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SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

(Autonomous)
Vishnupur, BHIMAVARAM – 534 202
APPROVED BY AICTE & AFFILIATED TO JNTUK
(SRI VISHNU EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Railways, Airports and Harbor Engineering

1. a Explain in detail the structural purpose and functional importance of rail

fastenings.
Ans: Rail Fastenings are the components used to securely attach the rails to the railway
track's base (called sleepers). They help keep the rails in place, maintain the proper
alignment, and ensure the track stays stable during train movement. Rail fastenings also allow
for small adjustments to the track and absorb vibrations, making the ride smoother and safer.

Fig: Rail fastener

Structural Purpose of Rail Fastenings:

1. Securing the Rails to Sleepers:

The primary function of rail fastenings is to secure the rails to the wooden, concrete,
or steel sleepers. This is critical for maintaining the alignment and level of the track,
preventing lateral and vertical displacements of the rails.

2. Distribution of Load:
Rail fastenings distribute the load applied by the train wheels evenly across the track
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structure, preventing concentrated stresses that could damage the track or lead to
deformation of the rails.

3. Allowing for Thermal Expansion and Contraction:

Rails expand and contract with temperature variations. Rail fastenings are designed to
allow a slight amount of movement to accommodate these thermal changes, thus
preventing buckling or warping of the track.

4. Allowing for Minor Adjustment:

They provide a means for adjusting the alignment of the track. Over time, track
alignment can change due to factors like wear and tear, or external loads. Rail
fastenings allow for periodic adjustments to maintain the correct gauge, alignment,
and level of the track.

5. Enhancing Stability:
Properly designed and fitted fastenings provide lateral stability to the track. This is
especially important on curves and for high-speed trains, where the forces on the track
are significantly greater.

Functional Importance of Rail Fastenings:

1. Reducing Maintenance Costs:

By securely fastening the rail to the track and minimizing the movement of the rail,
fastenings reduce wear and tear, thereby reducing maintenance costs. They help in
keeping the track in good condition for a longer period.

2. Improving Track Performance:

The proper installation of rail fastenings ensures smooth operation of the train. It
helps to maintain the track’s geometry, which is essential for maintaining high speeds
and safety.

3. Prevention of Track Disturbance:

Rail fastenings prevent the track from shifting under heavy loads. They keep the track
in its designed position, thus reducing the risk of accidents or derailments caused by
track misalignment.

4. Vibration Absorption:
During train movement, vibrations are generated, and rail fastenings help absorb these

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vibrations, reducing the wear of the track and providing a smoother ride for
passengers and goods.

5. Preventing Rail Wear and Fatigue:

Properly installed fastenings help in preventing excessive wear at the rail joints and
provide a uniform surface, which reduces rail fatigue over time.

1. b Identify and differentiate among various types of sleepers used in railway track
construction, and critically examine the different types of ballast in terms of their
properties.

Ans: Sleepers are essential components of railway track construction, as they provide a stable
base for the rails and distribute the load to the track structure. There are various types of
sleepers based on the material used and their position relative to the rails.

1. Timber Sleepers (Wooden Sleepers)

 Material: Made from wood, primarily hard wood like teak, sal, or softwood such as
deodar.
 Advantages:
o Easy to handle and install.

o Good resilience and shock absorption.

o Less expensive than concrete or steel sleepers.

 Disadvantages:

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o Prone to wear and decay due to environmental conditions like moisture,

insects, and fungi.
o Have a relatively shorter lifespan compared to other materials.

o Require frequent maintenance and treatment against decay and fire.

2. Steel Sleepers
 Material: Made from rolled steel sections.
 Advantages:
o Stronger and more durable than timber sleepers.

o Not affected by termites or moisture.

o Longer service life and less maintenance.

 Disadvantages:
o Prone to corrosion if not properly treated (rusting).

o Require more complex and costlier fittings than timber sleepers.

o Heavier, making handling and transportation more difficult.

3. Cast Iron Sleepers

 Material: Made from cast iron.
 Advantages:
o Strong and durable under heavy loads.

o Suitable for areas with heavy traffic.

 Disadvantages:
o Brittle and prone to cracking under sudden impacts.

o Expensive and challenging to handle and install.

4. Prestressed Concrete Sleepers

 Material: Similar to concrete sleepers but made from prestressed concrete.
 Advantages:
o Even more durable and resistant to deformation than normal concrete sleepers.

o Better at handling high-speed trains and heavy loads.

o Longer life and less maintenance required.

 Disadvantages:

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o Higher initial cost.

o Handling and installation require specialized equipment.

Types of Ballast Used in Railway Tracks

Ballast is the layer of crushed stone or gravel that supports the railway track. It provides
stability, allows water drainage, and helps distribute the load from the trains.

1. Crushed Stone Ballast

Properties:
o Provides good resistance to pressure and helps in distributing the weight of the
trains evenly.
o Excellent drainage properties due to its angular shape, which helps prevent
water accumulation under the track.
Advantages:
o High stability and strength.
o Less maintenance required.
o Effective in areas with heavy rainfall.
Disadvantages:
o Expensive compared to other materials.
o Can shift or move with train vibrations, requiring periodic maintenance.
2. Gravel Ballast

Properties:
o Less strong than crushed stone ballast.

o Provides reasonable drainage but not as effective as crushed stone.

o Susceptible to wear under heavy load and weathering.

Advantages:
o Cheaper than crushed stone ballast.

o Lighter and easier to handle.

Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for heavy traffic due to its lower durability.

o Requires more frequent maintenance.

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2. Define the term “Permanent Way” in railway engineering with a neat sketch and
explain its components in detail.

Ans: Definition– It is the path used for the operation of trains and consists of two parallel
rails placed at a specified distance (called gauge), sleepers to keep the rails in position using
fastenings, and ballast which acts as a cushion for the rail-sleeper combination.

Components of Permanent Way

The Permanent Way consists of several key components that work together to provide
stability, safety, and efficiency in railway track construction. These components are:

1. Rails: Rails are the steel bars placed on the track to form a continuous surface on which
the train wheels move. They bear the vertical loads of the trains and transmit them to the
sleepers.

Types of Rails:

 Flat-footed Rails: These are commonly used in modern railways. The foot of the rail
is flat and rests directly on the sleeper.

 Bull-headed Rails: These have a thicker head and a thinner base, typically used with
chairs to hold the rail in place.

 Double-headed Rails: These were used in early rail systems and can be reversed
when one side wears out.

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2. Sleepers (Ties): Sleepers are the rectangular supports that hold the rails in place and
distribute the load of the trains to the ballast and subgrade. They provide the necessary
track gauge and alignment.

o Types of Sleepers:

 Timber Sleepers: Made from wood, these were traditionally used in railways but
have a limited lifespan due to wear and decay.

 Steel Sleepers: Made of rolled steel, these sleepers are durable and resistant to
corrosion but are heavier and more expensive.

 Concrete Sleepers: Made from reinforced or prestressed concrete, these provide

long-lasting support and stability, commonly used in modern railways.

 Plastic Sleepers: Made from recycled plastic, these are lightweight and corrosion-
resistant but are still experimental in many regions.

3. Ballast: Ballast is the crushed stone or gravel placed under and around the sleepers. It
serves several purposes, including stabilizing the track, facilitating drainage, and
distributing the load from the rails to the subgrade.

o Properties of Good Ballast:

 Strength: It should be strong enough to support the load of the train.

 Drainage: It should allow water to pass through to prevent track damage.

 Durability: It should resist wear and tear under heavy loads.

o Types of Ballast:

 Crushed Stone: The most commonly used ballast material due to its strength and
excellent drainage properties.

 Gravel: Often used in lighter traffic areas.

 Slag: Made from industrial waste, it’s used in some regions due to its cost-
effectiveness.

4. Subgrade

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o Definition: The subgrade is the natural ground or foundation upon which the
track is laid. It must be prepared properly to ensure that the track is stable and
resistant to shifting under load.

o Importance: The subgrade must be level, compacted, and well-drained to

prevent track settlement or distortion.

3. Evaluate the criteria used in selecting the gauge for railway tracks. Justify the
widespread use of broad gauge in India by comparing it with meter and narrow gauges
with respect to cost, speed, terrain, and traffic volume.

Ans: The gauge of a railway track is the distance between the inner faces of the two parallel
rails. Types of gauges used in Indian railways are:

S.NO Type of gauge Gauge width

1. Broad Gauge 1.676m

2. Metre Gauge 1.000m

3. Narrow Gauge 0.762m

4. Feeder track Gauge 0.610m

1. Cost of Construction:
 A wider gauge generally requires more resources (such as longer rails, more ballast,
and larger stations), leading to higher initial construction costs.
 Narrower gauges are cheaper to construct, requiring fewer materials, especially in
terms of land acquisition and track formation.
2. Traffic Volume and Load:
 High Traffic Volume: Broad gauges are ideal for high-volume traffic, as they can
support larger trains with more carriages, making them more suitable for densely
populated regions and busy routes.
 Low Traffic Volume: Narrow or meter gauges are more suited for routes with lower
traffic volume or in less populated areas where the demand is less.
3.Speed of Movement:
 Broad gauge allows for higher speeds due to better stability and the ability to handle
larger, more powerful locomotives.
 Narrow and meter gauges tend to limit train speed due to narrower tracks and the need
for tighter curves, which impact stability.
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4.Terrain:
 Broad gauge tracks require a more extensive subgrade due to their size, which can
make them less suitable for hilly or mountainous terrain where there are sharp curves
or steep gradients.
 Narrow and meter gauges are more suited for regions with challenging topography, as
they can accommodate tighter curves and steeper gradients.
5.Safety and Stability:
 Broad gauge tracks provide better stability and safety for trains, especially under
high-speed conditions or on curves, as the wider spacing between the rails helps
distribute the load better.
 Narrow and meter gauges may face issues of stability, especially under heavy load or
high-speed conditions.
4. Compare the different types of rail sections i.e., double-headed, bull-headed, and flat-
footed in terms of structural properties, maintenance needs, and operational efficiency.
Which type is most suitable for modern railway systems and why?

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Most Suitable Rail Section for Modern Railway Systems

Flat-Footed Rails are the most suitable for modern railway systems for the following reasons:

1. Superior Stability
2. Low Maintenance Costs
3. Durability
4. Improved Speed and Comfort
5. Cost Efficiency in the Long Run

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5. Critically evaluate the causes and consequences of common rail defects such as
corrugation, hogging, kinks, and buckling. Propose appropriate remedial measures for
each, highlighting their effectiveness and economic viability.
Ans: Rail defects are a significant concern in railway track maintenance as they directly
impact the safety, efficiency, and longevity of railway systems. The most common rail defects
include corrugation, hogging, kinks, and buckling. These defects can lead to increased wear
and tear, reduced passenger comfort, and safety hazards.

1. Rail Corrugation

Causes:

 Wheel-Rail Interaction: The primary cause of corrugation is the dynamic interaction

between the wheel and rail, where repeated wheel passes create surface wear patterns.
This is often exacerbated by high-speed trains or uneven loading.

 Vibration and Resonance: Resonance from repetitive wheel impacts can lead to the
formation of microcracks and undulating patterns on the rail surface.

 Lack of Lubrication: Insufficient lubrication between wheels and rails can increase
friction and wear, leading to the formation of corrugations.

Remedial Measures:

 Grinding: The most common solution for corrugation is rail grinding, where the rail
surface is ground smooth to remove the undulating patterns. This reduces noise and
improves ride quality.

 Improved Lubrication: Regular lubrication at the wheel-rail interface can minimize

friction, reducing the likelihood of corrugation.

2. Hogging of Rails

Causes:

 Track Settlement: Hogging occurs when the rail ends bend downward due to track
settlement or uneven ballast distribution, leading to a sag at the rail joints.

 Loose Track Components: Loose fishplates, bolts, or spikes can allow the rail to
shift, leading to the formation of a hogged rail.

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 Vibration and Dynamic Loading: Repeated vibrations and dynamic loads,

especially from high-speed trains, can exacerbate the deformation of rails.

Remedial Measures:

 Cropping of Rail Ends: The most effective method for repairing hogged rails is to
crop (cut off) the bent portions and replace them with new rails or weld the ends back
into shape.

 Proper Ballast Compaction and Maintenance: Ensuring that the ballast is properly
compacted and levelled during track installation and maintenance can prevent further
settlement and hogging.

3. Kinks in Rails

Causes:

 Loose Fishplates or Fasteners: Kinks form when the joints between rails become
misaligned due to loose fasteners, causing the rail to shift laterally.

 Thermal Expansion: Extreme temperature changes can cause the rail to expand and
contract, leading to misalignment or kinks at joints.

 Poor Track Alignment: Poor initial alignment of the track or incorrect rail joints can
lead to kinks forming over time.

Remedial Measures:

 Realignment and Tightening of Joints: The most effective measure is to realign the
rails and tighten or replace the fasteners and fishplates at the kinked joints.

 Prevention through Temperature Control: Installing expansion joints or adding

expansion gaps during track laying can help control thermal effects.

4. Rail Buckling

Causes:

 Thermal Expansion: Rail buckling typically occurs during hot weather when the
track is unable to expand freely due to tight fishplates or lack of expansion gaps,
causing the rail to warp and buckle.

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 Excessive Loads: Heavy loads or repeated dynamic loading can cause localized
compression in the track, leading to buckling.

 Poor Track Maintenance: Insufficient ballast, loose fasteners, or weak subgrade can
cause instability, which increases the risk of buckling.

Remedial Measures:

 Rail Expansion and Installation of Expansion Joints: Properly designing the track
with expansion joints and providing sufficient space for rail expansion can prevent
buckling.

 Regular Track Monitoring and Maintenance: Monitoring track alignment and

addressing weak spots in the track early can prevent the buildup of conditions that
lead to buckling.

6. Apply the principles of rail joint design to explain the different types of joints used
in Indian Railways. How do these joints influence track performance and what
are the criteria for selecting a suitable joint type?

Ans: Rail joints are crucial components in railway track construction, as they join adjacent
rail sections and ensure smooth continuity of the track.

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7. Design a maintenance plan that incorporates welding techniques to minimize rail

joint failures and creep. Recommend suitable welding methods and justify your choices
based on performance, cost, and durability.

Ans: Rail joint failures and rail creep (the gradual longitudinal movement of rails along the
track) can cause significant issues in the operation and safety of railway systems. Welding
techniques, when applied strategically, can greatly reduce these problems by providing
continuous and smooth rail connections, minimizing the risk of misalignment, and reducing
the need for frequent maintenance.

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8. Analyze the phenomenon of creep in railway tracks with reference to its indicators,
causes, and effects. Evaluate the engineering strategies available to control creep and
suggest the most reliable solution under Indian operating conditions.

Ans: Rail creep refers to the gradual longitudinal movement of rails along the track due to
various external forces and conditions. Over time, this movement causes the track to become
misaligned, which can lead to issues like track instability, increased wear, safety hazards, and
higher maintenance costs. Creep is a common phenomenon in railway systems, particularly in
regions with high-speed trains, heavy freight traffic, or extreme weather conditions.

Indicators of Rail Creep

Indicators of rail creep are used to identify and assess the magnitude of rail displacement
before it becomes a major safety issue. Common indicators include:

1. Misalignment of Track:

o Tracks may show visible signs of misalignment, such as a twisting or buckling

of the rails. The spacing between the rails may increase or decrease, leading to
a change in the track gauge.

2. Rail Ends Displacement:

o The ends of the rails, especially at joints, may show noticeable displacement,
which can be measured over time. This is typically observed when the joints
become loose, misaligned, or damaged.

3. Uneven Wear on Wheels:

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o Increased wear on train wheels, especially on the tread, can indicate that the
rails are shifting and causing the train's wheels to rub unevenly.

4. Changes in Track Profile:

o A track profile scan can reveal longitudinal displacement along the track,
where some sections of the rail become elongated, while others shift.

5. Damage to Track Fastenings:

o Track fastenings such as fishplates, clips, and bolts may loosen or wear out
prematurely due to the stresses caused by creep.

Engineering Strategies to Control Rail Creep

1. Use of Rail Anchors

 Description: Rail anchors are devices that hold the rail firmly to the track, preventing
its longitudinal movement. These anchors resist the forces that would otherwise push
the rail forward along the track.

 Highly effective at preventing creep, especially in regions with extreme thermal

expansion or high-speed traffic.

2. Track Restraints and Tensioning

 Description: Installing track restraints or tensioning devices that apply constant force
to keep the track in place and prevent it from shifting.

 Very effective for high-speed rail and high-traffic routes where creep is more
pronounced.

3. Expansion Joints and Gaps

 Description: Installing expansion joints or providing gaps between sections of rail to

allow for controlled expansion and contraction due to temperature changes.

 Essential in regions with significant temperature variations, preventing rail movement

caused by thermal expansion.

4. Improved Ballast and Subgrade Design

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 Description: Ensuring proper ballast compaction and using high-quality subgrade

material to provide a solid foundation for the track. This reduces movement in the
track structure and provides support for the rails.

 Highly effective in stabilizing the track and preventing longitudinal rail movement.

9. Define sleepers and explain their functions in a railway track. Describe the desirable
characteristics of an ideal sleeper for ensuring track stability and durability.

Ans: Functions of Sleepers in Railway Track

1. Supporting the Rails:

 Sleepers provide the necessary support for the rails, distributing the load from the
wheels of the train to the ballast and subgrade. This helps maintain the stability of the
track under the dynamic forces generated by moving trains.

2.Maintaining Track Gauge:

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 Sleepers hold the rails in the correct track gauge (distance between the two rails) and
help prevent the rails from shifting sideways. This ensures proper wheel-rail
interaction and safe train operation.

3.Distributing the Load:

 Sleepers spread the load exerted by the passing train wheels across a broader area of
the ballast. This helps prevent localized damage to the track and supports the track's
structural integrity.

4.Providing Stability and Resistance to Forces:

 Sleepers resist the forces generated by the train, including vertical, horizontal, and
lateral forces. They help prevent the track from shifting due to these forces, thus
enhancing track stability and minimizing rail displacement.

5.Facilitating Track Alignment:

 Sleepers assist in maintaining the alignment of the track, both horizontally and
vertically. This is crucial to ensure a smooth and safe ride for trains, especially on
curves or in areas with heavy traffic.

Desirable Characteristics of an Ideal Sleeper for Ensuring Track Stability and

Durability

1.Strength and Load-Bearing Capacity:

 An ideal sleeper must be strong enough to withstand the dynamic loads exerted by the
passing trains, including the weight of the trains, vibrations, and other forces. It
should be able to support the rail and distribute the load effectively to the ballast and
subgrade.

2.Durability and Longevity:

 The sleeper must be durable enough to resist wear, environmental degradation (such
as corrosion, rot, or weathering), and mechanical stress. It should have a long service
life, even under harsh conditions like high traffic, extreme temperatures, or moisture
exposure.

 For example, concrete and steel sleepers are highly durable, while timber sleepers,
though more cost-effective initially, are susceptible to decay and require treatment.

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3.Resistance to Corrosion and Wear:

 The sleeper must resist corrosion, particularly in regions with high humidity or near
coastal areas. Steel sleepers require protection from rust, while wooden sleepers must
be treated to resist decay and insects. Concrete sleepers are resistant to corrosion but
may crack under extreme stress if not designed properly.

10. a Explain the role of ballast in a railway track system. What are the essential
properties that a good ballast material should possess?

Ans: Ballast is a key component of a railway track system, primarily functioning as the
foundation material that supports the weight of the track, distributes the load from the train,
and helps maintain track stability.

1. Load Distribution:

 Ballast distributes the load exerted by the train wheels across a large area of the
subgrade, preventing localized track deformation. It helps in reducing the pressure on
the underlying soil and ensures the track remains stable under heavy train loads.

2. Track Stability and Alignment:

 Ballast keeps the track components (rails and sleepers) in place, maintaining the
correct track gauge (distance between rails) and alignment. It helps resist horizontal
and vertical forces that could cause the track to shift or misalign.

3.Drainage:

 One of the most important functions of ballast is to provide drainage for the track. It
allows water to flow through the track structure, preventing the accumulation of water
beneath the rails and reducing the risk of track deformation due to waterlogging or
frost heaving. Proper drainage is essential to maintain track stability and reduce the
risk of track damage in wet conditions.

4.Vibration Absorption:

 Ballast helps absorb vibrations generated by train movement, reducing the impact of
these vibrations on the surrounding environment. This contributes to reducing noise
levels and enhancing the comfort of passengers.

5.Protection of Track Components:

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 Ballast protects the lower layers of the track system, such as the subgrade and the
foundation. It cushions the sleepers, preventing them from direct contact with the soil
and protecting them from deterioration caused by moisture or other environmental
factors.

Essential Properties of a Good Ballast Material

1. High Strength and Durability

2. Good grading and particle size
3. Angular shape
4. Drainage capability
5. Resistance to weathering action

10. b Evaluate the significance of ballast cleaning and renewal in track maintenance.
Discuss how inadequate ballast condition affects track stability and train safety.

Ans: Over time, ballast becomes contaminated with fine particles (known as fouling) from
crushed stone degradation, soil intrusion, and train operations. This contamination reduces
ballast effectiveness, leading to structural instability, drainage issues, and safety risks.

Importance of Ballast Cleaning and Renewal

1. Restores Drainage Capacity

 Clean ballast ensures free flow of water through the track structure, preventing water
accumulation and subgrade weakening.

 Cleaning removes fine particles that clog the voids between ballast stones, restoring
proper drainage.

2. Improves Load Distribution

 Clean, angular ballast interlocks better, providing uniform load distribution from
trains to the subgrade.

 Fouled ballast loses this interlocking ability, causing uneven stress and potential track
deformation.

3. Maintains Track Geometry

 Cleaning and renewing ballast helps preserve the alignment, gauge, and level of the
track.
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 Regular maintenance prevents track settlement, tilting, and twist faults that
compromise ride comfort and safety.

4. Increases Track Life

 Properly maintained ballast prolongs the life of sleepers, rails, and fastenings by
reducing vibrations and mechanical wear.

 It also reduces the frequency of track tamping, which otherwise becomes necessary
more often with dirty ballast.

5. Enhances Safety

 A clean, stable ballast bed reduces the risk of track buckling, derailments, and
slippage.

 Especially in curves and bridges, ballast integrity is crucial to resist lateral and
longitudinal forces.

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