Chapter 1.

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Basic Terminology
1.1Charge (q)

• Charge (q): fundamental electric quantity.

• Polarity: Positive +q (e.g., protons) and negative –q (e.g., electrons).
• Polarization: separation of positive and negative charges
• Unit of charge: C (Coulomb)
• Charge is quantized: integer number of q e = −1.6 × 10 −19 (C)
1.2 Current (i)
• Current: flow of mobile charges (usually, electrons and/or holes)
• Positive current direction: By convention, the direction in which positive charge flows
• However, in most cases, only the electrons are mobile.
• Positive current flow is opposite to the electron flow.
• Magnitude :
dq
i=  the time rate of change of charge passing through a predetermined area
dt
i ∆q
i = lim
A ∆t →0 ∆t

• Unit of current: A (Amperes or Amps) = C/s

• Total charge that passed (flowed) in a time window can be calculated by integration:
t

∫
q = idt
0
1.3 Voltage (V)

• Voltage (or potential difference): Potential energy difference between two points per
unit positive charge.
• Voltage between two points: the energy required to move a unit positive charge from a
lower potential to a higher potential.
dw (Joule)
v=
dq (Coulomb)
• Actual Charge Movement:

♦ Positive charge: higher potential  Lower potential

♦ Negative charge: lower potential  higher potential
♦ In both cases, charge flows from high potential energy to lower potential energy
Potential Sign Convention

Terminal
v
element

+ -
E1 E1

Name the voltage and

v
assume polarity (+/-)
1.4 Power (p)

• Power: Energy transfer per unit time

• Unit: W (watts) = V.A = J/sec
• Passive sign convention
♦ The current is positive if it goes into the + termainal, and negative if it comes out the +
terminal
♦ Positive power (p>0): Energy is dissipated by the load.
 Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential.
♦ Negative power (p<0): Energy is generated by the source.
 Current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential.
dw dw dq
p= (J / sec) = = v i (V ⋅A)
dt dq dt
Source i Load
+ +
pS = -9mW pL = +9mW
t
• Energy: w =
∫ p dt
0
Vs = 3V
− −
RL = 1kΩ
♦ 1 kW·h = 3.6 × 10 6 J
1.5 IV Curve (Current vs Voltage Curve)

• Comparision
♦ Voltage : Voltage across two points  across variable
♦ Current : Current through a circuit element  through variable

• i-v characteristics :
i = f (v) or v = g (i ) i

♦ 1st quadrant or 3rd quadrant: p = v i > 0  passive element  load

♦ 2nd quadrant or 4th quadrant: p = v i < 0  active element  source
1.6 Ground

• v = v a − vb = (v a − v R ) − (vb − v R ) , where vR : reference potential (the potential at the

reference point). Usually vR is set to 0V (signal ground).

vb

• Any node (point) in a circuit can be a ground.

• Potentials of two grounds can be different when two circuits are completely isolated.
Types of grounds

• Types of grounds
♦ Signal ground: Any point in the circuit (usually chosen at the main returning current path) from
which the potential of other points are defined.
♦ Earth ground: A ground whose reference is the Earth. (e.g., water pipe)
♦ Chassis (Case) ground: A ground whose reference is a chassis, which can be the enclosure or
case of an electric instrument.

Signal Ground Earth Ground Chassis Ground

♦ It is common that the chassis ground and the earch ground are connected due to safety
reasons.
2.1 Source vs Load

• Source-load circuit
•Although an electric circuit is composed of several circuit elements, it can be simplified as a
source – load.
•Some elements provide energy, and others consume it.
i
+
Source v Load
-

♦Example1: The player and amp in an audio system is the source, and the speaker is the load.
♦Example2: The power line is the source, and the home appliances (TVs, refrigerators) are the
loads.
2.1 Source – Load Circuits

• Source: an element providing energy (current or voltage)

♦ Examples: voltage source, current source
♦ Since a source provides energy, voltage rises in the direction of current flow at the
source.
• Load: an element/instrument that consumes energy
♦ Example: resistor, heater, home appliances
♦ Since a load consumes energy, voltage drops in the direction of current flow at the
load.
2.2 Ideal Sources

(a) Ideal voltage sources

• An ideal voltage source: can provide the pre-set voltage across its terminals regardless of the output
current.

IV-curve Symbols

i
i i i
v s (t ) vS (t ) Vs VS v s (t ) ~ v s (t )
−
vs v
General DC voltage source A C voltage source

♦ The amount of current supplied by the ideal voltage source is determined by the circuit
connected to it.
2.3 Ideal current sources

• An ideal current source: can provide a pre-set current to any circuit connected to it,
regardless of the load
• The voltage generated by the ideal current source is determined by the circuit connected to it.

i
i
is is (t ) v

v symbol

• In real life, there is no ideal voltage or current source due to internal losses (practical
sources).
• The voltage of a voltage source will drop at high current, and the current of a current
source will drop at high voltage.
2.4 Dependent Sources (Controlled Sources)
1. Type of sources
• Independent sources
♦ The output voltage (for a voltage source) or the output current (for a current source)
are independent of voltages or currents of any other element in a circuit.

• Dependent source or controlled source

♦ The output voltage (for a voltage source) or the output current (for a current source)
are dependent on voltages or currents of any other element in a circuit.

• Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

is Voltage A vin
vs
v in amplifier v out A v in v out

Voltage source Current source

3. Electrical Network
3.1 Branches, Nodes, Loops

(a) Branch
• Any portion of a circuit with two
terminals connected to it. A branch may
consist of one or more circuit elements.
• Examples: E1~E4, resistors, battery
(b) Node
• A point where branches meet.
• Examples: node 1, node 2 (2a and 2b are the identical nodes), node 3
(c) Loop
• Any closed connection of branches
• Examples: loop 1, loop 2, and loop 3
(d) Mesh
• A loop that does not contain other loops, smallest loop.
• Examples: loop 1 and loop 2 are meshes, loop 3 is not a mesh.
3.2 Kirchhoff's Current Law

∑i = 0
node
3.2 KCL Example

• Name the currents (i1~i4)

• Assume any direction!
• Example
N2 N3

N1

• For (meaningful) nodes, apply KCL.

♦ Node 2 : i1 + i 2 − i3 = 0 (∵i1: incoming, i2: incoming, i3: outgoing)

♦ Node 3 : i3 − i 4 = 0  i3 = i 4  Currents are identical for the elements connected in series.

♦ Node 1 : − i1 − i2 + i4 = 0 ⇒ i1 + i2 − i3 = 0 ( provides the same information at node 2.)
3.3 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

• The energy conservation law around the loop of a circuit.
♦ KVL: The net voltage around a closed circuit (i.e., an arbitrary loop) is zero.

∑v = 0
loop

♦ Here, we will give the + voltage sign with increasing potential and the – voltage sign with
decreasing potential, while assuming that the +/- terminal assigments are correct. The “true”
voltage signs will be determined uniquely after solving the equations.
3.3 KVL Example
• Name the voltages (v1~v4)
2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) • Assume any polarity.
• Use +/- symbols to denote the polarities.
• Example

• For (meaningful) loops, apply KVL.

♦ Loop 1 : v1 − v 2 = 0  v1 = v2
 Voltages are identical at both terminals of the elements connected in parallel.
♦ Loop 2 : v 2 − v3 − v 4 = 0
♦ Loop 3 : v1 − v3 − v 4 = 0 ( provides the redundant information.)
4. Resistance
4.1 Resistance
(a) Fundamentals of resistance
• Resistor: a circuit element that resists current flow.
• A voltage drop takes place across the resistor when current flows through it, since electrons get
scattered and part of their energy is converted to lattice vibrations (=heat).
• A resistor cannot store energy, but only dissipates/consumes energy in the form of heat. From this
viewpoint, a resistor corresponds to the damper of a mechanical system.

• Ohm's law :
v = R ⋅i
♦ Unit : Ω = V/A

i
i i
+ 1R
R [Ω ]
R v
+ v − - v
Memorize the current direction and voltage polarity
4.1 Resistance
(b) Conductance: inverse of R
• G = 1/R
♦ Unit: S (siemens) = A / V, sometimes “mho” can be seen in the literature.

• Ohm's law : i = Gv
(c) Resistivity/Conductivity: Material inherent property
• Cylindrical resistor element
i
A: cross-sectional area
l: conductor length
A l

R=ρ
l
=
1 l
A σ A
, where ρ : resistivity, σ : conductivity
4.1 Resistance

(d) Power rating

• In practice, you should choose your resistor that stays within your power rating.
• Power dissipated by a resistor : p = v i = R i 2 = v 2 R
• Power rating : Maximum allowable power without causing hardware damage or
unacceptable change of resistance
• Example : The power rating of a commonly used resistor is 1/4W. Therefore, the
resistance higher than 1kΩ can be safely used without exceeding its power rating
regardless of how it is connected in the circuit, when a 15V battery is used
♦ p = v 2 R = 15 2 / 1000 = 0.225W <1 / 4 W
• Since the power rating indicates the average power dissipation, exceeding the power
rating in a short period allowable in general.
4.1 Resistance

 Resistor types
(e) Tolerance
• Representation of resistor values
♦ Color code for carbon-film resistors
narrow 0 orange 3
black blue 6 white 9
brown 1 yellow 4 violet 7 gold 5%
c1 c 2 c3 c4
red 2 green 5 gray 8 silver 10%

 Resistance = (c1 c 2 ) × 10 3 & c4 : % tolerance

c

 Example: green-blue-yellow-gold  56 x 104 (W) = 560 kW, 5% tolerance

 Color codes should be read from the narrow region between the lead wire and the color strip.
♦ Numeric code (4 digit number) for metal-film resistors
 First 3 digits: resistance & 4th digit: the number of zero’s
 Examples: 1693  169 kW, 49R9  49.9 W

♦ Example: When the resistance of 30Ω is required,

 Case 1: Select 30Ω from the ±5% resistance table.

 Case 2: Select 27Ω or 33 Ω from the ±10% resistance table.

22 27 30 33 39

39Ω ± 10%
27Ω ± 10% 33Ω ± 10%
24.3 29.7 35.1 36.3
4.2 Resistor connections
(a) Resistors in series
 2 resistors : Req = R1 + R2
R1 R2 Req
+ − + − + −
v1 v2
i i
+ +
vs vs
♦ KVL : v s = v1 + v 2 = R1 i + R 2 i = ( R1 + R 2 ) i = Req i ⇒ Req = R1 + R 2

 Req: Equivalent resistance

• n resistors :
• Voltage divider rule
vs vs vs vs
♦ 2 resistors : v1 = R1i = R1 ⋅ R = R1 ⋅ R + R v 2 = R2 i = R2 ⋅ = R2 ⋅
eq 1 2 Req R1 + R2
R1 R2
∴ v1 = vs & v2 = vs
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

♦ n resistors :
4.2 Resistor connections
(a) Resistors in parallel
 1 1  −1 R1 R2 1
 2 resistors : eq 1 2  R R  = R + R = 1 R + 1 R
R = R R =  +
R1  1 2  1 2 1 2
i1 Req
+ v − −
+ v
i2
R2

is is

 1 1  1  1 1  −1 R1 R2 1

♦ KCL : is = i1 + i2 =  + 
 v = v  Req = R1 R 2 = 
R + 
 = =
 R1 R2  Req  1 R2  R1 + R2 1 R1 + 1 R2

• n resistors :
• Current divider rule
1 / R1 R2 1 / R2 R1
♦ 2 resistors : i1 = is = is , i2 = is = is
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 R1 + R2 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 R1 + R2

♦ n resistors :
 4.2 Resistor connections

• Example: Calculate the voltage v across R2||R3

R1 +
i R2 R3
R2 R3 R2 + R3 R2 R3
vs R2 v R3 v= vS = vS = vS
R1 + R2 R3 R2 R3 R1R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
R1 +
R2 + R3
-
4.3 Potentiometers
• Other names: variable resistor, trimmer (small potentiometers used for PCBs)
• Structures: 3-terminal variable resistor

wiper

CCW CW

Carbon-composition
film
Symbol
A C B

♦ CW (clockwise) rotation ⇒ R AC ↑ & RBC ↓

• Notes of circuit design
♦Potentiometers are not stable enough: bad contact, resistance fluctuation
4.4 Open Circuits and Short Circuits
(a) Short circuits
• Short circuit (SC) : a circuit element whose resistance approaches zero.
♦ A circuit element across which the voltage is zero, regardless of the current flowing
through it.

•Examples
♦ A short length of a metal conductor with large diameter
♦ A short length of 24 gauge wire used for a low-power electrical circuit

• Resistances of copper wires

AWG size Diameter Resistance
*AWG: American Wire Gauge
24 0.511 mm 9.47 Ω / 100 m
20 0.813 mm 3.77 Ω / 100 m
16 1.290 mm 1.50 Ω / 100 m

(b) Open circuit

• Open circuit (OC) : A circuit element whose resistance approaches infinity.
♦No current flows through the open circuit regardless of the externally applied voltage.
♦Example: a broken/cut wire
4.5 Strain Gauge & Wheatstone Bridge
(a) Strain gauge
• A strain gauge is attached to the surface of a material and its resistance changes as
a function of surface strain.
♦ It is possible to estimate stress, force, torque and pressure by measuring the strain.

• Operating principle
L
♦ R =ρ
A
♦ If a conductor is stretched  A↓& L↑  R↑
♦ If a conductor is compressed  A ↑& L↓  R↓

• Gauge factor
∆R R ∆R R
♦ G= =
∆L L ε

• Resistance change due to the strain ε

♦ ∆R = Ro Gε (Ro: resistance of a strain gauge with no strain)
4.5 Strain Gauge & Wheatstone Bridge
(b) Wheatstone bridge : apply vs and read vo

R2 R4
• va = v S and vb = v S ( voltage divider)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
 R4 R2 
 v o = vb − v a =  −  v S
 3
R + R 4 R1 + R 2 
♦ vs : excitation voltage (or source voltage)

• The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring unknown resistance.

• For example, the unknown resistance R4 (sensor) can be computed from vS, vo,
R1, R2, R3 in the above circuit.
4.5 Strain Gauge & Wheatstone Bridge
(c) Strain gauge Wheatstone bridge
• Strain gauges are attached to both the top and bottom of a beam in most cases.
F
R1 R4

R2 R3
• Wheatstone bridge circuit

 R4 R2   Ro + ∆ R Ro − ∆ R 
♦ vo = vb − v a =  − v S =  −  v S
 R3 + R4 R1 + R2   o
R − ∆ R + Ro + ∆ R Ro + ∆ R + Ro − ∆ R 
∆R 1 vo
 vo = vS = G ε vS  ε =
Ro G vS
5. Practical Voltage and Current Sources
5.1 Practical Voltage Sources
i rs i rs: internal
(source) resistance

vs + v RL vs + v RL

Ideal voltage source Practical voltage source

• Ideal voltage source : v = vs  independent of the current i.

• Practical voltage source : v = v s − rs i  dependent on the current i.

( v s : source voltage of an open circuit)
vs RL
v = v s − rs i = v s − rs = vs
rs + R L rs + R L
∴ rlim
→0
v = vs
s
 A lower internal resistance rs is desirable.

• Exercise: Typical 9V Alkaline battery = an ideal 9V voltage source connected in series

with 3Ω resistance
♦ Maximum current: about 3A (short-circuit case)
5.2 Practical Current Sources

i i

is v RL is rs v RL

Ideal current source Practical current source

• Ideal current source : i = is  independent of v.

v
• Practical current source : i = i s −  dependent on the voltage v.
rs ( iS : source current of a short circuit)
1 1 rs R L rs
i = is − i s (rs RL ) = is − is = is
rs rs rs + R L rs + R L
∴ rlim
→∞
s
i = is  A higher internal resistance rs is desirable.

• Voltage sources like open circuits or high resistance loads.

• Current sources like short circuits or low resistance loads.
6. Measuring Devices
6.1 Ammeters
• Ammeter: measures the current flowing through a circuit element.
• Small currents are measured directly by letting the current flow through the
ammeter. Large currents are measured indirectly by the magnetic field.
R1 R1

Ideal A Practical
A ammeter
vs + ammeter
vs + rm
R2
R2

• The ammeter should be connected in series with the circuit element whose current
is to be measured.
vs
• Ideal ammeter: zero internal resistance ( rm = 0 )  i =
R1 + R2
vs
• Practical ammeter: small but non-zero internal resistance.  i =
R1 + R2 + rm
6.2 Voltmeters

• A voltmeter measures the voltage (potential difference) across a circuit element.

R1 R1

vs + vs +
R2 V R2 V rm
Ideal Practical
voltmeter voltmeter

• The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the circuit element whose
voltage is to be measured.
R2
• Ideal voltmeter: infinite internal resistance. ( rm → ∞ )  v = vs
R1 + R2
• Practical voltmeter: high but bounded (not infinite) internal resistance.
R2 || rm
 v= vs
R1 + ( R2 || rm )
6.3 Wattmeters

• Wattmeter: measures power dissipated by a circuit element.

• The wattmeter is made up of a combination of a voltmeter and an ammeter.
6.4 Multimeters

• Voltages, currents, or resistances can be measured by a multimeter. Analog or

digital types are available.
• Not suitable for high frequency signals because its response is slow.
• The output is the rms value (root mean square, peak / 2 ) for the AC (alternating
current) signals.
6.5 Oscilloscopes
• An oscilloscope shows the voltage waveform with respect to time, including high
frequency waveforms.
♦Oscilloscopes are classified by their bandwidth. (e.g., 500 MHz bandwidth)
♦Usual input impedance: 1 MΩ, sometimes it provides 50 Ω also.

Analog Digital