Intelligence

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Concept and Definition

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 Intelligence involves a number of abilities together. It is the ability to
understand the incoming information and make sense out of it. It is the

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ability to acquire new skills and use the existing knowledge to complete
a task or deal with a situation.Intelligence includes the capacity to
understand novel stimuli, learning language and communicate with

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others, being aware of the environment, have the ability to reason, plan,
and solve the problems creatively.

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 According toWechsler , “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity
of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
effectively with his environment.”
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Key Terms
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 Intelligence : It is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to

act purposefully, to think rationallyand to deal effectively with his
environment.
 G-factor : Known as ‘general-factor’, this is an innate cognitive activity
that influence all other kinds of mental activities. It remains constant
throughout one’s life.
 S-factor : Known as ‘specific-factor”. It represents Our performance on
a specific or particular mental activity. It is learned and one can have
many s-factors.
 Mental age : It is a measure of person’s intellectual development
relative to people of his/her age group
 Crystallized intelligence : A type of intelligence which consists of the
knowledge a person has already acquired and the ability to use that
knowledge whenever required.
  Fluid intelligence : The type of intelligence we use when dealing with
novel situations and problems.

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 Verbal Comprehension : The ability of reading comprehension, define

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and understand words, concepts, ideas; verbal reasoning
 Spatial Relations : It involves the ability to visualise and manipulate

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different geometric patterns, forms and imaginary objects in space.
 Emotional Intelligence : It is the ability to monitor one’s own and

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others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use

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this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

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Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence

 Charles Spearman’s (1904) theory of intelligence is known as two-factor

theory.Spearman noticed that children who perform well in one subject
tend to have good marks in other subjects also. This observation led
him to propose that there is a common factor which affects all of your
activities. Using a statistical method called as “factor analysis”, he
proposed that all cognitive activity or mental activity consists of two
factors namely, “general” or “g” factor and “specific” or “s” factor.
  So, intelligence is a sum of “g” factor and “s” factor. The g-factor theory
or generalfactor theory states that intelligence is composed of a general

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intelligence. The g factor refers to the broad spectrum of mental

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faculties that influences the performance on a wide variety of cognitive
abilities. The s factor is the single or unique factor. It proposes that all

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cognitive abilities are related to one another. Hence, the general
intelligence is responsible for acquiring knowledge, abstract reasoning

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and adapting to novel situations

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•He said intelligence is not one single ability, but a set of independent
abilities.
Thurstone’s Theory of Intelligence •Called Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) = 7 clusters.

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L.L. Thurstone (1938) emphasized that intelligence involved seven clusters of

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Primary Mental Abilities (PMA). His approach was very different from that of
Spearman’s. He suggested that the differences that were observed in the

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performance of intellectual tasks could be attributed to different independent
abilities. These abilities included:
i. Word Fluency(W): Ability to think or use words rapidly, such as in the
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task of anagrams.
ii. Verbal Comprehension(V): Ability to understand the meaning of the
word, concept or ideas correctly. Vocabulary tests assess verbal
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comprehension.
iii. Spatial Visualization(S): It is the ability to manipulate patterns and
forms of objects in space visually.
iv. Perceptual Speed(P): Tendency to perceive details quickly in every
stimulus accurately.
v. Numerical Facility(N): One’s ability to solve a numerical problem
quickly and accurately.
vi. Reasoning(R): Ability to observe facts and making a general rule out of
it.
vii. Associative Memory(M): Ability to memorise and recall quickly and
accurately.

All the above clusters were originally said to be functionally independent of

each other, it was actually found that they were intercorrelated. This
supported Sperman’s idea of a ‘g’ factor.

Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence

 Robert Sternberg developed the ‘Triarchic theory of intelligence’.

 According to the theory, there are three types of intelligence. First is the
contextual intelligence, second is the creative intelligence and third is
the analytical intelligence. Contextual intelligence or practical
 intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to the environment or
situational demands. It involves applying knowledge and information to

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your real world and thus adapting successfully to the situation.

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 Here, adaption involves both adapting to your existing environment
and/or ability to modify your environment to fulfill your needs. People

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who are high on this intelligence are street smart and often successful
in their life.

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 Creative intelligence is the ability to develop new ideas of ways of solving

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a problem or tackling a situation. Experiential intelligence or creative
intelligence is the ability to develop novel ideas or solutions. People high

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on this intelligence are creative.They have the ability to use previous
experiences in making new inventions.
 The analytical intelligence involves the ability to think abstractly and

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appraise the situation. Componential intelligence is also known as

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analytical intelligence, is measured by a traditional intelligence test.
People high on this form of intelligence, often score high on traditional
 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests. Such individuals have high critical and
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analytical abilities and usually perform well in academic tasks and
school. They are also good at mathematical and verbal skills.
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Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence

Howard Gardener refuted the classic view of intelligence as a capacity for

logical reasoning. He proposed that there is no one form of intelligence but a
number of intelligence work together. According to him, intelligence is the
“ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of conseque nce in a
particular cultural setting or community” . Initially, he proposed seven
distinct types of intelligence namely
1) Linguistic: People who are high on this type of intelligence have good
linguistic abilities i.e., they can easily articulate and express their

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thoughts by choosing the most appropriate words. They can easily play

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with the words. Poets and writers have a higher level of linguistic abilities.
2) Musical: People high on this are knowledgeable and sensitive to music.

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They can manipulate musical pattern to create different music. People
carrying this intelligence are good signers, play musical instruments and

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good music composers.

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3) Logical-mathematical: This involves having the ability to think critically
and on abstract problems. Such people have a scientific aptitude and are

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good with numbers and abstract problems. Scientists have a higher level of
this intelligence.
4) Spatial: This intelligence is related to one’s ability to manipulate and use

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visual images or mental images. Navigators, pilots, architects, and painters

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have high spatial intelligence
5) Bodily-kinesthetic: It is the ability to control and train your body or a part
of it for construction of products and problem-solving. People serving in the
military, intelligence agencies, sports person, actors and, dancers have
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higher levels of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
6) Intrapersonal: Being aware of one’s own feelings, emotions, needs, and
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motives are having intrapersonal intelligence. Philosophers and spiritual

leaders are high on intrapersonal intelligence.
7) Interpersonal: Your ability to understand other person’s behavior, motive,
and feelings. People high on this intelligence use their understanding of
other people to develop a comfortable bond with other people. Counselors,
politicians, teachers, social workers are high on interpersonal intelligence
Later, he added another type of intelligence.
8) Naturalist: It refers to being sensitive to different features of nature. They
have compassion for nature and are usually nature lovers. Wildlifers and
botanists possess a higher level of this intelligence.

Each individual has a unique combination of these eight types of intelligence,

which explains the individual differences. Gardner and his colleagues
proposed that the typical paper-pencil tests for intelligence do not measure
many aspects of intelligence such as interpersonal ability. For instance, many
students performed poorly on the intelligence test but become great leaders
because of their refined interpersonal qualities. Thus suggesting, that
intelligence is more than merely mathematical, verbal and analytical abilities,
measured by the traditional intelligence test.
Cattell’s Theory of Intelligence

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Raymond Cattell (1963) proposed the notion of fluid and crystallized

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intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the capacity to reason and solve new
problems. There is no influence from any knowledge from past experiences,

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rather the person innovates new logical methods to resolve the problem.

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Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge and past

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experiences. It involves the intellectual learning that one has accumulated
throughout the life span. This intelligence is expressed in the form of one’s

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vocabulary and general knowledge.

Pass Theory

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Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed Planning, Attention, Simultaneous,
and Successive (PASS) Theory, which primarily includes four types of
competence:
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1) Planning process is important when the individual makes a decision about
how to solve a problem or carry out an activity. It involves goal-setting and
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monitoring feedback.

2) Attention allows a person to attend selective stimuli and ignore others.

3) Simultaneous process helps in perceiving the stimuli as a whole and

integrates stimuli into groups.

4) Successive processing integrates the stimuli into a specific serial order.

PASS model helps in understanding various cognitive processes like,

reasoning, imagery, language, and memory

Theory of Technological Intelligence

Culture has an influence on intelligence. Vygotsky emphasized the role of

sociocultural factors in providing people to live, grow and understand the
world around themselves. Thus, Vygotsky forwarded the view that culture
promotes intellectual development.The higher order mental functions are
culturally determined. Technological intelligence is the type of intelligence
among people of advanced countries. Such intelligence reflects the skills of
attention, observation, analysis, performance, speed, and achievement
orientation.
Theory of Integral Intelligence

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When we discuss intelligence from the Indian perspective, it is the integral

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intelligence that is reflected. As the name suggests, it is a holistic perspective
of intelligence that incorporates and integrates both cognitive and non-

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cognitive processes. The main competencies of integral intelligence, thus
identified are cognitive competence, social competence, emotional competence

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and entrepreneurial competence. Both heredity and environment play a role

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in intellectual development. According to Sri Aurobindo, ultimate aim of
intelligence is a direct cognizance without the mediation of senses and hence,

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without the distortions brought by the ego.

Assessment of Intelligence

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 Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon were attributed with the first attempt
to measure intelligence scientifically. In 1905, they developed first
intelligence test known as Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Later in
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1908, they coined a term Mental Age (MA) to measure the intellectual
ability of a person in comparison to his or her fellow age group, and
Chronological Age (CA) refers to a person’s biological age. According to
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Binet, if a child has MA more than her/his CA, then she/he will be
classified as bright. If the child scores two MA years below than her/his
CA, then she/he should be identified with intellectual disability.
 In 1912, William Stern suggested the concept called Intelligent Quotient
(IQ). It referred to a score derived by dividing MA with CA and
multiplying the result with 100.
 IQ = (MA/CA) X 100
 So, if MA equals CA, then IQ will be 100.
 If MA is less than CA, IQ will be less than 100.
 Percentage of cases
under the normal curve

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IQ Level

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Types of Intelligence Tests

Individual and Group Intelligence Tests

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A) Individual Tests

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An individual test is one that is administered to one individual at a time. There
are many standardised individual tests such as The Kaufman Scales,

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Stanford-Binet Scale and, Wechsler Intelligence Scales. We will limit our
discussion with two most Famous intelligence tests i.e., Stanford - Binet Test

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and Wechsler Intelligence Tests.

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Stanford-Binet Scale of Intelligence

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Binet-Simon intelligence test was the first intelligence test, developed by Binet
and Simon (1905). It was one of the popular intelligence tests among
psychologists. Later this test was revised and adapted by an American

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psychologist Lewis M. Terman who was working at Stanford University. After

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validating it on the American population, he renamed the original scale as
“Stanford-Binet Scale”. In 2003, the fifth version of the Stanford-Binet Scale,
Fifth Edition (SB5) was introduced with 10 subtests measuring following five
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factors:
 Fluid reasoning
 Knowledge
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 Quantitative Reasoning
 Visual-Spatial Processing
 Working Memory

 Other than scores with reference to these five factors, SB5 gives two
distinct scores, namely Verbal IQ, and Nonverbal IQ. The instrument
has 10 subtests. The SB5 can be used for people within the age range
from two years to 85 years old individuals.
 On American sample of 4800 individuals, the reliability of the three IQ
scores was found to be in .90 and that of the subtests, ranging from .70
to .85.

The Wechsler Scales

The Wechsler scales were developed by Dr. David Wechsler. He developed

three scales; for adults, for school-age children, and one for preschool
children. All three of his tests contain several subtests from verbal as well as
nonverbal domain and they can measure intelligence and cognitive abilities.
He developed his first test (Wechsler- Bellevue scale) in 1939 when he was
working in Bellevue hospital.He devised a new formula for calculating IQ from
his scales. As we know, the usual formula of IQ is,
IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age × 100
According to Wechsler,
IQ = Attained or Actual Score / Expected Mean score for Age

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There are three versions of Wechsler’s intelligence scale:

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i) WPPSI – Wechsler Pre-School & Primary Scale of Intelligence: This scale

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can be administered on children from 2 years and 6 months to 7 years and 7
months. It was introduced in 1967 and originally designed for children

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between 4 years and 6.5 years old. It consists of 14 subtests measuring three

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indices, viz., verbal, performance and full-scale IQ. Currently, it is in fourth
revision known as WPPSI-IV.

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ii) WISC – Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children: This test can be
administered on children from 6 to 16 years old. This test was developed from
the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale and was first introduced in 1949.

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This test is often used in schools and other educational setups with the aim

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to identify gifted children as well as children with learning difficulties. The
most recent version of the test is the WISC-V, which was released in 2014
iii) WAIS – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: This test is used for
adolescents from 16 years of age through adulthood to measure general
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intelligence, by administering many subtests. Each of the test is an indicator
and estimator of intelligence. The current version of the test is the WAIS-IV
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which was launched in 2008.

The recent editions of Wechsler Intelligence Scales that are adapted for India
are Wechsler Adult Intelligence scales Fourth Edition, India (WAIS-IV, INDIA),
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence - Second Edition, India (WASI-II
INDIA). Wechsler Memory Scale – Third Edition, India (WMS-III INDIA).

WAIS IV INDIA : It is an adapted and standardized for India. It is an advanced

measure of cognitive ability for adolescents and adults. It provides subtests
and composite scores that represent intellectual functioning in specific
cognitive domains as well as composite scores for general mental ability (Full
Scale IQ). It is also used to assess learning difficulties and giftedness. It is a
highly reliable and vaild tool.

B) Group Tests
A group test is one that can be administered to more than one person at the
same time. Thus, making the tests quick in administration. There are many
intelligence tests which can be considered as group tests such as
Multidimensional Aptitude Battery , Cognitive Abilities Test , Culture Fair
Intelligence Test and, Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) was developed by John C. Raven in 1983.

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It is a non-verbal test of inductive reasoning, designed to measure Spearman’s

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g factor or general intelligence. It consists of 60 multiple choice items and can
be administered on children from 5 years-old to the older adults. The test

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contains visual geometric designs with a missing piece and the task of the
test taker is to choose the missing part of the matrix from six to eight given

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alternatives. Raven constructed three different forms of tests: Standard

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Progressive Matrices (SPM), Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) and,
Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). SPM is suitable for average individual

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between the ages of 6 and 80 years. CPM is availabe for younger children and
for special groups who cannot be tested on SPM. APM is available for above
average adolescents and adults.

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Verbal and Nonverbal Tests

A) Verbal Tests
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Verbal intelligence is the ability to use and solve problems using language-
based reasoning. Verbal tests are those which require the use of language for
successful performance in it. Verbal intelligence is the ability to comprehend
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and solve languagebased problems. Initially, approximately all intelligence

tests were based on language only but later it was realised that such tests are
of no use for people who were illiterate, young children who have not acquired
the language abilities fully and people with speech difficulties. To overcome
the limitation of these verbal tests, many psychologists came up with a
number of non-verbal intelligence tests. Moreover, many verbal standardised
tests such as Wechsler scales and Kaufman scales now also have some non-
verbal test components.

B) Non-Verbal Tests
A nonverbal test of intelligence measures one’s ability to analyze visual
information and solve problems without necessarily using words. Nonverbal
tests are also known as performance tests as they generally require a
construction of certain patterns.
Some of the famous nonverbal tests are Koh’s Block Design Test, Cube
Construction Tests, and Pass along Tests. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (1938,
1986, 1992,1995) is also a well-known nonverbal intelligence test.
Culture-Fair Tests and Culture-Biased Tests

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A) Culture-Fair Tests

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Every culture is unique in terms of their values, language, expectations,
demands and environmental experiences. A child reared in the US will be very

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different in many respects with a child been brought-up in Indian sub-urban
area. Due to this reason, for assessing individual belonging to different

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cultures, psychologists came up with tests which are free from any cultural

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biases. Some of the famous culturefair tests are The Culture Fair Test (Cattell,
1940), Raven’s Progressive Matrices, The Leiter International Performance

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Scale-Revised and, Draw-a-Man Test. All these and other culturally fair tests
are non-verbal in nature. Now, we will discuss an example of culture-fair
intelligence test-Draw-a-Man test.

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Draw-a-Man Test
This test was initially developed by Goodenough (1926). Later, it was revised
by Goodenough and Harris in 1963, known as Goodenough-Harris Drawing
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Test. Based on the projective technique, this test requires a test taker
(children only) to make three pictures on three separate papers. They are
asked to draw a man, women and themselves without giving any further
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instructions. Interestingly, instead of artistic skill, emphasis is given on the

child’s ability to observe accurately and think conceptually.

B) Cultural-Biased Tests
Many psychologists have attempted to develop culture-fair intelligence tests
by making it non-verbal in nature. However, it was realized that the impact of
culture cannot be eliminated completely from these tests even after making it
nonverbal completely. Due to this reason, only the term ‘culture fair’ is used
in place of ‘culture free’ tests.

Summary

 Intelligence includes the capacity to understand novel stimuli, learning

language and communicate with others, being aware of environment,
have the ability to reason, plan, and solve the problems creatively.
 Charles Spearman proposed the ‘Two Factor Theory of Intelligence’. He
used factor analysis and correlation analysis to find out the two
important factors of intelligence i.e., the general ‘g’ factor and specific‘s’
factor.
 Thurstone suggested that intelligence is a composite of seven distinct
primary mental abilities (PMA).
  Using improved statistical techniques, he developed a new factor model
of intelligence. These factors were called as primary mental abilities.

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 Howard Gardner (1983) proposed the theory of multiple intelligences.

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According to him intelligence is not a single entity, rather it consists of
eight types of intelligence.

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 Robert J. Sternberg formulated the ‘triarchic theory of intelligence’
which theorizes that intelligent behaviour consists of three major

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components or subtheories. The subtheories are

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(1) componential or analytical intelligence,
(2) contextual intelligence or the practical intelligence and,

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(3) experiential or creative intelligence.

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Cattell proposed two types of intelligence, fluid and crystallised. Das,
Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed Planning, Attention, Simultaneous,

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and Successive (PASS) Theory.
 Intelligence in the Indian perspective is known as integral
intelligence.The higher order mental functions are culturally
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determined. Technological intelligence is the type of intelligence
reflected among people from advanced countries.
 There are different ways to measure intelligence.Intelligence tests have
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been classified on a number of criteria, such as tests based on the

number of participants who can attempt the test, tests based on items
used in the test and whether the test can be used across different
cultures.

LET’S RECAP

Which of the following is the first stage of memory?

A. Short-term memory
B. Working memory
C. Sensory memory
D. Long-term memory

Correct Answer: C) Sensory memory

Explanation: Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory that briefly holds
information from the senses before it is processed further.

Which process involves getting information out of memory storage?

A. Encoding
B. Retrieval
 C. Storage
D. Consolidation

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Correct Answer: B) Retrieval
Explanation: Retrieval is the process of recalling or using previously encoded

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and stored information

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What type of memory is responsible for knowing how to ride a bicycle?

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A. Semantic memory

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B. Procedural memory
C. Episodic memory
D. Working memory

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Correct Answer: B) Procedural memory
Explanation: Procedural memory stores information about how to perform
tasks and skills, such as riding a bicycle.
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Chunking is a strategy used to improve:
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A. Long-term memory
B. Sensory memory
C. Short-term memory
D. Flashbulb memory

Correct Answer: C) Short-term memory

Explanation: Chunking involves grouping information into meaningful units,
which helps increase the capacity of short-term memory.

Which of the following is an example of divergent thinking?

A. Solving a math problem

B. Listing uses for a paper clip
C. Following a recipe
D. Choosing the correct answer in an MCQ

Correct Answer: B) Listing uses for a paper clip

Explanation: Divergent thinking involves generating multiple, creative
solutions to a problem.
The process of translating incoming information into a form that can be
stored in memory is called:

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A. Retrieval
B. Storage

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C. Encoding
D. Rehearsal

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Correct Answer: C) Encoding
Explanation: Encoding is the process of converting sensory input into a form

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that the brain can store and retrieve later.

What part of the brain is most closely associated with forming new long-

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term memories?

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A. Cerebellum
B. Amygdala
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C. Hippocampus
D. Medulla
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Correct Answer: C) Hippocampus

Explanation: The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation and
consolidation of new long-term memories.
Which of the following best describes a "schema" in thinking?

A. A visual memory
B. A strategy for memorizing
C. A mental framework for organizing information
D. A type of long-term memory

Correct Answer: C) A mental framework for organizing information

Explanation: A schema is a cognitive structure that helps individuals
organize and interpret information based on past experiences.

Which type of thinking is primarily used in standardized multiple-choice

tests?

A. Creative thinking
B. Divergent thinking
C. Convergent thinking
D. Abstract thinking
Correct Answer: C) Convergent thinking
Explanation: Convergent thinking focuses on finding a single, correct

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solution, as in multiple-choice tests.

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The inability to recall information due to interference from other
information is called:

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A. Encoding failure

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B. Decay

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C. Interference
D. Amnesia

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Correct Answer: C) Interference
Explanation: Interference occurs when other information competes with what

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you're trying to remember, making recall more difficult

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According to Howard Gardner, which of the following is not one of the
multiple intelligences?
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A. Linguistic intelligence
B. Interpersonal intelligence
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C. Practical intelligence
D. Musical intelligence

Correct Answer: C. Practical intelligence

Explanation: Gardner proposed eight (later nine) types of intelligences,
including linguistic, musical, interpersonal, spatial, etc. Practical intelligence
is not part of Gardner’s theory; it is part of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory.

Assertion (A): Interpersonal intelligence involves understanding and

relating to other people.
Reason (R): People with high interpersonal intelligence usually prefer
working in isolation.

A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true

Correct Answer: C. A is true, but R is false

Explanation: Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to interact effectively
with others. People with this intelligence are typically social, not solitary.
Hence, the assertion is true, but the reason is false.
Correct Answer: C. A is true, but R is false

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Assertion (A): Culture-fair tests are designed to minimize the influence

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of culture on intelligence test performance.
Reason (R): These tests include language-based and numerical reasoning

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items.

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A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

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B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false

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D. A is false, but R is true

Correct Answer: C. A is true, but R is false

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Explanation: Culture-fair tests avoid language or culturally biased content.

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They rely on non-verbal tasks like pattern recognition, not language-based
items. So, assertion is true, but reason is incorrect.

Emotional Intelligence includes all of the following except:

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A. Managing emotions
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B. Understanding others’ emotions

C. Solving abstract mathematical problems
D. Empathy

Correct Answer: C. Solving abstract mathematical problems

Explanation:Emotional Intelligence refers to the ability to perceive,
understand, regulate, and manage emotions—both one’s own and others’.
Solving mathematical problems is linked to logical-mathematical intelligence,
not emotional intelligence.

According to Sternberg’s triarchic theory, which of the following is not

one of the three components of intelligence?

A. Analytical intelligence
B. Emotional intelligence
C. Practical intelligence
D. Creative intelligence

Correct Answer: B. Emotional intelligence

Explanation:Sternberg proposed three components: Analytical, Creative, and
Practical intelligence. Emotional intelligence is a concept developed by Daniel
Goleman, not Sternberg.