Cytoskeleton
• Lysosomes • The Eukaryotic Cell Wall
• Vacuoles
The Nucleus
• The Nucleus—Large, highly organized
membrane bound compartment
• It stores and transmits information
• Surrounded by double-membrane
nuclear envelope
• Why?
• Studded with pore-like openings
• Inside surface is linked to the nuclear
lamina:
• Lattice-like sheet of fibrous proteins
• Has a distinct region called nucleolus
• Location where ribosomal RNA is
synthesized and ribosome subunits are
assembled
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are complex molecular
machines that manufacture proteins
• Site of protein synthesis
• Lack membrane—not considered organelles
• Some ribosomes are free in the cytosol
• Manufacture proteins that remain in cytosol
or are imported to other organelles (e.g.,
nucleus)
• Some are attached to endoplasmic
reticulum:
• Manufacture proteins with other fates
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Endoplasmic reticulum— Rough endoplasmic Smooth endoplasmic
extensive membrane-enclosed reticulum reticulum
factory:
• Continuous with nuclear
envelope Lumen of
rough ER
• Two regions, distinct in Ribosomes
attached to
structure and function: outside of
rough ER Lumen of
smooth ER
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum Free
(rough ER) ribosomes
in cytoplasm
200 nm 200 nm
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(smooth ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – Rough ER (RER)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic
(rough ER, RER): reticulum
• Studded with ribosomes:
• Dark, knobby looking structures
• Synthesizes proteins that will
be: Lumen of
• Shipped to another organelle rough ER
• Inserted into plasma membrane Ribosomes
attached to
• Secreted to the cell exterior outside of
rough ER
Free
ribosomes
200 nm
in cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – Rough ER (RER)
• As proteins are manufactured on Rough endoplasmic
RER, they move to the lumen: reticulum
• Lumen—inside of any sac-like
structure
• In RER lumen, proteins are
folded and processed Lumen of
rough ER
• Proteins made on RER may: Ribosomes
attached to
• Carry messages to other cells outside of
rough ER
• Act as membrane transporters or
pumps
• Catalyze reactions Free
ribosomes
in cytoplasm
200 nm
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – Smooth ER
(SER)
Smooth endoplasmic
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum reticulum
(smooth ER, SER):
• Lacks ribosomes
• Contains enzymes that catalyze
reactions involving lipids, that
may:
• Synthesize lipids needed by the
organism
• Break down lipids and other Lumen of
smooth ER
molecules that are poisonous
• Reservoir for Ca2+ ions 200 nm
Golgi Apparatus
• Most proteins that leave R E R must pass
through Golgi apparatus
• Site of protein processing, sorting, and shipping
• Formed by series of stacked, flat,
membranous sacs called cisternae
• Has distinct polarity, or sidedness:
• Cis (“on this side”) surface closest to nucleus
• Trans (“across”) surface oriented toward plasma
membrane
• Function of Golgi apparatus:
• Processes, sorts, and ships proteins synthesized
in rough ER
• Cis side of Golgi apparatus receives products
from rough ER
• Trans side ships them out to other organelles or
cell surface
• Membranous vesicles carry materials to and from
organelle
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes:
• Recycling centers found only in animal
cells
• Contain approximately 40 different
enzymes
• Enzymes specialized for hydrolyzing
different macromolecules
• Digestive enzymes inside lysosomes
are called acid hydrolases:
• Work best at pH 5.0
• Proton pumps in membrane maintain
low internal pH
Endomembrane System
Collectively, lysosomes,
Nuclear envelope
Chromosomes Nucleus
Golgi apparatus, and ER Nucleolus
make up the
endomembrane system
• Center for producing,
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
processing, and
transporting proteins, Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
carbohydrates and lipids Structures
that occur in
Centrioles Golgi apparatus
• Example: acid animal cells
but not
plant cells
Lysosome
hydrolases Prokaryotic cell
• Synthesized in ER
• Processed in Golgi
apparatus
• Shipped to lysosomes
Vacuoles
• Vacuole—prominent organelle found in
cells of plants, fungi, and other
eukaryotes
• Cellular role:
• Some digest and recycle macromolecules
• Storage for water and ions
• In seeds, they are filled with proteins
• In flower petals or fruits, they contain
pigments
• May contain noxious compounds to protect
leaves and stems from being eaten
Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes:
• Globular organelles found in all eukaryotic cells
• Originate when empty vesicles from ER are
loaded with peroxisome-specific enzymes
from cytosol
• Center of reduction–oxidation (redox)
reactions
• Specialized plant peroxisomes, called
glyoxysomes, oxidize fats to form energy-
storage compound
• Oxidation often produces hydrogen
peroxide:
• In peroxisomes, enzyme catalyze “detoxifies”
it
Mitochondria
• It supplies ATP (energy) to cells
• Power-generating stations
• Have two membranes:
• Outer membrane defines organelle’s surface
• Inner membrane is folded into series of sac-like
cristae
• Mitochondrial matrix—solution enclosed within
inner membrane
• Mitochondria’s morphology is dynamic in
cells:
• Prone to fusion and fission
• Results in either elongated and branched
structures called mitochondrial networks or
multiple individual organelles
• Mitochondria have their own mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA):
• Grow and divide independently of cell division
• Manufacture their own ribosomes
Chloroplast
• Most plant and algal cells have chloroplasts,
where photosynthesis takes place
• Sugar-manufacturing centers in plant and algae
• Have three membranes:
• Innermost membrane contains flattened sacs called
thylakoids
• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana
• Surrounding the thylakoids is the stroma:
• Contains enzymes that use chemical energy to produce
sugar
• Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their
own DNA and manufacture their own
ribosomes:
• Chloroplasts grow and divide independently of cell
division
• Endosymbiosis theory:
• Proposes that mitochondria and chloroplast were
once free-living bacteria
• Bacteria were engulfed by ancestor of modern
eukaryotes but were not destroyed
• Mutually beneficial relationship evolved
Cytoskeleton and Cell Wall
Cytoskeleton Cell Wall
• Extensive system of protein fibers • Fungi, algae, and plants have stiff
• Gives cells shape and structural outer cell wall in addition to
stability plasma membrane:
• Cell wall is located outside of plasma
• Transports materials within cell membrane
• Organizes all organelles and other • Provides durable outer layer
cellular structures into a cohesive • Gives structural support to cell
whole • Cells of animals lack a cell wall:
• Supported by extracellular matrix (EC
M)
• Diffuse mixture of secreted proteins
and polysaccharides
Table 7.1 Eukaryotic Cell Components
Table 7.1 Eukaryotic Cell Components
Table 7.1 Eukaryotic Cell Components
Table 7.1 Eukaryotic Cell Components
Which of these organelles does not have at least one
membrane?
A. nucleus
B. ribosome
C. mitochondria
D. endoplasmic reticulum
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If the endoplasmic reticulum of a cell became dysfunctional,
the ability of the cell to perform which of the following would
be compromised?
A. make ATP
B. replicate DNA
C. control osmotic pressure
D. produce secreted proteins
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7.3 Putting the Parts into a Whole
• Structure of each cell component
correlates with function:
• Size and number of different types of
organelles:
• Fat cells are rounded, globular structures that store
lipids
• Cardiac muscle cells are long and tapered
• Correlate with cell’s specialized function
• Variation of organelle content
STRUCTURE DETERMINES FUNCTION
The Dynamic Cell
• Differential centrifugation and fluorescing tags:
• Technique used by researchers to isolate cell components and analyze
chemical composition
• Body’s cells use ~10 million ATP molecules per second
• Cellular enzymes can catalyze >25,000 reactions per second
• Each membrane phospholipid can travel breadth of its organelle or
cell in under a minute
• Hundreds of trillions of mitochondria are completely replaced about
every 10 days
You look at a cell under a microscope during lab and
your lab partner asks you if it is a prokaryotic cell.
Which of the following clues could you use to answer
her?
A. It has a plasma membrane composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
B. It is part of a multicellular organism.
C. It has ribosomes.
D. It has a cell wall.
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If protein synthesis were attempted experimentally
under in vitro conditions (in a test tube) using
ribosomes from cow liver cells, tRNAs from frog eggs,
mRNA from rat muscle cells, and amino acids from fruit
flies, what products would result?
A. random mixture of proteins from cow liver, frog eggs, rat
muscle, and fruit flies
B. cow liver proteins only
C. frog egg proteins only
D. rat muscle proteins only
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7.4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
• Nucleus:
• Information center of eukaryotic cells
• Genetic information in DNA is decoded
and processed
• Large suites of enzymes interact to
produce RNA messages
• Nucleolus functions as site of ribosome
assembly:
• Ribosomal RNA binds proteins to form
ribosomes
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries
information to synthesize proteins
Structure and Function of Nuclear Envelope
• Separates nucleus from rest of the cell
• Perforated with openings called
nuclear pore complexes
• Connects inside of nucleus with
cytosol
• Consists of about 30 different proteins
• Inbound traffic into the nucleus:
• Nucleoside triphosphates
• Proteins responsible for copying DNA
• Proteins responsible for synthesizing
RNAs
• Proteins needed for assembling
ribosomes
• Typical cell imports over 500 molecules
through 2000–5000 nuclear pores every
second
How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus?
• Import of large molecules into the
nucleus is selective:
• Nuclear pores serve as dynamic gate
to control passage through envelope
• Nuclear proteins contain a 17-
amino-acid-long nuclear
localization signal (NLS):
• Directs nucleoplasmin to nucleus
• Serves as “zip code” (molecular
address):
• Marks proteins for transport through
nuclear pore complex
• Allows them to enter nucleus
Which of the following is true of a protein that has a nuclear
localization signal?
A. It is made in the nucleus and remains there.
B. It is made in the nucleus and transported to the cytoplasm.
C. It is made in the cytoplasm and transported to the nucleus.
D. It is secreted from the cell.
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7.5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System
Manufactures, Ship, and Recycles Cargo
• Composed of lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus, and ER
• Most proteins found inside
organelles actively imported from
cytosol:
• Many proteins must be
transported to compartments
inside cell
• Each protein must have specific zip
code and delivery system to get to
correct location
• Example: Acid hydrolases must be
shipped to lysosomes
Studying the Pathway Through
the Endomembrane System
• Organelles participate in a “secretory
pathway:”
• Starts in rough ER and ends with product
leaving cell
• Pulse–Chase Experiment:
• Tracked protein movement
• “Pulse”: Radiolabel cells by exposing cells
to modified amino acids for short time
• “Chase:” Wash away modified amino acids:
• Replace with normal version of molecule
• Protein synthesis during chase period will not
be radiolabeled
Studying the Pathway Through
the Endomembrane System
• Results of Pulse–Chase Experiment:
• After pulse, most newly synthesized proteins
are inside rough ER
• During chase, labeled proteins have left RER
and enter Golgi apparatus:
• Some accumulate in secretory vesicles
• End of chase, labeled proteins left Golgi—are
either in secretory vesicles or were secreted
from cells
• Concluded: Secretory pathway exists and RER
and Golgi function together as parts of
integrated endomembrane system
Web Activity: A Pulse-Chase Experiment
How Do Proteins Enter the Endomembrane System?
• The “signal hypothesis:”
• Proteins bound for endomembrane
system have molecular zip code
• Directs growing polypeptide to RER
• Zip code is 20-amino-acid-long ER
signal sequence
• The signal hypothesis explains
how proteins destined for
secretion enter the
endomembrane system
How Do Proteins Enter the Endomembrane System?
• Step 1: Ribosome synthesizes ER signal sequence
• Step 2: ER signal sequence binds to signal recognition particle (SRP)
• Step 3: Ribosome + signal sequence + SRP move to RER membrane and bind to SRP
receptor
• Step 4: SRP is released—protein synthesis continues through channel called translocon
• Step 5: Growing protein is fed into ER lumen—ER signal sequence is removed
• In RER lumen, proteins are folded into their three-dimensional shape
• Proteins in ER lumen interact with enzymes that catalyze addition of carbohydrate side
chains
• Glycosylation:
• Addition of one or more carbohydrate groups in a process
• Resulting molecule is a glycoprotein
• Changes in structure indicator for shipment to next destination—Golgi apparatus
Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus
• Proteins are transported in vesicles
• Pulse–Chase experiment showed proteins in small, membrane-bound
structures:
• Bud off from ER
• Move to cis face of Golgi apparatus
• Surface closest to nucleus
• Additional centrifugation experiments supported this hypothesis
How Do Proteins Reach Their
Destination?
RER and Golgi Apparatus Constitute Assembly Line
• Protein come out of Golgi apparatus with
molecular tag:
• Lysosome bound proteins have phosphate group
attached to surface—forms mannose-6-
phosphate:
• Receptor protein in membrane of trans-Golgi
cisterna bind to tag
• Cargo complex form cargo-filled vesicles:
• Places proteins in particular type of transport
vesicle
• Each type of transport vesicle also has tag:
• Allows for transport to correct destination
• Transport vesicle is bound for plasma
membrane to secrete contents to outside of
the cell—exocytosis
Recycling Material in the Lysosome
• Cargo transport contributes to protein
recycling
• Large molecules must be digested by
lysosomes before their monomers can be
used by the cell
• Three pathways exist to recycle materials in
the lysosome:
• Two pathways are through endocytosis—
materials brought into cell by pinching off
plasma membrane
• Two types of endocytosis:
1. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
Recycling Material in the Lysosomes
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Particles bind to receptors on plasma
membrane
• Plasma membrane pinches off to form
endocytic vesicle
• Vesicle drops off its cargo in organelle called
early endosome
• Proton pumps lower pH; receptor releases
particle
• Vesicles matures into late endosome
• Acid hydrolases are dropped off, making it a
lysosome
Recycling Material in the Lysosome
2. Phagocytosis (”eat-cell-act”)
• Recycling materials brought in from outside
of cell
• Plasma membrane engulfs smaller cell or
food particle:
• Forms phagosome
• Phagosome structure is delivered to lysosome
• Phagosome and lysosome membranes fuse and
contents of phagosome are digested
3. Autophagy (“same-eating”)
• Cells are also involved in recycling large
structures and organelles within
cytoplasm:
• Damaged organelles are marked for
destruction
• Get enclosed within internal membrane and
form autophagosome
• Membrane of autophagosome fuses with
lysosome and contents are digested
Cholesterol is transported through the blood inside
vesicles made of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
Receptors on liver cells bind to HDLs and remove them
from the blood. This is an example of _____.
A. receptor-mediated endocytosis
B. phagocytosis
C. exocytosis
D. autophagy
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7.5 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton:
• Dense and complex network of fibers
• Helps maintain cell shape by providing structural support
• Not a static structure like the bones that make up your
skeleton
• Its fibrous proteins move and change to:
• Alter cell’s shape
• Shift its contents
• Even move the cell itself
• Three major types of cytoskeletal elements:
1. Actin filaments (microfilaments)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules
Table 7.2 Cytoskeletal Filaments
Actin Filament Structure
• Complete actin filament resembles two log strands that coil around each other
• Individual actin protein subunits assemble via polymerization:
• They assemble from head to tail through formation of covalent bonds
• Grouped together into long bundles or dense networks
• Usually found just inside plasma membrane
• Two distinct ends of an actin filament are referred to as plus and minus ends
• Structural difference results in:
• Different rates of assembling new actin subunits
• Plus end growing faster than minus end
Actin Filament Function
• Actin filaments are also involved in
movement
• Movement, with motor protein
myosin:
• Uses ATP to change shape and do
work:
• Cytokinesis (cell-moving) dividing
cytoplasm during cell division
• Cytoplasmic streaming—directed flow
of cytosol and organelles
• Cell crawling—groups of actin filaments
grow causing bulges in plasma
membrane:
• Extend and move cell
Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments:
• Consist of different size and structure
• Type of protein subunit
• Most familiar belong to family of molecules called keratins:
• About 20 types of keratin—found in nails and hair
• Nuclear lamins are intermediate filaments:
• Make up nuclear lamina layer
• Defines shape of nucleus—stabilizes envelope
• Form a dense mesh under nuclear envelope
• Anchor chromosomes
• Eukaryotic cells break down and reform nuclear envelope during cell division
Microtubules
• Microtubules—largest cytoskeletal elements:
• Large, hollow tubes made of tubulin dimers (“two-
parts”):
• α-tubulin
• β-tubulin
• Tubulin dimers polymerize in polar head-to-tail
fashion via noncovalent bonds
• Microtubules are dynamic, plus ends grow faster
than minus ends
• Originate from microtubule organizing center
(MTOC):
• Plus ends grow outward
• Radiating throughout cell
• In animal cells, this center is called the
centrosome:
• Contains two bundles of microtubules called
centrioles
• Microtubules best known for their role in
separating chromosomes during mitosis and
meiosis
Microtubules Serve as Tracks for Vesicle
Transport
• Vesicles are used to transport
material to wide array of
destinations:
• Vesicle transport occur along
filamentous tracks
• Micro tubes are required for
movement of materials elsewhere
in the cell:
• Movement of vesicles from RER to
Golgi apparatus
Motor Proteins Pull Vesicles Along the Tracks
• Vesicle transport requires a motor
protein called kinesin (“movement”):
• Coverts chemical energy in ATP into
mechanical energy in the form of
movement
• Head region binds to microtubule
• Tail region binds to transport vesicle
• Kinesin “walks” along microtubule
through series of conformational
changes
Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell
• Flagella are long, hairlike projections from
the cell surface that move cells
• Prokaryotic flagella:
• Single helical rods made flagellin (in bacteria) or
other types of proteins (in archaea)
• Move cell by rotating the rod like a ship’s
propeller:
• Eukaryotic flagella move cell by whipping back and
forth
• Unlike eukaryotic flagella, prokaryotic flagella are
not surrounded by plasma membrane
• Eukaryotic flagella:
• Closely related to cilium yet longer:
• Short, hairlike projection found in some eukaryotic
cells
• Biologist have concluded that prokaryotic and
eukaryotic flagella evolved independently
even though purposes are similar
How Are Cilia and Flagella
Constructed?
• Most cilia and flagella have
characteristic arrangement:
• “9 + 2” arrangement of
microtubules called the axoneme:
• 9 microtubule pairs (doublets)
• Surrounded two central microtubules
• Axoneme originates from basal
body:
• Identical in structure with centriole
• Aids in growth of axoneme
What Provides the Force Required for
Movement?
• Motor protein dynein:
• Forms a set of arms between
doublets
• Uses ATP to undergo
microtubules toward minus end
• Plays a role in vesicle transport
• Sliding motion produced by
dynein walking is constrained
• When dynein arms on only
one side of the axoneme
move, cilia and flagella bend:
• Results in swimming motion
Summary
• 7.1 – Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and their Functions
• Differentiate the structure and function of prokaryotic cell components
• 7.2 – Eukaryotic Cell Structures and their Functions
• Differentiate the structure and function of eukaryotic cell components
• 7.3 – Putting the Parts into a Whole
• Explain how diverse cellular activities are correlated with the function of organelles
• 7.4 – Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
• Analyze the process of transporting molecules across the nuclear envelope
• 7.5 – Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and
Recycles Cargo
• Analyze the process of transporting molecules into and through the endomembrane
system
• 7.6 – Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
• Differentiate the structure and function of the three major components of the
eukaryotic cytoskeleton
• Differentiate the roles of the three types of skeletal motor proteins
Questions? Comments?
Concerns?
