The Malawi University Business and applied science (MUBAS)

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Program: Civil engineering (Structures)

Module: Civil Tech

Module code: CIV-CIT-121

Submitted by: Ntchindi Machila

Submitted to: T. Msukwa

Registration number: BLS/23/SS/015

Topic of assignment: Soil mechanics

Due date: 26th JULY, 2024

SOIL TEST
In the field of engineering, a series of tests are carried out on soil in order to determine whether
the piece of land the soil has been collected from is good for construction projects. Some of the
tests carried out are; the consistency test, the specific gravity test, density test, grading test and
the water or moisture content test to mention a few. The procedures on how to carry out these
particular tests are a must know for an engineer. Below are the procedures.

DENSITY TEST
The soil test used to determine the density of soil is called the proctor test. The proctor test is
in two variations depending on the project to be conducted on the site, namely; the standard
proctor test and the modified proctor test. Both determine maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content. They only differ in the amount of effort used in compaction of the soil.

PROCEDURE

1. Collect some soil from the site on which the project will be carried out. Ensure the
sample is large enough to perform multiple tests if needed. The sample should be free
from organic materials, debris and oversized particles (larger than 19mm for standard
proctor test and 37.5mm for modified proctor test).
2. Dry the soil sample continuously until a constant weight is reached.
3. Break down soil lumps without changing the size of the soil particles.
4. Pass the soil sample through a sieve to separate oversized soil particles from fine soil
particles.
5. Take a small portion of the soil sample of weight about 100g and record the weight.
6. In an oven at 110˚˚ C, dry the 100g soil sample portion for almost 24 hours or just until
a constant weight is reached.
7. Weight the dry soil and calculate the moisture content using the following formula:
Moisture content(W) = (weight of water × 100)
weight of dry soil
8. Add some water to the portion of the soil sample and mix in order to achieve an initial
moisture content, typically starting around 5%.
9. Place the moist soil sample in the mold in three equal layers for the standard proctor
test or five layers for the modified proctor test.
10. Compact each layer with 25 blows from the proctor hammer, ensuring uniform soil
distribution in each layer of soil.
11. Remove the collar and trim the excess soil.

12. Weight the mold with the compacted layers of soil and record the weight.
13. Remove the soil sample from the mold and determine its moisture content using the
method used in step 7.
14. Calculate the bulk density(ρ) and dry density(ρd) using the formulas below:

Bulk density(ρ) = weight of compacted soil/volume of mold

Dry density(ρd) = Bulk density(ρ)
1 + moisture content(w)/100

15. Repeat the process of compaction for different moisture contents increasing in
increments, for example 2 – 3%.
16. Plot the dry density against moisture content of the soil samples on a graph to obtain a
compaction curve.
17. Identify and record the peak of the curve which will represent the maximum dry density
as well as the optimum moisture content.
 SIGNIFICANCE

• Stability analysis: this proctor compaction test assesses the stability of a soil layer by
examining its shear strength and capacity to endure loads. This data is crucial for
evaluating the stability of slopes, embankments and retaining walls.
• Soil improvement: it is employed to evaluate the impact of soil enhancement methods
like lime stabilization and soil enforcement. It assists in assessing how these techniques
enhance the strength and stability of the soil.

WATER CONTENT
The water content of soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of the water to the weight of the
soil solids present in the given soil mass. The water content of soil is usually expressed in
percentage. There are several ways or methods of determining the water content of soil and one
of them is the oven drying method. The oven drying method is a simple and precise technique
for determining the water content of soil.

PROCEDURE
1. Collect the soil sample from the site.
2. Sieve the soil sample and categorize the samples in terms of their particle size; fine
grained soil (maximum particle size 2mm), medium grained soil (maximum particle
size 10mm) and coarse-grained (maximum particle size ˃ 10mm).
3. Add water to the categorized soil samples to form some kind of paste.

For coarse grained soil

a. Clean and dry the weighing tin + lid, weigh and record (W1).
 b. Weigh at least 30g of the fine-grained soil sample using an electronic balance to ensure
accuracy.

c. Place the weighed sample in the weighing tin and replace the lid.
d. Weigh the tin and the content (soil sample) together and record (W2).
e. Remove the lid and place the tin with the contents and the lid in the oven at temperatures
between 105˚C and 110˚C.
f. During the drying process in the oven, repeatedly weigh the soil sample until a constant
weight is obtained.
g. Remove the tin containing the soil sample from the oven and replace the lid.
h. Place the tin + lid containing the soil sample in a desiccator to cool for 24 hours. A
desiccator is an airtight container used in two ways: firstly, to remove moisture from
the desiccator to protect moisture sensitive samples; secondly, to maintain specific
moisture level. In this case it will be used to extract moisture from the soil sample.

i. Remove the tin + lid with contents and weigh the tin with contents (W3) and record.

For medium-grained soil

a. Clean and dry the container and weigh and record(W1).
b. Weigh and place 300g of the medium-grained soil in the container and place a lid on
top.
c. Weigh the container + lid containing the medium-grained soil sample and record (W2).
 d. Remove the lid and place the container with the contents and the lid in the oven at
temperatures between 105˚C and 110˚C.
e. During the drying process in the oven, repeatedly weigh the soil sample until a constant
weight is obtained.
f. Remove the container containing the soil sample from the oven and replace the lid.
g. Replace the lid and allow to cool.
h. Weigh again the container with contents and record (W3).

For coarse-grained soil

a. Clean and dry the container and weigh and record(W1).
b. Weigh and place 3 Kg of the coarse-grained soil in the container and place a lid on top.
c. Weigh the container + lid containing the coarse-grained soil sample and record (W2).
d. Remove the lid and place the container with the contents and the lid in the oven at
temperatures between 105˚C and 110˚C.
e. During the drying process in the oven, repeatedly weigh the soil sample until a constant
weight is obtained.
f. Remove the container containing the soil sample from the oven and replace the lid.
g. Replace the lid and allow to cool.
h. Weigh again the container with contents and record (W3).

4. Calculate the moisture content. Calculations of the moisture content of soil should be
calculated in percentage of the dry soil weight. The calculations can be done using the
following formula for all the three kinds of soil particle sizes:

If the Moisture Factor of the soil sample is required then the following formula can be used:
MF = 1 + (MC)
100
SIGNIFICANCE OF MOISTURE CONTENT TEST
1. To determine its strength

The ability to hold up a building is dependent on the soil’s intrinsic parameters, such as density
and moisture between its particles. Under normal conditions, construction site is weakest when
it is scorched. However, when there is a substantial amount of moisture within the soil, the
tightly fitted water molecules provide added support and grip due to the formation of air-water
interfaces. By establishing that the soil in your field contains enough moisture, you know how
much weight it can sustain.

2. To establish the soil’s Optimum Moisture Content capacity

OMC is primarily used to gauge the amount of soil moisture required to achieve full soil
compaction. Without establishing this factor, you could build a skyscraper only to find it
leaning on one side because of further soil compaction later in time. The worst part about this
is that it may not occur immediately during construction but manifest later when construction
is complete, resulting in severe losses to the owner and threatening the occupants’ lives. To
avoid this mishap, you need to measure moisture content before making your first move.

GRADING
Grading simply is grain size analysis. It is a soil test carried out in the soil mechanic field. Its
purpose is to derive the particle size distribution of soil. The grading soil test can be carried out
via two methods namely; the sieve grain size analysis and the hydrometer method. Our focus
will be on the sieve grain analysis method. The sieve grain size analysis test utilizes a set of
sieves with different mesh sizes.

PROCEDURE
1. Collect the soil sample from the designated site and dry it.
2. Weigh the dry soil sample of at least 500g.
3. Clean the series of sieves and pan which will be used in the test.
4. Weigh the series of sieves (S1) to be used as well as a pan which will be utilized later
on. Record their weights.
5. Assemble the series of sieves in an ascending order, placing the one with the larger
opening on top. Therefore, the NO. 4 sieve should be placed on top and the NO. 200
sieve on the bottom.
 6. Place the collected dry soil sample into the top opening of the sieves and place a cap/lid
over it to cover.
7. Place the pan under the stack of sieves.
8. Shake the stake of sieves by hand. Once tired, place the stake of sieves in a mechanical
shaker and shake for ten minutes.
9. Remove the sieve stack from the shaker and measure the weight (S2) of each and that
of the pan placed at the bottom of the stack.

DATA MANIPULATION
In order to calculate the weight of the soil collected in each sieve, subtract the weight of the
empty sieve (S1) from the weight of the sieves containing the soil samples (S2). The total
weights of particles should be added and compared to the initial weights of the soil sample. A
difference of lower than two is required.
In order to obtain a percentage of the dry soil sample collected on each sieve; divide each
weight collected by the initial weight of the soil sample and multiply by 100%. Subsequently,
the total percentage passing from each sieve is calculated by subtracting the cumulative
percentage retained in that particular sieve and the ones above it from totality.
Below is an example of a typical grain size analysis data sheet;
In order to determine whether the soil is well graded or not, the uniformity coefficient is used.
The uniformity coefficient expresses the variety in the particle sizes of the soil and is defined
as the ratio of diameter 60 (D60) to diameter 10 (D10). The value D60 is the grain diameter at
which 60% of soil particles are finer and 40% of soil particles are coarser, while D10 is the
grain diameter at which 10% of particles are finer and 90% of particles are coarser.
Therefore, the uniformity coefficient is expressed as:

When the uniformity coefficient is greater than 4, the soil is classified as well graded, whereas
when it is less than 4 the soil is classified as poorly graded.
Below is a grain size distribution curve of a medium-fine sand;
SIGNIFICANCE OF GRADING
It allows engineers to understand the properties of soil and how it will behave under different
conditions. This information is essential for designing safe and reliable foundations, roads and
other structures.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity (Gs)of a material is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of soil solids at
a specific temperature to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the same
temperature. One of the methods used to determine the specific gravity of soil is through the
use of the pycnometer.

EQUIPMENTS

• Volumetric flask (500 ml) with a stopper that has a pipe hole.
• Thermometer graduated with a division of 0.1°C.
• Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
• Distilled water.
• Entrapped air removal apparatus
o Hot plate or Bunsen burner that is capable of maintaining a temperature high
enough to boil water
o Vacuum system, vacuum pump, or water aspirator
• Evaporating dishes
• Spatula
• Drying oven

PROCEDURES

1. Clean and dry the volumetric flask.

2. Carefully fill the flask with de-aired, distilled water up to the 500 ml mark (The
bottom of the meniscus should be at the 500 ml mark).
3. Measure the mass of the flask and the water W1.
4. Insert the thermometer into the flask with the water to determine the water’s
temperature (T= T1°C.).
5. Put approximately 100 grams of air-dried soil into an evaporating dish.
6. For cohesive soil, add de-aired and distilled water to the soil and mix it until it forms
a smooth paste. Soak it for one-half to one hour in the evaporating dish. (This step is
not necessary for granular, i.e., non-cohesive soils.)
7. Transfer the soil (if granular) or the soil paste (if cohesive) into the volumetric flask.
8. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask containing the soil or soil paste
until it is about two-thirds full. Remove the air from the soil-water mixture by
applying a vacuum pump or an aspirator until all of the entrapped air has been
removed. Notice that this is an extremely important step, as most errors in the results
of the test are due to entrapped air that has not been removed.
 9. Add de-aired, distilled water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus
touches the 500 ml mark. Dry the outside of the flask and the inside of the neck above
the meniscus.
10. Determine the combined mass of the bottle plus soil plus water (W2).
11. Pour the soil and water into an evaporating dish. Use a plastic squeeze bottle
to wash the inside of the flask, making sure that no soil is left inside.
12. Put the evaporating dish into an oven to dry it to a constant weight.
13. Determine the mass of the dry soil in the evaporating dish (Ws).

DATA MANIPULATION

After the procedures have been carried out, the specific gravity of the soil sample can
be carried out using the following series of formulas;

Mass of flask + water filled to mark, = W1(g)

Mass of flask + soil + water filled to mark, = W 2(g)
Mass of dry soil, = Ws(g)
Water Temperature, = T1(°C)
Temperature Correction Factor= A
Specific Gravity, =

Below is a sample of a table of values that an be used;

SIGNIFICANCE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Specific gravity tests are vital for evaluating the properties of construction materials such as
concrete aggregates and asphalt mixtures. This ensures that materials used in construction meet
strength and durability requirements.

CONSISTENCY TEST
Consistency of soil is tested through the use of Atterberg limit test. The Atterberg limit refers
to the liquid limit and plastic limit of soil. These two limits are used internationally for soil
identification, classification, and strength correlations. There is also another limit test named
the shrinkage limit test.

PROCEDURES

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

1. Determine the mass of each of the three moisture cans (W1).

2. Calibrate the drop of the cup, using the end of the grooving tool not meant for cutting,
so that there is consistency in the height of the drop.
3. Put about 250 g of air-dried soil through a # 40 sieve into an evaporating dish and with
a plastic squeeze bottle, add enough water to form a uniform paste.
4. Place the soil in the Casagrande’s cup and use a spatula to smooth the surface
so that the maximum depth is about 8mm.
5. Using the grooving tool, cut a groove at the centre line of the soil cup.
6. Crank the device at a rate of 2 revolutions per second until there is a clear
visible closure of 1/2” or 12.7 mm in the soil pat placed in the cup. Count the
number of blows (N) that caused the closure. (Make the paste so that N begins
with a value higher than 35.)
7. If N= 15 to 40, collect the sample from the closed part of the cup using a spatula and
determine the water content weighing the can + moist soil (W2). If the soil is too dry, N
will be higher and will reduce as water is added.
8. Do not add soil to the sample to make it dry. Instead, expose the mix to a fan or dry it
by continuously mixing it with the spatula.
9. Perform a minimum of three trials with values of N-15 to 40, cleaning the cap after
each trial.
10. Determine the corresponding w% after 24 hours (W3) and plot the N vs w%, which is
called the “flow curve”.
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

1. Mix approximately 20 g of dry soil with water from the plastic squeeze bottle.
2. Determine the weight of the empty moisture can, (W1).
3. Prepare some several, ellipse like masses of soil and place them in the plastic limit
device. Place two fresh sheets of filter paper on either face of the plates.
4. Roll the upper half of the device which has a calibrated opening of 3.18 mm with the
lower half plat

5. If the soil crumbles forming a thread approximately the size of the opening between the
plates (around 3 mm diameter), collect the crumbled sample, and weigh it in the
moisture can (W2) to determine the water content. Otherwise, repeat the test with the
same soil, but dry it by rolling it between your palms.
6. Determine the weight of the dry soil + moisture can, (W3). The water content obtained
is the plastic limit.

SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

a. Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing through 425-m I.S. sieve.
b. Place about 30 gm the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed
with distilled water and make a creamy paste. (Use water content slightly higher than
the liquid limit.)
c. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil
sticking to the dish.
d. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil
with the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the
edges and no apparent air bubbles exist.
e. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is completely filled with the
wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish smooth. Wipe off all the
soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
f. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
g. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8 hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark to
light. Then oven-dry the cake at 1050C to 1100C say about 12 to 16 hrs.
h. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the
weight of the dish with dry sample.
i. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
j. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet
soil as follows.
k. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury till it
overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess
mercury.
l. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
m. Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
n. Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and
pressing it. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup
to remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean
and empty carefully.
o. Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. It floats submerge it with the pronged glass plate
which is again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills over into the larger
plate. Pour the mercury that is displayed by the soil pat into the measuring jar and find
the volume of the soil pat directly.
p. Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the shrinkage
dish volume directly. Record this volume as the volume of wet soil pat.
Below is an example of data collection in tabular form;

Below is how the shrinkage limit graph will look like;

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONSISTENCY TEST

It determines the soils plasticity and workability the following ways;

• It defines soil behaviour
• Determines water holding capacity of the soil
• Helps to classify soil
References
G3 soil works. (2021, April 28). Retrieved from G3 soil works blog:
http://www.g3soilworks.com
Geoengineer.org. (n.d.). Retrieved from geoengineer.org: http://www.Geoengineer.org
Igne. (n.d.). Retrieved from Igne website: http://www.igne.com
Mane, A. (2023, March 6). Pro Vatslalya. Retrieved from Pro Vatslalya blog:
http;//www.provatslalya.com
Rentz, B. (2021, October 12). Big Rentz. Retrieved from Big Rentz website:
http://www.bigrentz.com
The constructor. (2010, September 15). Retrieved from The construtor website:
http://www.theconstructor.org