Mobilization and Employee Morale

Motivation
Definition of Motivation
Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually
interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal.
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as the
(1) intensity of desire or need,
(2) incentive or reward value of the goal, and
(3) expectations of the individual and of his or her peers.
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way. An example is a student that
spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class.

Many times people confuse the idea of 'happy' employees with 'motivated' employees. These
may be related, but motivation actually describes the level of desire employees feel to perform,
regardless of the level of happiness. Employees who are adequately motivated to perform will be
more productive, more engaged and feel more invested in their work. When employees feel these
things, it helps them, and thereby their managers, be more successful.

It is a manager's job to motivate employees to do their jobs well. So how do managers do this?
The answer is motivation in management, the process through which managers encourage
employees to be productive and effective.

Think of what you might experience in a retail setting when a motivated cashier is processing
your transaction. This type of cashier will:

 Be friendly, creating a pleasant transaction that makes you more likely to return
 Process your transaction quickly, meaning that the store can service more customers
 Suggest an additional item you would like to purchase, increasing sales for the store
In short, this employee is productive and delivers a high-quality output.

How to Motivate Employees

There are many ways to motivate employees. Managers who want to encourage productivity
should work to ensure that employees:
 Feel that the work they do has meaning or importance
 Believe that good work is rewarded
 Believe that they are treated fairly
All of these tasks fall under one or more motivational theories.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
A Classification of Motivation Theories (Content vs. Process)
Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: Content and
Process theories. Content Theories deal with “what” motivates people and it is concerned with
individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McCelland studied motivation from
a “content” perspective. Process Theories deal with the “process” of motivation and is concerned

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with “how” motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke studied motivation
from a “process” perspective.

1. Content Theories about Motivation

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

When motivation theory is being considered the first theory that is being recalled is Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs which he has introduced in his 1943 article named as “A Theory of Human
Motivation”. According to this theory, individual strives to seek a higher need when lower needs
are fulfilled. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a source of motivation.
Needs are motivators only when they are unsatisfied.

 In the first level, physiological needs exist which include the most basic needs for humans to
survive, such as air, water and food.
 In the second level, safety needs exist which include personal security, health, well-being and
safety against accidents remain.
 In the third level, belonging needs exit. This is where people need to feel a sense of belonging
and acceptance. It is about relationships, families and friendship. Organizations fulfill this need
for people.
 In the fourth level, self-esteem needs remain. This is where people looks to be respected and to
have self-respect. Achievement needs, respect of others are in this level.
 In the top-level, self-actualization needs exist. This level of need pertains to realizing the
person’s full potential.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

In 1969, Clayton P. Alderfer, simplified Maslow’s theory by categorizing hierarchy of needs into
three categories:

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  Physiological and Safety needs are merged in Existence Needs,
 Belonging needs is named as Relatedness Needs,
 Self-esteem and Self-actualization needs are merged in Growth Needs
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg, introduced his Two Factor Theory in 1959. He suggested that there are two
kinds of factors affect motivation, and they do it in different ways:
1) Hygiene factors: A series of hygiene factors create dissatisfaction if individuals perceive
them as inadequate or inequitable, yet individuals will not be significantly motivated if these
factors are viewed as adequate or good. Hygiene factors are extrinsic and include factors such as
salary or remuneration, job security and working conditions.
2) Motivators: They are intrinsic factors such as sense of achievement, recognition,
responsibility, and personal growth.
The hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction, and motivators determine satisfaction. Herzberg
theory conforms with satisfaction theories which assert that “a satisfied employee tends to work
in the same organization but this satisfaction does not always result in better performance”. In
other words, satisfaction does not correlate with productivity.
McClelland’s Achievement Need Theory
in his 1961 book named as “The Achieving Society”, David McClelland identified three basic
needs that people develop and acquire from their life experiences .

 Needs for achievement: The person who have a high need for achievement seeks achievement
and tries to attain challenging goals. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and
progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment. The person who have a high achievement
need likes to take personal responsibility.
 Needs for affiliation: The person who have a high need for affiliation needs harmonious
relationships with people and needs to be accepted by other people. (People-oriented rather than
task-oriented).
 Needs for power: The person who have a need for power wants to direct and command other
people. Most managers have a high need for power.
Although these categories of needs are not exlusive, generally individuals develop a dominant
bias or emphasis towards one of the three needs. Entrepreneurs usually have high degree of
achievement needs.
Incentive Theory
Incentive theory suggests that employee will increase her/his effort to obtain a desired reward.
This is based on the general principle of reinforcement. The desired outcome is usually “money”.
This theory is coherent with the early economic theories where man is supposed to be rational
and forecasts are based on the principle of “economic man”.

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2. Process Theories about Motivation
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory argues that humans act according to their conscious expectations that a
particular behavior will lead to specific desirable goals.
Victor H. Vroom, developed the expectancy theory in 1964, producing a systematic explanatory
theory of workplace motivation. Theory asserts that the motivation to behave in a particular way
is determined by an individual’s expectation that behavior will lead to a particular outcome,
multiplied by the preference or valence that person has for that outcome.
Three components of Expectancy theory are:
1. Expectancy: E -> P. The belief of the person that her/his effort (E) will result in attainment of
desired performance (P) goals.
2. Instrumentality: P -> R. The belief of the person that she/he will receive a reward (R) if the
performance (P) expectation is met.
3. Valence: The value of the reward according to the person. (e.g. Is the reward attractive to the
person?)
Expectancy theory outlines the connection employees expect between effort and reward. If an
employee does very well and puts forth additional effort, they will likely expect to be rewarded
accordingly. In a retail setting, for example, a cashier might offer to work a double shift when a
manager is short staffed, but would expect praise and perhaps additional compensation for doing
so.
Employees who do not feel rewarded become unmotivated. Think about how you might feel if
you continually worked as hard as possible but never received additional recognition or
compensation. Would you continue to work as hard as possible, or would you think 'why bother?'

The equation suggests that human behaviour is directed by subjective probability.

Goal Theory
Edwin Locke proposed Goal Theory in 1968, which proposes that motivation and performance
will be high if individuals are set specific goals which are challenging, but accepted, and where
feedback is given on performance.
The two most important findings of this theory are:
1. Setting specific goals (e.g. I want to earn a million before I am 30) generates higher
levels of performance than setting general goals (e.g. I want to earn a lot of money).
2. The goals that are hard to achieve are linearly and positively connected to
performance. The harder the goal, the more a person will work to reach it.
Adams’ Equity Theory
Developed by John Stacey Adams in 1963, Equity Theory suggests that if the individual
perceives that the rewards received are equitable, that is, fair or just in comparison with those
received by others in similar positions in or outside the organization, then the individual feels
satisfied. Adams asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they
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bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and
outcomes of others.
Equity theory indicates that employees are best motivated when they feel that they are being
treated equally. If two employees perform the same job, and believe that they do so equally well,
they would expect equal pay and equal recognition.
Lack of equity, whether real or imagined, can damage employee motivation. Again, imagine you
are working as hard as you can and find that someone else who works at the same level doing the
same job makes more money. Would you want to continue to work as hard?
What is Morale?
Morale is defined as “The mental and emotional condition (as of enthusiasm, confidence, or
loyalty) of an individual or group with regard to the function or tasks at hand. A sense of
common purpose with respect to a group.” Staff burnout is defined as “a condition of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among
individuals who work with people in some capacity”
Clearly morale is an emotional issue with employees. Most employees are good workers. They
show up on time each day, do well at their job, and take home the satisfaction that they have
done a good days work. They feel they belong to a group that works just as hard as they do and
they work for a company and management that cares about them. This is the ideal of good
morale.
Causes of Low Employee Morale
Low employee morale can be a serious concern for a business. Unhappy employees can lead to
reduced productivity, poor customer service and problems with employee retention. While
incentives such as raises, benefits and employee recognition programs can help increase
employee morale, if a company is suffering from low morale, it is vital to be able to identify the
root causes.
1. Changing Goals
Constantly changing employee goals can exhaust employees who are trying to do a good job.
Being told that something is an important goal is a motivator for good workers, but when they
put all their energy and time into accomplishing that goal only to have it discarded for a new
goal, the result can be discouragement and a feeling of lack of accomplishment. Employees
should be assigned tasks that are possible for them to accomplish, along with clear guidelines
about how to accomplish the tasks and a clear indicator of when the tasks' goals are
accomplished.
2. Misunderstood Expectations
Nothing brings down morale like confusion. Employees lacking clear guidance can spend days,
weeks or even months on the job not knowing exactly what is expected of them. When this
happens they tend to perform poorly by management’s standards and often experience a drop in
morale as they begin to believe they are wasting their time and the company's. This problem is
easily remedied. When a new employee is hired or a new responsibility is assigned to an existing
employee, the hiring manager should make the job expectations clear and arrange for proper
training on correct procedures and deadlines. An employee who understands the usefulness and
methods of completing his tasks each day will have far higher morale than one who wanders
aimlessly or spends time doing things that turn out to be unproductive.

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 3. No Open Communication
Creating a workplace in which an open line of communication to management is not available is
dangerous to staff morale. Employees often have insight into ways to improve workplace
procedures or the company's end product, or may have legitimate issues with problematic
procedures or staff. If employees don't feel comfortable approaching a boss, either with ideas or
problems, management runs the risk of missing out on creative ideas and having problems fester.
Employees should be encouraged to voice their ideas and concerns to management without
repercussions. Set up guidelines that let employees know how to privately discuss issues, and
never make them feel as though they are doing something wring by doing so.
4. Wasted Potential
Low morale often results from simply wasting talent. People are often hired for jobs that they are
overqualified for or who have a different skill set or interests than what the job requires. When
this happens, employees can easily get frustrated or bored with the work, and can end up being
more concerned about how to leave the company than how to do a good job. Not only is the
resulting lack of productivity and potential turnover bad for business, but it robs a person of the
ability to reach her true potential. Finding a more appropriate position for an employee may save
both the employee and the company frustration and potential financial loss.
5. Poor Leadership – This is at the top of the list because it is usually the main problem.
A lack of morale in the workplace means a leader or manager has not addressed the issue that
caused it. It might be their management style or they just don’t get it.
6. Unhappy In Their Present Position – Most employees have hopes of moving up in an
organization. They may want more money, or more challenging work. The employee may like
the position they are in, but they feel they are underutilized.
7. No Clarity in Expectations – Employees want to know what is expected of them. They may
become distressed that they are not meeting expectations which they know will hurt them on
their performance review. This problem is caused by managers who have not taken the time to
give clear expectations of the position.
8. Other Employees – This is where the saying “one bad apple can spoil the whole bunch”
applies. When management fails to deal with an underperforming employee it can quickly spread
negativity among the entire staff. This can be a bad problem with teams who are dependent
on one other.

There are many other reasons for low morale in the workplace. As a manager or leader if you
have an issue with morale, you must immediately seek out the source and deal with it.

How to Deal With Low Morale in the Workplace

Problems with morale in the workplace are more obvious now. Employees are worried about the
economy and possibly their jobs. Let us assume for this article that economic worries are not the
reason for low morale in your workplace. I wrote an article a few months ago called “Tough
Times Call for Strong Leadership” that addresses that issue.

There are any number of reasons low morale can creep into the workplace. Regardless of the
reason low morale can hurt productivity, increase work errors, increase “sick days”, decrease
cooperation between teams and departments, and if left unchecked can lead to larger problems.

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Dealing with Low Morale

To deal with morale issues you must first find the source and take steps to make sure it does not
creep back in. Throwing a pizza party may raise morale for a day, but it does not address the
issues. No type of “feel good” activity will solve this problem.

When morale is low employees may not express it but they are waiting on management to solve
the problem. I listed the first cause of low morale as poor leadership. Too often managers are
disconnected from their employees or do not give them the affirmation that they need.

Remember morale is an emotional issue. Employees need to know their work is appreciated.
They want to have the sense that they belong, that they are respected and have the respect of
their peers and management.

The best motivator is to make people feel that they are a valuable and worthy person and a
valuable and worthy member of the team. Here are ways to do this.

Connect

Employees need to feel there is a connection between themselves and management. That they
share a common purpose and common goals. They need to know that management knows who
they are, what is going on with their job and that management is their to help them when needed.

One-way to connect with your employees is to spend time with them. You should regularly work
along with them if possible. If not then take some time and find a reason to sit with them at their
desk. Perhaps to check something they are working on or just to stop in and see how they are
doing. You MUST be sincere about this. See if there are any issues they are having that you can
help with.

Take your lunch or breaks with your employees. It helps show you do not consider them beneath
your association. It also gives you an opportunity to have a conversation that is not work related.
This goes a long way towards maintaining the connection you need.

Another way to connect with your employees and with the workplace is to do a daily Gemba
walk. This is where you go to where the work is being done and observe and interact with your
employees. You can read more about taking a Gemba walk in this earlier article “Why
Management Should Go to Gemba”.

Recognize

Employees want recognition and acknowledgment that their work has purpose and that it is
appreciated. Never miss an opportunity to recognize when someone has done good work. Even a
simple “Thank You” when an employee completes a task for you will help them see their work is
appreciated.

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Recognize how the contributions of your employee have helped you get your job done. “Thank
you for all of your hard work gathering this information. It will allow me to get my budget
turned in on time.” This shows the employee how valuable their work is directly to you.

Recognize how the contributions of your employee have helped your company. “Thank you for
all of your hard work on this project. We will save a lot of money because of your efforts.” This
shows the employee how valuable their work is to the company.

Recognition must be sincere to do any good. Do not pass out remarks for any reason. If your
employee has worked hard on something and done a good job, they almost expect to
be recognized for it. It affirms that their work is appreciated and that you respect the work that
they do.

Awards and public recognition of work above and beyond are excellent ways to recognize the
hard work of your employees. All employees want recognition from management and their
peers. You may also benefit from the increased performance of others so they also can get an
award.

Challenge Your Employees

The drudgery of doing the same thing, day after day, year after year can cause a good employee
to suffer low morale over time. While the employee may be filling a vital role in the work that
they do, they probably will appreciate a new challenge or task.

As managers we are trained to delegate. See if there is a task you can delegate to one of your
employees. Explain to them how important the task is and that because of their performance you
have confidence in their ability to do it. It can be something as simple as preparing a report.

Another way to challenge your employees is to take an active role in their career development.
While most of us do not want to lose hardworking employees, they should be given opportunities
to advance themselves. Offer them training or teach them new skills. Sit down and talk with
them about their career path.

This shows you care about them improving themselves and are willing to help them. Even if they
do not move on to another position, you will end up with a more skilled employee who is more
confident about their abilities and their value to the company.

Deal With The Bad Apples

Problem or underperforming employees can drain morale faster than anything. You must always
take immediate action to deal with such issues before they become larger ones. Use progressive
discipline to deal with problem employees.

Check their progress with regular follow-up meetings. If after following the steps of progressive
discipline the issues have not be resolved, terminate for the good of the employee, yourself, the
company and colleagues.

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One of the problems you will face is that if you discipline in private like you should, other
employees may not even be aware you are working to correct the problem. To deal with this
issue and still respect the privacy of the employee hold team meetings to discuss the issues being
dealt with in general. Do NOT make it obvious that you are talking about the specific employee.

For instance if it is an attendance issue, hold a meeting and go over the attendance policy. Do it
as part of a meeting on other matters such as a project update. You benefit in that you are being
consistent and treating all employees the same on the issue. Indirectly and with respect to the
privacy of the person, it shows that you are taking notice of attendance issues.

Is It Your System?

Sometimes low morale can be a sign of a dysfunctional system. If you have policies that are
nearly impossible for the employee to follow, or are so strict they live in constant fear of losing
their job, you have a system in place that can kill morale.

For instance a strict attendance policy that states if you are late 5 times in a 3-month period you
will be terminated you have a system that places little value on the employee. Yes attendance is
important, but life happens. Employees may get stuck in traffic, or forget to set their alarm.
There are any number of legitimate reasons that can cause an employee to be late. You do NOT
want your employees driving like a maniac to get to work on time out of fear of losing their job.
High stress equal low morale.

Employees also must know what is expected of them. Job expectations should be made clear so
the employee knows what their job role and responsibilities are. Don’t just verbally tell them,
write them down and give it to them. During performance reviews it is the perfect time to review
and update expectations. How will you employee know if they are doing a good job if you never
tell them what is expected of them?

The work environment is vital to employee morale. Is your workplace clean? Is the furniture and
equipment functional? Is your workplace drab and dreary? If you want good morale not to
mention better performance considers improving the work environment. Does management sit in
new offices using the newest technology, while employees have broken chairs and outdated
computers?
Does your system, polices and work environment create a compelling place for your employees
to work? Or is it so strict and outdated that they dread coming in? Most morale issues are not
problems for the employee to address. They are problems that management and leadership have
not addressed.
Summary
Low morale in the workplace is an emotional issue for employees. It has many causes and must
be dealt with immediately. Often poor leadership or poor management is the problem. Take steps
to directly connect with your employees. Let your employee know you do know who they are,
the work that they do and that you are always there to help them.
You should always recognize when they do good work, preferably in a public way. A simple
“Thank You” for a job well done is recognition that you appreciate their work. Employees need

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to know their work has a purpose, is appreciated and that both management and the company
value them.
You must deal with problem employees before they infect them entire group. Use progressive
discipline and follow-up regularly to go over the progress. Examine your system, policies and
work environment. These could all be sources of low morale.
If you take nothing else away remember employees must feel that they are a valuable and worthy
person and a valuable and worthy member of the team.
Remedies for Low Employee Morale

1. Foster Open Communication

Provide an environment where employees feel comfortable asking for clarification. A highly
communicative and collaborative work environment promotes employee productivity, creativity
and inspiration. Training employees on proper communication techniques should also be a
priority.

"Managers can be doing everything right, but if they're not including employees in the
information loop, staff engagement could suffer," said Max Messmer, chairman of Accountemps.
"To improve communication, keep team members apprised of company goals and performance,
and encourage them to ask questions and offer feedback."

2. To Improve Morale, Be Moral

It's interesting that the historical roots of the word morale is "moral." The World English
Dictionary defines morale as: the degree of mental or moral confidence of a person or group.

It comes as no surprise that when people act morally, practicing principles of right conduct, it
will lead to a better work environment and enhance morale. Gossip, lies and subterfuge will be
replaced with openness, honesty and concern for others' well-being.

3. Communicate Using the Golden Rule

There's something to be said for that "do unto others" ethic. It portends that you approach
communication in a respectful manner and expect that others will do the same. Extending
common courtesies like "please" and "thank you" can't hurt either. If you place value on every
person in the organization and treat them with respect, morale is bound to improve.

4. Motivate by Communicating Vision

Rick Warren, a well-known pastor and author of the bestselling The Purpose Driven Life,
espouses what he calls the Nehemiah Principle.

He cites the Old Testament story of Nehemiah who was tasked with the job of rebuilding the
wall in Jerusalem following its destruction.

"In Nehemiah’s story of rebuilding the wall around Jerusalem, halfway through the project

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people got discouraged and wanted to give up," said Warren. "Although the wall took only 52
days to complete, the people became discouraged at the halfway point: just 26 days into the
project! Nehemiah had to renew their vision."

5. Go Where the Troops Are

A story that comes from the front lines in Afghanistan recounts how Lt. Col. Justin Hadley,
commander of the 6th Squadron, 8th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army’s Third Infantry
Division, chose to board an armored vehicle and visit the troops on the ground rather than
oversee operations from the comfortable confines of command headquarters. Hadley believes
there is value in spending time with his counterparts on the battlefield, especially when you don’t
have to be there.

That's also good advice for leaders. Get out on the factory floor, or the hallways of the corporate
office and interact with the "troops."

In addition to these five recommendations, the Accountemps survey highlights five

characteristics of and remedies for low morale:
1. An active grapevine - When communication is scarce, gossip and misinformation flourish.
Keep lines of conversation open.
2. Lack of initiative - Foster an ownership environment in which employees are challenged to
take initiative and solve problems in creative ways.
3. Scarce rewards - Recognize employees' efforts with praise, low-cost awards and spot
bonuses.
4. Changes in attitude - Look for low morale red flags: increased negativity, higher rates of
absenteeism, or reduced cooperation or commitment.
5. Poor performance - Morale problems can quickly affect a team's quality of work. Signs of
trouble include missed deadlines, an increase in mistakes or a decline in service levels.
Conclusion
How do you maintain and enhance employee morale? According to the HR professionals queried
in the survey, the answer is: communicate, communicate, communicate!

Foster an environment of open communication where employees feel freedom to ask for
clarification and provide feedback. Regularly communicate the company vision, treat employees
with dignity and respect, and spend time with them face-to-face.

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 ATTITUDES
Definition of Attitude

A predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object,

person, or situation. Attitude influences an individual's choice of action, and responses to
challenges, incentives, and rewards (together called stimuli).

There are clear differences between your employee's attitude and his behavior. Attitude describes the way
your employee feels inside. These are his feelings toward you, his coworkers and his position within the
company. Every employee has an attitude towards the environment -- either good or bad. This attitude
can also influence how he performs. Because attitude is an inward feeling, an employee's bad attitude
might remain hidden. But if he's not careful, his bad attitude might show in his actions

What's the difference between attitude and character?

Character is something what others read about you from your activities and behaviour, and attitude is
what you tell to others.Character sprouts in us on its own and attitude is given birth by us. If both are in
the right stride,world is at your feet.

Attitude is how you percept. Behaviour is how you act. Character encompasses both. Attitude is
a state of mind and behavior is a Act that develop by attitude

Definition of Behavior

Behavior is the way your employee responds to his attitude. This response is either positive or
negative, depending on how the employee views his position and the company. For example, an
employee who disagrees with you might overstep boundaries or ignore office protocol. In
addition, an employee who dislikes another coworker or has little respect for a coworker might
display this attitude by speaking harshly to this individual, being biased or engaging in other
inappropriate acts, such as sexual harassment.

Theories of Attitude Change

Attitude theories have been organized into four categories :

 Consistency theories
 Learning theories
 Social judgment theories
 Functional theories

The study of attitudes has been approached with varying emphases and methods during most of
this century. Prior to World War II, the emphasis was on definition issues and attitude
measurement. Most studies were of a survey nature and provided important correlational
findings, but little insight into causality. Experimental techniques such as control groups or
comparison groups were notably absent .

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Learning theories

Learning theories of attitude change, no longer as popular as they once were, focus on reinforced
behavior as the primary factor responsible for attitude development. Early research on attitude
change drew on Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory, which posits that, when a person is
persuaded to act in a way that is not congruent with a pre-existing attitude, he or she may change
the attitude to reduce dissonanceSA. To use dissonance to produce attitude change, the persuader
must first establish the dissonance, and then provide a method to reduce it. Ideally, this will
involve making the chosen alternative attractive, showing a social group with the desired
attitude, demonstrating the issue's importance, providing free choice, and establishing a wide
latitude of acceptance through successive approximation (Martin & Briggs, 1986).

Consistency Theories

Similarly, consistency theories assume that individuals need to have consistency between and
among their attitudes and behaviors and will modify one or both to achieve this balance
(Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). Affective-cognitive consistency theory examines the relationship
between attitudes and beliefs and posits that individuals are in an unstable state when their
attitudes towards an object, event or person and their knowledge about that object, event, or
person are inconsistent (Simonson & Maushak, 2001). The theory suggests that the affective
component of the attitude system may be changed by providing new information (changing the
cognitive component) via a persuasive message. Once the individual has processed the new
information, he or she will undergo an attitude change to bring the knowledge and affect into
harmony. Processing the message requires that the audience pay attention to and comprehend the
message, then accept and retain it (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). Affective-cognitive consistency
theory suggests that the affective component of the attitude system may be changed by first
changing the cognitive component through providing new information. It does not matter how
the new cognition is produced, only that it occurs. Thus, any of the learning theories discussed in
this e-book may be used in conjunction with this approach.

Although the fact that attitudes are stored separately from their related cognitions means that a
person may experience a feeling without remembering the information or event that triggered it,
attitudes will generally be stronger when the link between their cognitive and affective
components is consciously recalled (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991). For this to work, of course, the
recipient must attend to the message providing that information. A tendency toward passive
viewing of mediated messages may be reduced by instructing students to attend and alerting
them to the fact that the content will be tested. According to Zimbardo and Leippe (1991), "a
persuasive message is most likely to cause attitude and behavior change if it can shape both
beliefs about its topic and beliefs about what important individuals and social groups think about
the topic and how they behave toward it" (p. 188). The most effective persuasive messages are
those "that get the audience to think about an issue or object in concrete, vivid images that have
definite implications for behavior".

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Social Judgment Theories

Social judgment theories emphasize the role of prior attitudes in shaping attitude formation and
change. They describe attitude as a kind of spectrum with a "latitude of acceptance" surrounding
a current attitude; a new position is more likely to be accepted if it falls within this latitude and
less likely to be accepted if it does not. This theory suggests that change in attitude position
might be greater in response to the presentation of a moderate persuasive position than in
response to a more extreme message. As with dissonance theory, social judgment theory presents
attitude change as a response to the receipt of a message that is not entirely congruent with the
currently held attitude. Acceptance of the new position is contingent upon its falling within the
latitude of acceptance of the receiver. "The use of successive approximations can expand the
latitude of acceptance and thereby permit greater attitude change than might otherwise be
possible"..

Social learning theory focuses on the development of cognitions related to the expected outcome
of behavior. This theory suggests that an individual learns attitudes by observing the behaviors of
others and modeling or imitating them (McDonald & Kielsmeier, 1970). An observed behavior
does not have to be reinforced to be learned (Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991), and the model "can be
presented on film, by television, in a novel, or by other vicarious means" (Martin & Briggs,
1986, p. 28). The model must be credible to the target audience (Bednar & Levie, 1993).
Credibility is largely a function of expertise and trustworthiness. Observational learning is
greater when models are perceived as powerful and/or warm and supportive, and "imitative
behavior is more likely when there are multiple models doing the same thing" (Zimbardo &
Leippe, 1991, p. 51). While "attitudes formed through direct experience with the attitude object
or issue are more predictive of behavior than those formed more indirectly" (Zimbardo &
Leippe, 1991, p. 193), "media can be substitutes for many live experiences" (Wetzel et al., 1994,
p. 26). Thus, observing a model via video is a viable method of learning a new attitude. For
passive learners, instruction delivered by media may facilitate the rapid acquisition of complex
affective behaviors more effectively than live demonstrations (McDonald & Kielsmeier, 1970).
However, receivers may attend mediated messages less closely than those presented directly,
thereby diminishing their effectiveness (Bednar & Levie, 1993). Social learning theories of
attitude change are closely related to theories that emphasize the role of social learning in
cognitive development. See the chapters on Social Constructivism and Cognitive Apprenticeship,
for example, for discussions of the importance of the social context for cognitive development.
Social learning theory also shares cognitive apprenticeship's emphasis on modeling as a way of
sharing knowledge.

Functional Theories

Functional theories suggest that attitudes serve a variety of psychological needs and that
changing an attitude requires an understanding of its purpose in the life of the individual who
holds it. The utility of this theory is limited by the fact that attitude research in this area has not
produced a consistent set of categories relating attitudes to psychological needs (Bednar & Levie,
1993). Research has shown that attitudes related to self-concept frequently perform an ego-
defensive function and that ego-defensive attitudes are particularly difficult to change (Zimbardo
& Leippe, 1991).

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There have been several attempts to classify types and levels of learning in the affective domain.
The Krathwohl taxonomy, as it is known, has five major categories, each with several sub-
categories. These levels are:

 Receiving / Attending - willingness to become aware

 Responding - appreciating or internalizing
 Valuing - accepting, preferring, becoming committed to
 Conceptualizing / Organizing - incorporating into a value system
 Characterizing by value - orientation toward / identification with.

Learning in a given level depends on prior learning in lower levels.

Why are attitudes important?
 Attitudes serve as one way to organize our relationship with our world. They make our
interactions more predictable affording us a degree of control.
For example, the attitude “I like working for this company” is very useful in guiding our
behavior towards the company’s work.

 Attitudes also enable us to reduce the vast amount of information that we possess into
manageable units. All the beliefs we have about our company could be summarized as “I
like my company”, and thus our attitude represents the combination of many bits of
information for us.

 We can use others attitudes to make judgments about them.

 It has been found consistently that the more similar our attitudes are to those of others,
the more we like them.

 Finally, people’s attitudes can sometimes be useful in predicting behavior, such as how
they will vote in an election or which brand of car they will buy.

Components of Attitudes
Attitudes consist of three basic components: emotional, informational, and behavioral.

 The emotional component involves the person’s feelings, or affect- positive, neutral, or
negative- about an object. Thus, emotion is given the greatest attention in the
organizational behavior literature in relation to job-satisfaction.

In addition, the expression of emotions either positive, like a customer service

representative; negative, like a bill collector or a police officer; or neutral, like an
academic administrator or public servant- is also important to work behavior.

 The informational component consists of the beliefs and information the individual has
about the object. A supervisor may believe that two weeks of training is necessary before
a worker can operate a particular piece of equipment.

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 In reality, the average worker may be able to operate the machine after only four days of
training. Yet the information the supervisor is using (that two weeks is necessary) is the
key to his attitude about training.

 The behavioral component consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular

way toward an object. For example the supervisor in the above paragraph may assign two
weeks of machine training to all his new people.

It is important to remember that of the three components of attitudes, only the behavioral
component can be directly observed.

One cannot see another person’s feelings (the emotional component) or

beliefs (The informational component). These two components can only
be inferred.

For example, when the supervisor assigns a new employee to two weeks
training on the equipment, it is only inferred that the 1) the supervisor
has strong feelings about the length of training required and the
individual believes that this length of training is necessary.
Four major components of attitude are
(1) Affective: emotions or feelings.
(2) Cognitive: belief or opinions held consciously.
(3) Conative: inclination for action.
(4) Evaluative: positive or negative response to stimuli.

Attitudes: Formation and Change

How Do Attitudes Form?

Experience:

Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal
experience, or they may result from observation.

Social Factors:

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Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how
people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's rules
for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

Learning:

Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical
conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial,
you see young, beautiful people having fun in on a tropical beach while enjoying a sport drink.
This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this
particular beverage.

Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young man
who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise him
and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him eventually
causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit.

Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing the people around them. When someone you
admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For
example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually
begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

How Do Attitudes Influence Behavior?

We tend to assume that people behave in accordance with their attitudes. However, social
psychologists have found that attitudes and actual behavior are not always perfectly aligned.
After all, plenty of people support a particular candidate or political party and yet fail to go out
and vote.

Factors That Influence Attitude Strength

Researchers have discovered that people are more likely to behave according to their attitudes
under certain conditions:

 When your attitudes are the result of personal experience.

 When you are an expert in the subject.
 When you expect a favorable outcome.
 When the attitudes are repeatedly expressed.
 When you stand to win or lose something due to the issue.

Attitudes Can Change to Match Behavior

In some cases, people may actually alter their attitudes in order to better align them with their
behavior. Cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological
distress due to conflicting thoughts or beliefs. In order to reduce this tension, people may change
their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual behaviors.

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An Example of Changing an Attitude Due to Cognitive Dissonance

Imagine the following situation: You've always placed a high value on financial security, but
you start dating someone who is very financially unstable. In order to reduce the tension caused
by the conflicting beliefs and behavior, you have two options.

You can end the relationship and seek out a partner who is more financially secure, or you can
de-emphasize the importance of fiscal stability. In order to minimize the dissonance between
your conflicting attitude and behavior, you either have to change the attitude or change your
actions.

Attitude Change

While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same
influences that lead to attitude formation can also create attitude change.

 Learning Theory of Attitude Change: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and

observational learning can be used to bring about attitude change. Classical conditioning can be
used to create positive emotional reactions to an object, person, or event by associating positive
feelings with the target object. Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes
and weaken undesirable ones. People can also change their attitudes after observing the behavior
of others.
 Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Attitude Change: This theory of persuasion suggests that
people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about
the message, thus leading to an attitude shift. Or, they might be influenced by characteristics of
the speaker, leading to a temporary or surface shift in attitude. Messages that are thought-
provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead to permanent changes in attitudes.
 Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change: As mentioned earlier, people can also change their
attitudes when they have conflicting beliefs about a topic. In order to reduce the tension created
by these incompatible beliefs, people often shift their attitudes.

Individual Attitudes and Behaviors

Attitudes can positively or negatively affect a person's behavior. A person may not always be
aware of his or her attitude or the effect it is having on behavior. A person who has positive
attitudes towards work and co-workers (such as contentment, friendliness, etc.) can positively
influence those around them. These positive attitudes are usually manifested in a person's
behavior; people with a good attitude are active and productive and do what they can to improve
the mood of those around them.

In much the same way, a person who displays negative attitudes (such as discontentment,
boredom, etc.), will behave accordingly. People with these types of attitudes towards work may
likewise affect those around them and behave in a manner that reduces efficiency and
effectiveness.

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Attitudinal Categories

Attitude and behavior interact differently based upon the attitude in question. Understanding
different types of attitudes and their likely implications is useful in predicting how individuals'
attitudes may govern their behavior. Daniel Katz uses four attitude classifications:

1. Utilitarian: Utilitarian refers to an individual's attitude as derived from self or community

interest. An example could be getting a raise. As a raise means more disposable income,
employees will have a positive attitude about getting a raise, which may positively affect their
behavior in some circumstances.
2. Knowledge: Logic, or rationalizing, is another means by which people form attitudes. When an
organization appeals to people's logic and explains why it is assigning tasks or pursuing a
strategy, it can generate a more positive disposition towards that task or strategy (and vice versa,
if the employee does not recognize why a task is logical).
3. Ego-defensive: People have a tendency to use attitudes to protect their ego, resulting in a common
negative attitude. If a manager criticizes employees' work without offering suggestions for
improvement, employees may form a negative attitude and subsequently dismiss the manager as
foolish in an effort to defend their work. Managers must therefore carefully manage criticism and
offer solutions, not simply identify problems.
4. Value-expressive: People develop central values over time. These values are not always explicit
or simple. Managers should always be aware of what is important to their employees from a
values perspective (that is, what do they stand for? why do they do what they do?). Having such
an awareness can management to align organizational vision with individual values, thereby
generating passion among the workforce.

Organizational Attitudes and Behaviors

Attitudes can be infectious and can influence the behavior of those around them. Organizations
must therefore recognize that it is possible to influence a person's attitude and, in turn, his or her
behavior. A positive work environment, job satisfaction, a reward system, and a code of conduct
can all help reinforce specific behaviors.

One key to altering an individual's behavior is consistency. Fostering initiatives that influence
behavior is not enough; everyone in the organization needs to be committed to the success of
these initiatives. It is also important to remember that certain activities will be more effective
with some people than with others. Management may want to outline a few different behavior-
change strategies to have the biggest effect across the organization and take into consideration
the diversity inherent in any group.

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Behavior tree

The behavior tree represents a person's most basic to most complex behavior without taking
attitude into consideration.

Attitude and Behavior - Changing attitudes to

change behavior, Changing behavior to influence attitudes
cognitive therapy techniques adolescence social psychology constructs behaviors

Attitude is a feeling, belief, or opinion of approval or disapproval towards something. Behavior

is an action or reaction that occurs in response to an event or internal stimuli (i.e., thought).

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People hold complex relationships between attitudes and behavior that are further complicated
by the social factors influencing both. Behaviors usually, but not always, reflect established
beliefs and attitudes. For example, a man who believes strongly in abstinence before marriage
may choose to remain a virgin until his wedding night. Under other circumstances, that same
man may engage in premarital sex despite his convictions after being influenced by social
messages that his masculinity is dependent on sexual activity.

Ideally, positive attitudes manifest well-adjusted behaviors. However, in some cases healthy
attitudes may result in harmful behavior. For example, someone may remain in an abusive and
potentially deadly domestic situation because they hold negative attitudes towards divorce.

Behavior can be influenced by a number of factors beyond attitude, including preconceptions

about self and others, monetary factors, social influences (what peers and community members
are saying and doing), and convenience. Someone may have strong convictions about improving
the public school system in their town, but if it means a hefty increase to their property taxes,
they may vote against any improvements due to the potential for monetary loss. Or, they may
simply not vote at all because their polling place is too far from their home, or the weather is bad
on election day.

Studies have demonstrated that, in some cases, pointing out inconsistencies between attitudes
and behavior can redirect the behavior. In the case of the school supporter, showing that their
actions (i.e., not voting, not attending parent-teacher organization meetings) are harming rather
than helping efforts to improve education in their town may influence them to reevaluate their
behavior so that it reflects their attitudes.

For those in need of psychological treatment, there are several treatment approaches that focus
on changing attitudes in order to change behavior. Cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavior
therapy are two of those techniques. Cognitive therapy attempts to change irrational ways of
thinking. Cognitive-behavioral therapy tries to correct the resulting inappropriate behavior.

Changing attitudes to change behavior

Attitude and behavior are woven into the fabric of daily life. Research has shown that individuals
register an immediate and automatic reaction of "good" or "bad" towards everything they
encounter in less than a second, even before they are aware of having formed an attitude.
Advertising, political campaigns, and other persuasive media messages are all built on the
premise that behavior follows attitude, and attitude can be influenced with the right message
delivered in the right way.

The fields of social and behavioral psychology have researched the relationship between attitude
and behavior extensively. The more psychologists can understand the relationship between
attitude and behavior and the factors that influence both, the more effectively they can treat
mental disorders, and contribute to the dialogue on important social problems such as racism,
gender bias, and age discrimination.

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The concept of "social marketing" combines cognitive-behavioral components of psychology
with social science and commercial marketing techniques to encourage or discourage behaviors
by changing the attitudes that cause them. It is also a key part of public health education
initiatives, particularly in the case of preventive medicine. Campaigns promoting positive
attitudes towards prenatal care, abstinence from drug use, smoking cessation, sunscreen use,
organ donations, safe sex, cancer screening, and other healthcare initiatives are all examples of
social marketing in action. In effect, social marketing is "selling" attitudes and beliefs and ideally
influencing associated behavior.

Changing behavior to influence attitudes

In 1955, clinical psychologist and educator George Kelly introduced his psychology of personal
constructs. Kelly's constructs were based on the idea that each individual looks at the world
through his or her own unique set of preconceived notions about it (i.e., constructs). These
constructs change and adapt as the individual is exposed to new and different situations. At the
heart of Kelly's theory is the idea that individuals can seek new experiences and practice and
adapt new behaviors in order to change their attitudes (or constructs) towards the world. He
recommended that therapists encourage their patients to try out new behaviors and coping
strategies; he and others that followed frequently found that patients would adapt these useful
new behavior patterns and subsequently change their attitudes.

When behavior is inconsistent with attitude, it is sometimes a result of social or peer pressure.
While adult behavior generally follows from held attitudes, for children, attitudes are often
shaped by observed behavior. From a very young age, children copy the actions of others and, to
a degree, build their attitudes and beliefs from this learned behavior. As children grow into
adolescence, the behavior of their peers can have a significant impact. Sometimes this peer
pressure factor can be used to an advantage. One research study found that antismoking
campaigns targeted at teenagers can have a higher success rate when adolescent peers are used as
instructors.

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FRUSTRATION
Definition of frustration
 The feeling of being upset or annoyed as a result of being unable to
change or achieve something: tears of frustration rolled down her cheeks

 a feeling of anger or annoyance caused by being unable to do something :

the state of being frustrated
 something that causes feelings of anger and annoyance : something that
frustrates someone

 the act of preventing the success of something : the act of frustrating

something
 Frustration is a feeling of annoyance that occurs when something doesn't
go as you expect. There are few things more likely to cause frustration for
an impatient driver than rush hour traffic.

When you can't get what you want, or you're stuck in some way, you'll experience frustration. A
spelling bee competitor who almost wins will feel frustration. The thing that causes you to feel
this way can also be called a frustration — like your moody sister, the frustration of your home
life. Frustration comes from the Latin frustrationem, "a deception or a disappointment."

Frustration is one of the causes of stress. It arises when one's motivation to achieve a desired
goal is blocked. For example, an employee wants to finish a report before the end of the day but
finds that something or the others keep interrupting him at work. This can lead to his frustration.

Frustrated With: Parents are increasingly frustrated with the local school system.
Frustrated At: He gets so frustrated at not being able to do things for himself any more.

Understanding Frustration
Life is full of frustrations. From the minor irritations of losing something to the major problem of
continued failure towards a desired goal. Since many of the things we truly want require a
degree of frustration, being able to manage frustration is required in order to allow us to remain
happy and positive even in trying circumstances.

Frustration is an emotion that occurs in situations where a person is blocked from reaching a
desired outcome. In general, whenever we reach one of our goals, we feel pleased and whenever

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 we are prevented from reaching our goals, we may succumb to frustration and feel irritable,
annoyed and angry. Typically, the more important the goal, the greater the frustration and
resultant anger or loss of confidence.
Frustration is not necessarily bad since it can be a useful indicator of the problems in a person's
life and, as a result, it can act as a motivator to change. However, when it results in anger,
irritability, stress, resentment, depression, or a spiral downward where we have a feeling of
resignation or giving up, frustration can be destructive.

Causes of Frustration
Everybody experiences frustration on occasion. It's that burning feeling in your gut when things
aren't going your way. By identifying what causes frustration, however, a person is better
equipped to deal with it before it turns to full blown anger. This outlines the causes of frustration
and offers a few simple ways to deal with it.
Causes of frustration may be internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise
from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing
with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations.
 Frustration is the condition that occurs when an action, impulse or goal is thwarted by an
external or internal force.
External Factors
 You are driving to work and you are right on time. Suddenly, traffic comes to a halt. The
minutes tick by as traffic creeps along at a snails pace. Finally, you start to move again,
but just as your destination gets into view, the traffic freezes once again. You can see
your desired destination; it's only a few blocks away, but you can't reach it. Now you are
late for work. The perception of wasted time in particular is a big source of frustration in
the contemporary United States.
This is an example of frustration caused by external factors. Your goal, to get to work on
time, has been blocked by an external force. What makes it so frustrating is that the
antagonist in this play is completely out of your control. There is nothing you can do to
change the situation, so your emotions boil up inside as you are forced to grit your teeth
and bear it.
Internal Factors
 You have a family and you work very hard to support them. You want to give your
family the best and sometimes this means working weekends. On one of these weekends
is your child's championship soccer game.
This is an example of an internal factor that causes frustration. Internal frustration is
when a person has competing goals that interfere with one another. In this case, you want
to provide a good living for your family, but also want to be there with your family at the
same time.
Another cause of internal frustration is the inability to reach a goal or act on an emotion
due to either real or imagined deficiencies.
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Frustration is a result of interpersonal interactions which will be resulted when a motivated drive
gets blocked before reaching a desired goal. The following factors causes frustration:
1. Limited Resources
When an adequate resource is not available in the workplace, the job performance will be
negatively influenced. As a result of which frustration may arise among employees.
2. Unclear Relationship
Unclear relationship between employees to employees or employees to managers causes
frustration. If the relationship is not defined clearly, it will be impossible to assign tasks to the
employees as per their status, position and ability.
3. Unclear communication
Effective communication plays a vital role in motivating employees towards better job
performance. If the flow of communication is not defined clearly, it will cause employee's
frustration. It is because unclear communication blocks the regular flow of work, job
performance techniques, objectives and suggestions.
4. Status and Role Inconsistencies
If an employee's role and status is not consistent, he/she will be frustrated. This is because of
frequent change in role. status, and position creates confusion and dilemma in actual work
environment.
5. Goal Difference
Goal difference is goal inconsistency between individual to individual. The goal difference
occurs due to individual differences in goals, objectives, needs and wants.Such goal difference
between each and every employees leads to employee's frustration.
6. Personal Background
Everyone has his/her own family, societal, cultural background, and way of perception. If such
backgrounds differ from the organizational culture, and working relationships, the individual
may feel frustrated from the work.
7. Organizational Climate
Organizational climate represents an overall working environment and relationship of the
organization. Healthy and friendly environment helps to motivate people at work. On contrary,
unhealthy and uncomfortable working environment leads to employee's frustration.
8. Lack of Goal Harmony
Goal harmony means a proper match between individual goals and organizational goals. A
proper goal harmony creates improved job performance thereby resulting higher degree of
motivation. Contrary to it, the lack of it creates employee's frustration.
9. Poor Staffing
Staffing involves all activities necessary to create roles and responsibilities in organizational
environment. But poor staffing results into less commitment. As a result of which, employees
may be frustrated.

10. Lack of Effective Personnel Policy

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If the organization is lacking an effective personnel policy, the employees will not commit
themselves towards better performance. As a result, frustration occurs at work station.
11.Lack of Incentive And Motivation Procedure
The best incentive and motivation procedure helps to achieve high job satisfaction. But in case of
its inadequacy, employees feel frustrated at work because they feel bored by performing hideous
work
Main Sources or Causes of Frustration
Following are the main sources or causes of frustration
1. Environment : The workplace environment and natural environment both may frustrate
the employees. For example, there may be break down in machinery, no canteen
facilities, a wet rainy day or a hot sunny day may prevent the employees to perform their
duties efficiently.
2. Co-workers : Co-workers may be a major source of frustration. They may place barriers
in the way of goal attainment by delaying work, withholding work inputs, poor
presentation of work, affecting its quality, etc.
3. Employee Himself : The employee himself is rarely recognised as a source of frustration.
The employee may set higher goals than his abilities.
4. Management : Management may act as the source of frustration, they may block the
promotion of an employee due to change in organisation's promotional policies.
Types of Reactions to Frustration
The reactions to frustration are also known as Defense Mechanisms. These defense mechanisms
are so called as they try to defend individuals from the psychological effects of a blocked goal.
When some employees get frustrated, they become tensed and irritable. They experience an
uneasy feeling in their stomach and also show various other reactions of frustration.
Following are the various types of reactions to frustration :-
1. Withdrawal : Behaviours such as asking for a transfer or quitting a job.
2. Fixation : An employee blames others and superiors for his problems, without knowing
complete facts.
3. Aggression : Acting in a threatening manner.
4. Regression : Behaving in an immature and childish manner and may self-pity (to feel
sorry for oneself).
5. Physical Disorder : Physical ailments such as fever, upset stomach, vomiting, etc.
6. Apathy : Becoming irresponsive and disinterested in the job and his co-workers.
How to Overcome Frustration
Frustration usually occurs when our intended personal goals and dreams are not met. We may feel frustrated
when an outcome of what we wanted to happen simply did not happen, or when we meet challenges. There are
so many things that can cause us to be frustrated. Some people act on that feeling, while others do not. More
often than not, the cause of our frustrations can be attributed to external forces that we do not have control
over. It can be triggered by a situation like a gadget not working, or even by another person. Frustration can

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block us from feeling motivated. We can react by trying to solve what is causing the frustration, or we can just
simply give up.
No matter what the cause is, people respond to this behavior differently. It is normal for us to be frustrated
every now and then. It is the way we react to it that is important. Will you try to find a solution, or will you just
give in? The worst behavior would be to act violently towards others that are causing the problem. Just like
any behavioral problems that we encounter in our lifetime, there is always a way to overcome it. Here are 10
tips that can help you overcome frustration!
1. Talk to a friend – It is always healthy to talk to someone else about anything that is bothering us. Well,
maybe not everything, but the point here is to be able to share bottled up feelings with someone instead of just
keeping them all to ourselves. Who knows, your friend might have some solutions that can help you!
2. Write your successes and failures in a journal – Whether you do it using an online journal or a pen and
paper, keeping track of our activities that we feel are limiting us is always helpful. That way, we can have a
check and balance as to what worked for us and what didn’t.
3. Accept reality – We also need to check our own reality. If we have done everything within our power to
accomplish something, and it still does not work out, then we should try to accept it as it is. What I do in this
kind of situation is write a pros and cons list, and then I take it from there.
4. Track your progress – Sometimes we feel that things aren’t moving fast enough, or they are not working
the right away. That could lead to a lot of frustration. Do a check list and see how you are progressing.
Sometimes small steps may seem like nothing, but being able to cross those small steps off the list one by one
is helpful for seeing successful progress.
5. Take a long walk – Taking a break is always good. Do not think of what is causing your frustration for a
moment. Hopefully the long walk or break will allow your minds to be clearer once you decide to go back and
tackle the problem or situation at hand.
6. Stop blaming yourself – Maybe the cause of your frustration is something of your own doing. Accept that
and try to find solutions rather than blaming yourself incessantly. It will only put you in a negative mode
which will do more harm than good. It’s your fault; accept that and move on.
7. Stop being angry – Anger is one way to vent our frustrations. It can be either directed towards ourselves or
to the one causing the frustration. Watch a funny movie or read the comic page of your newspaper. The point
here is to minimize anger so you can think straight. Only when you are thinking straight and calm will you be
able to address the problem that is causing you to be frustrated.
8. Take a hot bath or sleep it off – Relaxing your mind by either taking a long hot bath or sleeping it off will
do wonders for your tired mind. Being angry or frustrated can make us weak and vulnerable to stress.
9. Be around positive people – It is always good to be around people who are optimistic. You can get energy
from them as well as advice if they have encountered similar situations like yours.
10. Try to be positive – Try to think of the other difficult times that you have encountered and yet succeeded
in the past. Say to yourself, this too will pass, as it always does. It may not be an easy thing to do, but if we try
to count our blessings and see where we have triumphed in the past, we can see that there is no way that we
cannot get through this as well.
We all have times in our lives when we get frustrated. It is a natural emotion that we need to get through. As
long as we work towards dreams and goals that we want to see happen, we will encounter some sort of
frustration. Remember, it is how we deal with it that is important.

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 Responses to Frustration

Some of the "typical" responses to frustration include anger, quitting (burn out or giving up), loss
of self-esteem and self-confidence, stress and depression.
ANGER: There is a saying "Frustration begets anger and anger begets aggression." Direct anger
and aggression is expressed toward the object perceived as the cause of the frustration. If a
machine does not work, you might hit it or kick it. If someone gets in your way, you could
verbally threaten them or push them aside. If the source of the frustration is too powerful or
threatening for direct aggression, displaced aggression is often used. The aggression is redirected
toward a less threatening and more available object.
An angry person often acts without thinking. The person has given in to the frustration and they
have given up restraint. Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive action but
all too often the actions we engage in when angry are destructive. Indeed, if we could see a
videotape of ourselves getting angry, the humiliation might well help cure us of anger. When you
feel frustration building, you have to practice learned responses that lead to healthy actions
instead of destructive ones.
GIVING UP: Giving up on a goal can be productive if the goal is truly out of reach. However,
more often giving up (quitting or being apathetic) is another form of giving in to frustration.
When repeatedly frustrated, people can drop out of school, quit jobs, or move away. Apathy is
giving up all of your goals, so you cannot be frustrated by trying to reach them.
We live in difficult time and we have to be persistent in order to accomplish. Consider how
many projects you began, and then gave up, because you became frustrated and lost patience.
Make a list of things you started and quit because they seemed too difficult. Now calculate the
disappointment and loss you suffered by not dealing with the frustration in a more healthy way.
Try to remember that quitters never win, and winners never quit. Losing your temper means
you're a quitter.
LOSS OF CONFIDENCE: Loss of confidence is a terrible frequent side effect of giving up and
not fulfilling your goal. A loss of self-confidence and self-esteem means that If we quit once,
then the next time we plan a goal, we may not be able to accurately assess our ability to carry it
out and we stop trusting ourselves and our own abilities. This became a self-fulfilling and self-
destructive attitude. You need to be able to learn that when the going gets tough, you say to
yourself "It is worth it!" and by following through, it not only gets the job done, but it builds
self-confidence.
STRESS: Stress is the "wear and tear" our body and mind experiences as we adjust to the
frustrations our continually changing environment. Too frequently, extreme, or prolonged
frustration and stress strains us and generates distress signals. Our body experiences distress
signals in a variety of ways, often in the form of: irritability, anger, fatigue, anxiety, headaches,
depression, stomachaches, hypertension, migraines, ulcers, heart attacks, or colitis.
DEPRESSION: Depression can affect almost every aspect of your life. It affects people of all
ages, income, race, and cultures. Depression can affect the way you eat and sleep, the way you
feel about yourself, the way one think about things, and the way you interact with others. While
we all feel depression at various appropriate times in our lives, excess or inappropriate
depression cannot be easily dismissed or wished away.
OTHER REACTIONS: Abuse of drugs or alcohol is self-destructive and usually futile attempt
at dealing with frustration, as are many eating and weight problems and addictive behaviors.
Whenever the immediate effects of the addictive behavior wear off, users find themselves back
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in the same, Wekesa
or even HDM
worse, Page 28 situation.
frustrating

Learning To Deal With Frustration

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Group Development
 Definition: Group Development is a term used to indicate patterns in the way groups of people
change over time and make decisions:
- Some theorists have claimed that groups develop through a more or less predefined (linear)
series of - Others have said that GD is cyclic.
- Yet others have argued that GD happens while groups may or may not go through certain
PHASES at some moment in time.
Yet others have argued that GD is completely non-phasic.
Compared to the more formal team building, GD is viewed by most people as more informal.

Groups take time to develop. How long, of course, is impossible to specify. It depends on size, frequency
of interaction, structural features, and so on.

However, one of the best-known bits of literature on groups is Tuckman's model of group
development, based on a meta-analysis of the complex models which had previously been
developed. However, Tuckman's original model has four stages;
Forming: in which the group is just coming together. It is
often characterised by shyness, uncertainty and diffidence
among the members, although extravert members may
rapidly assume some kind of leadership. Maintenance
concerns predominate.
In this stage, most team members are positive and polite.
Some are anxious, as they haven't fully understood what
work the team will do. Others are simply excited about the
task ahead.

As leader, you play a dominant role at this stage, because

team members' roles and responsibilities aren't clear.

This stage can last for some time, as people start to work
together, and as they make an effort to get to know their
new colleagues.

Storming: in which, having been established, there is a period of jockeying for position,
authority and influence among the members. In classes, this is the period of "testing-out" the
teacher. Disagreements appear or are manufactured and roles are eventually allocated. The initial
leaders may not survive this period: it is the most uncomfortable phase of the group's life—a sort
of group adolescence.

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Norming: having sorted out its internal structure, there is then the issue of what the group
stands for. What kind of behaviour and contribution is acceptable and what isn't? Members
explore behind the power processes of storming and begin to form some idea of the group's
identity: the "group in the mind". This is rarely done explicitly, of course, and it can readily slip
back into Storming,
Where people start to push against the boundaries established in the forming stage. This is the
stage where many teams fail.

Storming often starts where there is a conflict between team members' natural working styles.
People may work in different ways for all sorts of reasons but, if differing working styles cause
unforeseen problems, they may become frustrated.

Storming can also happen in other situations. For example, team members may challenge your
authority, or jockey for position as their roles are clarified. Or, if you haven't defined clearly how
the team will work, people may feel overwhelmed by their workload, or they could be
uncomfortable with the approach you're using.

Some may question the worth of the team's goal, and they may resist taking on tasks.

Team members who stick with the task at hand may experience stress, particularly as they don't
have the support of established processes, or strong relationships with their colleagues.

Performing: after all that, the group can begin to get some work done, on the basis of a relatively
stable structure.
The team reaches the performing stage, when hard work leads, without friction, to the
achievement of the team's goal. The structures and processes that you have set up support this
well.As leader, you can delegate much of your work, and you can concentrate on developing
team members.

It feels easy to be part of the team at this stage, and people who join or leave won't disrupt
performance.

The diagram is non-standard in that it shows this process not as a linear sequence, but as a cycle,
after the initial forming. Indeed, it is not even a cycle experience suggests that the group can go
from any of the three later stages to either of the others.

Open groups, in particular, (defined as those in which members keep joining and leaving
throughout the life of the group) can readily be sent back to the Forming phase, particularly if the
group is small and the turnover substantial.

Adjourning
Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, project teams exist for only a fixed
period, and even permanent teams may be disbanded through organizational restructuring.

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Team members who like routine, or who have developed close working relationships with
colleagues, may find this stage difficult, particularly if their future now looks uncertain.

The importance of Storming

The most important insight of the model is the recognition of the Storming phase.

 It may not always be obvious, but it happens in all groups.

 It is inevitable and it cannot be structured out of existence.
 Within classes, however, it may need to be contained; particularly because the most
obvious role to be tested is that of the teacher. If you fail whatever test the class sets,
(disciplinary, out-of-role questioning, response to students not preparing for the class)
class members can get very confused and not know where to look for leadership. You
may not want to "lead" or emphasise your authority, but you may well have a problem of
wasted time and loss of a learning culture if you do not.
 A desire to avoid Storming may be one of the reasons why some teachers appear not to
want groups to establish much interaction or a real group identity. Keeping most of the
interaction on the basis of exchanges between teacher and a succession of single students
is the commonest way of doing this: or even, of course, simply lecturing without any
other channel of communication. On fragmented modular courses, this can "work" from
the teacher's point of view, but often at considerable cost in terms of student learning.

Endings

Tuckman and Jensen also recognised the "adjourning" and even the "mourning" phases, in which
the group contemplates its dissolution and "death". Running them together, they are usually easy
to recognise: as the class comes to the end of the course, there may be an attempt to deny the
ending—an exchange of addresses and injunctions to "keep in touch", or even attempts to
continue to meet on an informal basis. These are usually fantasy based, as the life of the group is
reviewed in a rosy glow, and most continuing meetings peter out once the formal course is over.
It is also common to ritualise the ending, by going out to the pub or for a meal: it's harmless and
usually quite pleasant, as long as no-one is wilfully excluded.

Informing

Later variations also introduced an "Informing" stage, beyond Performing, and characterised by
an ability to interact as a group beyond the group boundaries—negotiating with other groups, for
example, or acting to make use of the group's "capital" in the form of knowledge or teamwork.
This is not always called for in the life of many groups, and although it is true that without some
form of cohesion, groups can't do engage constructively with outsiders at the group level, this
elaboration moves the model more into the realms of prescription than description. (I think.)

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Using the Tool
As a team leader, your aim is to help your people perform well, as quickly as possible. To do
this, you'll need to change your approach at each stage.Follow the steps below to ensure that
you're doing the right thing at the right time:

1. Identify the stage of team development that your team is at from the descriptions above.
2. Now consider what you need to do to move towards the performing stage. Figure 1,
below, will help you understand your role, and think about how you can move the team
forward.
3. Schedule regular reviews of where your team is, and adjust your behavior and leadership
approach appropriately.

Leadership Activities at Different Group Formation Stages

Stage Activities

 Direct the team, and establish clear objectives, both for the team as a
Forming whole and for individual team members.

 Establish processes and structures.

 Build trust and good relationships between team members.
 Resolve conflicts swiftly if they occur. Provide support, especially to
those team members who are less secure.
 Remain positive and firm in the face of challenges to your leadership,
or to the team's goal.
Storming  Explain the "forming, storming, norming, and performing" idea, so
that people understand why problems are occurring, and so that they
see that things will get better in the future. Coach team members in
assertiveness and conflict resolution skills , where this is necessary.
 Use psychometric indicators such as Myers-Briggs and the
Margerison-McCann Team Management Profile to help people learn
about different work styles and strengths.

 Step back and help team members take responsibility for

Norming progress towards the goal. (This is a good time to arrange a
team-building event.)

 Delegate tasks and projects as far as you can. Once the team is
achieving well, you should aim to have as light a touch as
Performing possible. You will now be able to start focusing on other goals
and areas of work.

 Take the time to celebrate the team's achievements – you may

Adjourning work with some of your people again, and this will be much
easier if people view past experiences positively.

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Forming an Effective Team

This is the general approach to forming a successful work team. But not all will take the same
steps as discussed above. Success is usually hinged on taking all of the steps just discussed. We
have a tendency to want to surround ourselves with people who are just like us. In case you get
to choose a team, instead of organizing a pre-formed team, then you’ll look for a team of people
with a variety of strengths. In case of a team that is already in place, organizing can be more
subtle. Like, all the workgroups can be called together in order to discuss what goals you want to
accomplish and how everybody can help.

You will also find that imposing goals on people doesn’t work nearly as well as having them tell
you as to what goals they will strive for. But setting goals is not easy work. Too often they end
up in being too unrealistic, too vague, impossible to measure, or just stretching into eternity
without any deadline.

TYPES OF GROUP

Introduction

Within many organisations different groups are formed at different levels, formal groups,
informal groups, primary groups and secondary groups. Some groups maybe deliberately
formed, some groups are formed through an informal setting. Below we discuss briefly four
forms of groups which are found within a company.

Formal Group

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A formal group is created within an organisation to complete a specific role or task. This may be
a one off objective such as the launch of a particular product or service or a permanent/ongoing
objective such as the provision of Information Technology (IT).

Informal Group

Informal groups are established by individuals who decide they want to interact with each other.
Informal groups usually do not have a specific purpose; often the group forms because the group
members regularly happen to be in the same location or because they enjoy each other's
company. For example people may form a group becuase they sit close together in an office or
live together in a house.

Primary Group

A primary group is made up of a small group of people who interact regularly. A small team
with a leader is an example of a primary group. A family can also be called a primary group.
Within the primary group, values, beliefs and culture are all very important.

Secondary Group

When a large number of people get together (who do not normally get together) it is called a
secondary group. Secondary group members do not get the opportunity to get to know each other
as well as primary group members because the interaction with each other is less than in a
primary group. When a secondary group is formed, individuals usually have their own agenda
and goals. The relationship they form is not long term and social interaction within a secondary
group is likely to be low.

GROUP TYPES
One common way to classify group is by whether they are formal or informal in nature. Formal
work groups are established by an organization to achieve organizational goals. Formal groups
may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups.

COMMAND GROUPS.

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and
the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic
department chairman and the faculty members in that department.

TASK GROUPS.

Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are
brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task
groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and
assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development
of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational

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contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing
committees. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after the
group completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc
committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the
group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.

A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an

unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals
and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer
service department, or an accounting department.

In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the
common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the
accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups
are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time.
Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or
negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to
improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups
can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.

INTEREST GROUPS.

Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups.
Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are
bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are
specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example
of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific
class.

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS.

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs,
religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other's company and often meet
after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a
friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month.

REFERENCE GROUPS.

A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to
Cherrington, the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison.
Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison
helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference
groups have a strong influence on members' behavior. By comparing themselves with other
members, individuals are able to assess whether their behavior is acceptable and whether their

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attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the previously
discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form voluntarily. For example, the
reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of employees that work
in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious
affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

GROUP STRUCTURE

Group structure is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the group together and
help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be described in a variety of ways. Among the more
common considerations are group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness.

GROUP SIZE.

Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. Small groups of two to ten
are thought to be more effective because each member has ample opportunity to participate and
become actively involved in the group. Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes
and trying to decide who should participate next. Group size will affect not only participation but
satisfaction as well. In other words, a group of six members has twice as many opportunities for
interaction and participation as a group of three people. Beyond 10 or 12 members, increasing
the size of the group results in decreased satisfaction. It is increasingly difficult for members of
large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

GROUP ROLES

In formal groups, roles are usually predetermined and assigned to members. Each role will have
specific responsibilities and duties. There are, however, emergent roles that develop naturally to
meet the needs of the groups. These emergent roles will often replace the assigned roles as
individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then be
classified into work roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles.

Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the group's goals. They
involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer, and reality
tester. The initiator defines problems, proposes action, and suggests procedures.

The informer role involves finding facts and giving advice or opinions. Clarifiers will interpret
ideas, define terms, and clarify issues for the group. Summarizers restate suggestions, offer
decisions, and come to conclusions for the group. Finally, reality testers analyze ideas and test
the ideas in real situations.

Role conflict occurs when there is inconsistency between the perceived role and role behavior.
There are several different forms of role conflict. Interrole conflict occurs when there is conflict
between the different roles that people have. For example, work roles and family roles often
compete with one another and cause conflict. Intrarole conflict occurs when individuals must
handle conflicting demands from different sources while performing the tasks associated with the
same role.

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GROUP NORMS.

Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the members of the
group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. They are typically
created in order to facilitate group survival, make behavior more predictable, avoid embarrassing
situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms
that might determine anything from the appropriate dress to how many comments to make in a
meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group's standards.
The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group.

The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behavior to
be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group size, degree of dependency, physical distances, time spent together, severity of initiation,
cooperation, threat history of past successes are the major factors. These factors are influencing
the group cohesiveness in an organization. We shall discuss about the above factors below:

Group size
Small group size is a greater probability of being cohesive than large groups in an organization
When team size increases, in this circumstance, possibility of agreement towards the common
goal and mutual interaction decreases. When team increases it restricts inter group and intra
group communication and encourages for the formation of sub groups.

Degree of Dependency
It is a positive between the degree of cohesiveness and dependency in an organization. It requires
greater attractiveness towards goals in an organization. The greater the degree of dependency
which will be greater attraction and consequently the higher group cohesiveness in an
organization.

Physical Distance
It is very important when people working together at a very close distance are likely to have
greater opportunity for interaction in an organization.
It enhances the free exchange of ideas, sharing the problems and prospects in an organization.
Therefore, it develops a closeness among the team members who leading to greater
cohesiveness.

Time spent Together

Time spent together and cohesiveness is positively related people who met frequently and spend
time together for developing mutual attraction and interpersonal interaction.

Team members are developing friendship and communication among members in an

organization.

Severity of Initiation

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It is positively correlated towards with cohesiveness When strict admission procedures are
prescribed for entry into group that is create severity of initiation.
In this case, the group becomes unique and elite in the eyes of other teams in an organization.

It arises out of the natural human tendency which share among the team members and get
benefits for their efforts in an organization.

Cooperation
It is the team spirit that is developed by all team members in the team. It helps to share their
personal opinion, suggestion, and recommendation relating to group tasks, reward system in a
team and teamwork. Well designed organization structure promotes greater cooperation in this
way cohesiveness is enhanced.

Status
Status and cohesiveness are positively related in an organization
Status is identity of team and team members and their tasks in an organization Status will come
to heard dedication, achievement, growth and development of the organization.

Threat
It is also considered determining factors of cohesiveness External threat is unpredictable and
uncontrollable Internal threat can be predictable and controllable, Its impact on the group, its
identity, and process in an organization. Strong and united team can easily face threat in an
organization.

History of Past Successes

It is very important factors influencing the group cohesiveness in an organization Past result,
performance, growth and development is the step stone towards the future goals and mission and
vision of an organization Team will be evaluated the past results and analysis and interpret future
result for survival and growth and development of an organization.

REASONS WHY PEOPLE FORM GROUPS

Security
Status
Self-esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal achievement

People join groups because:

1. Security--reduce the insecurity of "standing alone"; feel stronger, fewer self doubts, and more
resistant to threats
2. Status--inclusino in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status
3. Self-esteem--provides feelings of self worth to group members, in addition to conveying status

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to outsiders
4. Affiliation--fulfills social needs, enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling
need for affiliation
5. Power--what cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers
6. Goal achievement--some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents knowledge
or power to complete the job. in such instances management may rely on the use of a formal
group

Leadership
This is the ability to inspire, influence, and persuade others to give maximum efforts and
cooperation willingly and voluntarily towards the attainment of planned goals.
Good leadership is a necessity in any business organization. It is therefore important that
manager portray appropriate leadership qualities.

Definition of a Leader
A leader is "a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal". A
mnemonic for this definition would be 3P's - Person, People and Purpose as illustrated by the
following diagram.

Person

Is leadership a position of office or authority? Or,

is leadership an ability in the sense that he is a
leader because he leads? We all may know or hear
of people who are in positions of leadership but
who are not providing leadership. A position of
office is no guarantee of leadership but it helps in
the sense that a leadership position usually
commands a listening ear from its people and that
is a good starting point for anyone who desires to
be a leader.

A leader by its meaning is one who goes first and leads by example, so that others are motivated
to follow him. This is a basic requirement. To be a leader, a person must have a deep-rooted
commitment to the goal that he will strive to achieve it even if nobody follows him!

Purpose

A requirement for leadership is personal vision - the ability to visualize your goal as an
accomplished fact; a thing already achieved.
"The very essence of leadership is that you have to have vision. You can't blow an uncertain
trumpet."
People

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 He who thinketh he leadeth and hath no one following him is only taking a walk.
Anonymous
To be a leader, one must have followers. To have followers, one must have their trust. How do
you win their trust? Why would others trust you? Most important, are you worthy of their trust?

Why are some individuals more effective than others at influencing people?
Effectiveness in leadership has been attributed to (1) persuasion skills, (2) leadership styles and
(3) personal attributes of the leader. We will explore these further in another article or two. Now,
we will consider one critical element of leadership (influence) - love for people.
The Characteristics of a Good Leader

What makes a good leader? Here are some of their most important characteristics:

Self-Awareness. You have an intimate knowledge of your inner emotional state. You know your
strengths and your weaknesses. You know when you’re working in flow and you know when
you’re over worked. You know yourself, including your capabilities and your limitations, which
allows you to push yourself to your maximum potential.

Self-Direction. You’re able to direct yourself effectively and powerfully. You know how to get
things done, how to organize tasks and how to avoid procrastination. You know how to generate
energy for projects, to calm yourself when angered. You can make decisions quickly when
necessary, but can also slow to consider all the options on the table.

Vision. You’re working towards a goal that’s greater than yourself. It could be something small,
like the success of the team, or a larger vision like world peace. Working towards a vision is far
more inspiring than working towards personal gain.

Ability to Motivate. Leaders don’t lead by telling people what they have to do. Instead, leaders
cause people to want to help them. A key part of this is cultivating your own desire to help
others. When others sense that you want to help them, they in turn want to help you.

Social Awareness. Understanding social networks and key influencers in that social network is
another key part of leadership. Who in the organization has the most clout, both officially and
unofficially? Who moves the hearts of the group?

These are some of the most important characteristics of good leaders.

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

Most of these traits tie directly into emotional intelligence (EQ). Leaders with high EQ are
intrinsically more self-aware. They understand their mental processes and know how to direct
themselves. They’re more in touch with what they’re deeply passionate about. They naturally
care more for others and receive more compassion in return. They’re more socially in tune.

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Leadership is more often than not about “soft skills” rather than hard skills. Yes, a leader who
understands what drives the bottom line is valuable. Yet it’s the leader who can get others to
perform at their best who ultimately creates winning organizations.

What are some of the main ways you see your leadership skills impacting your workplace
performance?

Leadership behavior
Introduction
In leadership behaviors, entrepreneur as a leader should have the following qualities.
1. Vision and foresight: you should look into the future when making plans. You need a vision
in order to be able to determine how you want your business to develop.
2. Strong desire to influence others
You can influence your staff if they have confidence and trust in you.
3. Ability to learn from past errors and built on past experience
You should be able to improve your business through learning from experience and avoiding
past mistakes
4. Need to achieve
You should aim high and for the best in your undertaking and expectation. They should be of
course achievable.
5. Imagination
As a leader you should see beyond the horizon.
6. Creativity
You should be as original as possible in ideas and activities. You should have the daring to try
new methods of operation.
7. Initiative
As a leader you have the role of getting things started. You should also find new and better ways
in doing thing you are the agent of doing things.
8. Good human relations
As a leader you should sell the good image of your business.

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 LEADING AND MOTIVATING OTHERS
Introduction
As a manager success depends on how you motivate your employees. The following are some
techniques that a person or people oriented leaders would use to motivate staff.
1. Build worker self esteem
Build employees confidence of themselves by praising their good work and showing them that
the best is always expected from them.
2. Information employees
Try to tell staff what is to be accomplished. Good communication within the organization is
essential for success.
3. Delegate authority and responsibility
Good leaders know how to delegate authority and responsibility
4. Maintain contact
Use leadership role to maintain personal contact with all employees
5. Apply reinforcement principle
Reward behavior that is considered desirable employees tend to repeat the rewarded behavior
6. Be an active listener
Active listening requires that feedback is explicitly given to the person speaking. Your
employees will take that you appreciate them and have concern in them.
7. Set specific goals
Set specific clearly understood measurable goals and continually review them. The goals should
be SMART
S-specific
M-measurable
A-achievable
R-realistic
T-time bound
8. Take collective action.
When dealing with some aspects of a workers performance talk to that worker in private. Never
criticize a worker in public.

Leadership styles
Autocratic,
Laissez faire
democratic

Entrepreneurs are responsible for setting goals, making plans for their business.
Most leaders use a combination of styles, depending on the situation.
Entrepreneurs are individuals who have developed their own personal styles of leadership
Three leadership styles are commonly used.
Autocratic
Laissez faire
Democratic

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1.Autocratic style
It is the oldest and most traditional form of leadership style. In this style the leader draws a very
firm leadership line everybody knows what she/he can do or not do.
Many like this form of leadership because it gives a sense of purpose and security. They know
what is expected of them and they know that they must live up to certain standards. Autocratic
leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, even if their input would be
useful. This can be appropriate when you need to make decisions quickly, when there's no need
for team input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome. However, this
style can be demoralizing, and it can lead to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover.

2.Laissez faire style

This is a very permissive style. Employees are left alone to reach their own potential. Some
people are responsive to this style and they do not abuse their freedom. Others take advantage of
the climate and do not live up to their potential. Laissez-faire leaders give their team members a lot
of freedom in how they do their work, and how they set their deadlines. They provide support with
resources and advice if needed, but otherwise they don't get involved. This autonomy can lead to high job
satisfaction, but it can be damaging if team members don't manage their time well, or if they don't have
the knowledge, skills, or self motivation to do their work effectively. (Laissez-faire leadership can also
occur when managers don't have control over their work and their people.)

3.Democratic
This style depends upon the organization its objectives and personality of its people. In
democratic climate a manager build a sense of union and common interest among his or her
workers. It is at times even hard to recognize who the leader is the leader sets discipline lines
against work nobody seems to object. Democratic leaders make the final decisions, but they
include team members in the decision-making process. They encourage creativity, and people are
often highly engaged in projects and decisions. As a result, team members tend to have high job
satisfaction and high productivity. This is not always an effective style to use, though, when you
need to make a quick decision.

Lewin's framework is popular and useful, because it encourages managers to be less autocratic
than they might instinctively be.

LEADERSHIP STYLE THEORIES

The Four Core Theory Groups

Let's look at each of the four core groups of theory, and explore some of the tools and models
that apply with each. (Keep in mind that there are many other theories out there.)

1. Trait Theories – What Type of Person Makes a Good Leader?

Trait theories argue that effective leaders share a number of common personality characteristics,
or "traits."

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Early trait theories said that leadership is an innate, instinctive quality that you do or don't have.
Thankfully, we've moved on from this idea, and we're learning more about what we can do to
develop leadership qualities within ourselves and others.

Trait theories help us identify traits and qualities (for example, integrity, empathy, assertiveness,
good decision-making skills, and likability) that are helpful when leading others.

However, none of these traits, nor any specific combination of them, will guarantee success as a
leader.

Traits are external behaviors that emerge from the things going on within our minds – and it's
these internal beliefs and processes that are important for effective leadership.

2. Behavioral Theories – What Does a Good Leader Do?

Behavioral theories focus on how leaders behave. For instance, do leaders dictate what needs to
be done and expect cooperation? Or do they involve their teams in decision-making to encourage
acceptance and support?

In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin developed a framework based on a leader's behavior. He argued that
there are three types of leaders:

1. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This style of leadership is
considered appropriate when decisions need to be made quickly, when there's no need for input,
and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome.
2. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the
degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This style is important when team agreement
matters, but it can be difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas.
3. Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many of the
decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable, is motivated, and doesn't need close
supervision. However, this behavior can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted; and this is
where this style of leadership can fail.

Clearly, how leaders behave affects their performance. Researchers have realized, though, that
many of these leadership behaviors are appropriate at different times. The best leaders are those
who can use many different behavioral styles, and choose the right style for each situation.

3. Contingency Theories – How Does the Situation Influence Good Leadership?

The realization that there is no one correct type of leader led to theories that the best leadership
style depends on the situation. These theories try to predict which style is best in which
circumstance.

For instance, when you need to make quick decisions, which style is best? When you need the
full support of your team, is there a more effective way to lead? Should a leader be more people-
oriented or task-oriented? These are all questions that contingency leadership theories try to
address.

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Popular contingency-based models include House's Path-Goal Theory and Fiedler's Contingency
Model .

You can also use the Leadership Process Model to understand how your situation affects other
factors that are important for effective leadership, and how, in turn, these affect your leadership.

4. Power and Influence Theories – What is the Source of the Leader's Power?

Power and influence theories of leadership take an entirely different approach – these are based
on the different ways that leaders use power and influence to get things done, and they look at
the leadership styles that emerge as a result.

Perhaps the best-known of these theories is French and Raven's Five Forms of Power . This
model highlights three types of positional power – legitimate, reward, and coercive – and two
sources of personal power – expert and referent (your personal appeal and charm). The model
suggests that using personal power is the better alternative, and that you should work on building
expert power (the power that comes with being a real expert in the job) because this is the most
legitimate source of personal power.

Another leadership style that uses power and influence is transactional leadership . This approach
assumes that people do things for reward and for no other reason. Therefore, it focuses on
designing tasks and reward structures. While this may not be the most appealing leadership
strategy in terms of building relationships and developing a highly motivating work
environment, it often works, and leaders in most organizations use it on a daily basis to get
things done.

Similarly, leading by example is another highly effective way of influencing your team.

OTHER THEORIES UNDER THE ABOVE:

Path-Goal Theory
Highly-capable people, who are assigned to a complex task, will need a different leadership
approach from people with low ability, who are assigned to an ambiguous task. (The former will
want a participative approach, while the latter need to be told what to do.)

With Path-Goal Theory, you can identify the best leadership approach to use, based on your
people's needs, the task that they're doing, and the environment that they're working in.

Six Emotional Leadership Styles

The theory highlights the strengths and weaknesses of six common styles – Visionary, Coaching,
Affiliative, Democratic, Pacesetting, and Commanding. It also shows how each style can affect
the emotions of your team members.

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Flamholtz and Randle's Leadership Style Matrix
First published in 2007, Flamholtz and Randle's Leadership Style Matrix shows you the best
style to use, based on how capable people are of working autonomously, and how creative or
"programmable" the task is.

Transformational Leadership
The leadership frameworks so far are all useful in different situations, however, in business,
"transformational leadership " is often the most effective style to use. (This was first published in
1978, and was then further developed in 1985.)

Specific Leadership Styles

As well as understanding the frameworks that you can use to be a more effective leader, and
knowing what it takes to be a transformational leader, it's also useful to learn about more general
styles, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Let's take a look at some other styles of leadership that are interesting, but don't fit with any of
the frameworks above.

Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their people follow procedures
precisely.

This is appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery,
with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights), or with large sums of money. Bureaucratic
leadership is also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks.

This style is much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity, or
innovation.

Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership resembles transformational leadership: both types of leaders inspire and
motivate their team members.

Servant Leadership
A "servant leader " is someone, regardless of level, who leads simply by meeting the needs of the
team. The term sometimes describes a person without formal recognition as a leader.

Transactional Leadership
This style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they accept a
job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization paying team members in return for their
effort and compliance on a short-term task. The leader has a right to "punish" team members if
their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.

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STRESS

What Is Stress?
Stress is defined as “a state of psychological and physiological imbalance resulting from the
disparity between situational demand and the individual's ability and motivation to meet those
needs.”
Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress as “the
rate of all wear and tear caused by life.”
Stress can be positive or negative:
1. Stress is good when the situation offers an opportunity to a person to gain something. It acts as
a motivator for peak performance.
2. Stress is negative when a person faces social, physical, organizational and emotional problems.
Factors that are responsible for causing stress are called stressors.

Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both good
and bad experiences. When people feel stressed by something going on around them, their bodies
react by releasing chemicals into the blood. These chemicals give people more energy and
strength, which can be a good thing if their stress is caused by physical danger. But this can also
be a bad thing, if their stress is in response to something emotional and there is no outlet for this
extra energy and strength. Certain psychological conditions that can evoke stress are:

 loss of control
 new situations
 unpredictability
 a threat to the ego
 anticipation of negative consequences
 ambiguous situations

What Causes Stress?

Many different things can cause stress -- from physical (such as fear of something dangerous) to
emotional (such as worry over your family or job.) Identifying what may be causing you stress is
often the first step in learning how to better deal with your stress. Some of the most common
sources of stress are:

Survival Stress - You may have heard the phrase "fight or flight" before. This is a common
response to danger in all people and animals. When you are afraid that someone or something
may physically hurt you, your body naturally responds with a burst of energy so that you will be
better able to survive the dangerous situation (fight) or escape it all together (flight). This is
survival stress.

Internal Stress - Have you ever caught yourself worrying about things you can do nothing about
or worrying for no reason at all? This is internal stress and it is one of the most important kinds

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of stress to understand and manage. Internal stress is when people make themselves stressed.
This often happens when we worry about things we can't control or put ourselves in situations
we know will cause us stress. Some people become addicted to the kind of hurried, tense,
lifestyle that results from being under stress. They even look for stressful situations and feel
stress about things that aren't stressful.

Environmental Stress - This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such as noise,
crowding, and pressure from work or family. Identifying these environmental stresses and
learning to avoid them or deal with them will help lower your stress level.

Fatigue and Overwork - This kind of stress builds up over a long time and can take a hard toll
on your body. It can be caused by working too much or too hard at your job(s), school, or home.
It can also be caused by not knowing how to manage your time well or how to take time out for
rest and relaxation. This can be one of the hardest kinds of stress to avoid because many people
feel this is out of their control. Later in this course we will show you that you DO have options
and offer some useful tips for dealing with fatigue.

Causes of Stress

The major causes of stress at work or in organization:

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 1. Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is very much behind in the corporate
ladder, then he may experience stress. If he seems that there are no opportunities for self-
growth, he may experience stress. Hence, unfulfilled career expectations are the
significant source of stress.
2. Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person doesn't know what he is supposed to do, on
the job. His tasks and responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is
expected to do. It creates confusion in the minds of the worker and results in stress.
3. Rotating Work Shifts: Stress may occur in those individuals who work on different
work shifts. Employees may be expected to work on day shift for some days and then on
the night shift. That may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can
affect not only personal life but also family life of the employee.
4. Role Conflict: It takes place when people have different expectations from the person
performing a particular role. It can also occur if the job is not as per expectation, or when
a job demands a certain type of behavior that is against the person's moral values.
5. Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more demanding than others. Jobs that involve
risk, and danger are more stressful. Research findings indicate, job that cause stress needs

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 constant monitoring of equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making
decisions, etc.
6. Lack of Participation in Decision-making: Many experienced employees feel that
management should consult them on matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors
hardly ask the concerned employees before taking a decision. That develops a feeling of
being neglected, which may lead to stress.
7. Work Overload: Excessive workload leads to stress as it puts a person under tremendous
pressure. Work overload may take two different forms:
a. Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that is complicated or beyond
the employee's capacity.
b. Quantitative work overload is a result of many activities performed in a
prescribed time.
8. Work Underload: In this, case, too little work or very easy work is expected on the part
of the employee. Doing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to
monotony and boredom, which can lead to stress.
9. Poor Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. It
would include bad lighting and ventilation, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive
noise, and dust, presence of toxic gasses and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc. All
these unpleasant conditions create physiological and psychological imbalance in humans
thereby causing stress.
10. Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness,
although they differ widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is no
unity among work group members. There are mistrust, jealousy, frequent quarrels, etc., in
groups and this lead to stress to employees.
11. Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: These conflicts take place due to differences in
perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups.
Such conflicts can be a source of stress for group members.
12. Organizational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to those changes,
and this may cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are significant or unusual like
transfer or adoption of new technology.
13. Lack of Social Support: When individuals believe that they have the friendship and
support of others at work, their ability to cope with the effects of stress increases. If this
kind of social support is not available, then an employee experiences more stress

Effects of Work-Related Stress

Where stress is not controlled and the individual and organisation suffers, the following may be
observed:
Effects on people may include:
Physical
 Sleep disturbances
 Headaches
 Gastrointestinal upset
 Raised blood pressure/cardiovascular disease
Emotional
 Anxiety and irritability
 Depression

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  Labile emotions
Intellectual
 Loss of concentration
 Lack of motivation
 Difficulty with thought process
 Loss of memory
 Poor decision-making
Behavioural
 Substance (including alcohol) misuse
 Decreased libido
 Inappropriate display of behaviour
 Isolation
 Unpunctuality
Effects on the organisation may include:
 High absenteeism
 High labour turnover
 Poor time keeping
 Poor performance and productivity
 Low morale
 Poor motivation
 Increased employee complaints
 Increased ill-health, accidents and incidents reports
Organisational consequences of stress
1. High staff turnover & recruitment costs
This is, perhaps, the most common of the organisational consequences of stress. Stressed
employees do not tend to enjoy their working environment. While some may have the
confidence to seek their employer’s help in combating the stress, others may feel they have no
option but to leave the organisation and remove themselves from the stressful situation;
sometimes as a result of medical advice. Also, employees who seek help may not receive the
help they require and so choose to leave the organisation. Unfortunately, many organisations
make no attempt to ascertain the true reason for an employee’s resignation and so never realise
that their organisation has an issue with stress.

2. High absenteeism and presenteeism levels

Stressed individuals tend to experience more illness and so take more time off due to illness.
Absenteeism can also be the result of staff feeling that they simply cannot cope with going into
work so they attempt to escape the stressful situation by remaining in the safety of their own
home. In many instances, these staff will make it into work but will be unable to contribute
much. They are physically present but psychologically they are elsewhere. This is referred to as
Presenteeism.

These factors are usually just attributed to poor discipline on the employee’s part. Where
organisations recognise absenteeism and presenteeism as organisational consequences of stress,
they are able to take corrective action, to the benefit of both staff and the organisation, before
things escalate out of control.

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 3. Reduced productivity levels
As exposure to stress is prolonged and chronic fatigue kicks in, it becomes more difficult for the
employee to work to an optimum level. As fatigue sets in, concentration and motivation levels
drop. This leads to mistakes creeping in to their work. It also takes longer to complete tasks. The
quantity and quality of the employee’s work begins to suffer. This lowers the productivity levels
of the company.

4. Increased health and safety issues

This is more common in workplaces which are more manual in nature. Employees tend to take
more risks and suffer poorer concentration when they are stressed. This combination is a recipe
for increased accidents which in turn increase litigation, insurance and medical costs for the
organisation.

5. Litigation
Organisations have a legal obligation to provide a safe and healthy workplace for their
employees. This can include adequate training, safe work practices, and a workplace free from
bullying and harassment. Where an employee experiences stress due to the organisation failing to
meet its legal obligations; the employee may seek a legal remedy. This may result in costly legal
proceedings and damage to the organisations reputation. Of all the organisational consequences
of stress, the one which best motivates organisations to take action is the threat of litigation.

6. Reputational damage
The reputation of the organisation is damaged by the culture of stress which can develop as a
result of the failure to manage stress at both an organisational and individual level. It doesn’t
take long for a company to develop such a reputation; though it can take a long time to lose this
reputation. With reduced productivity levels and the decreased performance of staff a culture of
poor customer service can develop.

7. Increased training costs

As a result of higher staff turnover, more induction courses are required. The organisation may
also have to spend more on interpersonal skills, health and safety and stress management
training.

The organisational consequences of stress arise due to the failure to manage stress at both the
organisational and individual levels. A culture of stress can soon develop with many damaging
consequences for the organisation. Where such a culture has developed there is no quick fix
solution for the organisation. The organisational consequences of stress are best avoided by
adopting a stress management culture in the organisation requiring the ‘buy-in’ of both
management and staff.

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Stress management
Unhealthy ways of coping with stress
These coping strategies may temporarily reduce stress, but they cause more damage in the long
run:

 Smoking  Using pills or drugs to relax

 Drinking too much  Sleeping too much
 Bingeing on junk or comfort food  Procrastinating
 Zoning out for hours in front of the TV or  Filling up every minute of the day to avoid
computer facing problems
 Withdrawing from friends, family, and  Taking out your stress on others (lashing
activities out, angry outbursts, physical violence)

Learning healthier ways to manage stress

If your methods of coping with stress aren’t contributing to your greater emotional and physical
health, it’s time to find healthier ones. No single method works for everyone or in every
situation, so experiment with different techniques and strategies. Focus on what makes you feel
calm and in control.

Stress management strategy 1: Get moving

Physical activity plays a key role in reducing and preventing the effects of stress, but you don’t
have to be an athlete or spend hours in a gym to experience the benefits. Just about any form of
physical activity can help relieve stress and burn away anger, tension, and frustration. Exercise
releases endorphins that boost your mood and make you feel good, and it can also serve as a
valuable distraction to your daily worries.

While the maximum benefit comes from exercising for 30 minutes or more, you can start small
and build up your fitness level gradually. Short, 10-minute bursts of activity that elevate your
heart rate and make you break out into a sweat can help to relieve stress and give you more
energy and optimism. Even very small activities can add up over the course of a day. The first
step is to get yourself up and moving. Here are a few easy ways:

 Put on some music and dance around

 Take your dog for a walk
 Walk or cycle to the grocery store
 Use the stairs at home or work rather than an elevator
 Park your car in the farthest spot in the lot and walk the rest of the way
 Pair up with an exercise partner and encourage each other as you workout
 Play ping-pong or an activity-based video game with your kids

Managing stress with regular exercise

Once you’re in the habit of being physically active, try to incorporate regular exercise into your
daily schedule. Activities that are continuous and rhythmic—and require moving both your arms
and your legs—are especially effective at relieving stress. Walking, running, swimming,
dancing, cycling, tai chi, and aerobic classes are good choices.

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Pick an activity you enjoy, so you’re more likely to stick with it. Instead of continuing to focus
on your thoughts while you exercise, make a conscious effort to focus on your body and the
physical (and sometimes emotional) sensations you experience as you’re moving. Adding this
mindfulness element to your exercise routine will help you break out of the cycle of negative
thoughts that often accompanies overwhelming stress. Focus on coordinating your breathing with
your movements, for example, or notice how the air or sunlight feels on your skin. Getting out of
your head and paying attention to how your body feels is also the surest way to avoid picking up
an injury.

When you’ve exercised, you’ll likely find it easier to put other stress management techniques to
use, including reaching out to others and engaging socially.

Stress management strategy 2: Engage socially

Reach out and build relationships
 Reach out to a colleague at work
 Help someone else by volunteering
 Have lunch or coffee with a friend
 Ask a loved one to check in with you regularly
 Accompany someone to the movies or a concert
 Call or email an old friend
 Go for a walk with a workout buddy
 Schedule a weekly dinner date
 Meet new people by taking a class or joining a club
 Confide in a clergy member, teacher, or sports coach

Social engagement is the quickest, most efficient way to rein in stress and avoid overreacting to
internal or external events that you perceive as threatening. There is nothing more calming to
your nervous system than communicating with another human being who makes you feel safe
and understood. This experience of safety—as perceived by your nervous system—results from
nonverbal cues that you hear, see and feel.

The inner ear, face, heart, and stomach are wired together in the brain, so socially interacting
with another person face-to-face—making eye contact, listening in an attentive way, talking—
can quickly calm you down and put the brakes on defensive stress responses like “fight-or-
flight.” It can also release hormones that reduce stress, even if you’re unable to alter the stressful
situation itself. Of course, it’s not always realistic to have a pal close by to lean on when you feel
overwhelmed by stress, but by building and maintaining a network of close friends you can
improve your resiliency to life’s stressors. On the flip side, the more lonely and isolated you are,
the greater your vulnerability to stress.

Reach out to family and friends and connect regularly in person. The people you talk to don’t
have to be able to fix your stress; they just need to be good listeners. Opening up is not a sign of
weakness and it won’t make you a burden to others. In fact, most friends will be flattered that
you trust them enough to confide in them, and it will only strengthen your bond. And remember,
it’s never too late to build new friendships and improve your support network.

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Stress management strategy 3: Avoid unnecessary stress
While stress is an automatic response from your nervous system, some stressors arise at
predictable times—your commute to work, a meeting with your boss, or family gatherings, for
example. When handling such predictable stressors, you can either change the situation or
change your reaction. When deciding which option to choose in any given scenario, it’s helpful
to think of the four A's: avoid, alter, adapt, or accept.

Avoid the stressor

It’s not healthy to avoid a stressful situation that needs to be addressed, but you may be surprised
by the number of stressors in your life that you can eliminate.

 Learn how to say “no” – Know your limits and stick to them. Whether in your personal or
professional life, taking on more than you can handle is a surefire recipe for stress. Distinguish
between the “shoulds” and the “musts” and, when possible, say “no” to taking on too much.
 Avoid people who stress you out – If someone consistently causes stress in your life, limit the
amount of time you spend with that person, or end the relationship.
 Take control of your environment – If the evening news makes you anxious, turn off the TV. If
traffic makes you tense, take a longer but less-traveled route. If going to the market is an
unpleasant chore, do your grocery shopping online.

Stress management strategy 4: Alter the situation

If you can’t avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Often, this involves changing the way you
communicate and operate in your daily life.

 Express your feelings instead of bottling them up. If something or someone is bothering you,
be more assertive and communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way. If you’ve got
an exam to study for and your chatty roommate just got home, say up front that you only have
five minutes to talk. If you don’t voice your feelings, resentment will build and the stress will
increase.
 Be willing to compromise. When you ask someone to change their behavior, be willing to do the
same. If you both are willing to bend at least a little, you’ll have a good chance of finding a happy
middle ground.
 Manage your time better. Poor time management can cause a lot of stress. But if you plan ahead
and make sure you don’t overextend yourself, you’ll find it easier to stay calm and focused.

Stress management strategy 5: Adapt to the stressor

How you think can have a profound effect on your stress levels. Each time you think a negative
thought about yourself, your body reacts as if it were in the throes of a tension-filled situation.
Regain your sense of control by changing your expectations and attitude to stressful situations.

 Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective. Rather
than fuming about a traffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause and regroup, listen to your
favorite radio station, or enjoy some alone time.
 Look at the big picture. Take perspective of the stressful situation. Ask yourself how important
it will be in the long run. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it really worth getting upset over?
If the answer is no, focus your time and energy elsewhere.

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  Adjust your standards. Perfectionism is a major source of avoidable stress. Stop setting yourself
up for failure by demanding perfection. Set reasonable standards for yourself and others, and
learn to be okay with “good enough.”

Stress management strategy 6: Accept the things you can’t change

Many sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or change stressors, such as the death
of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such cases, the best way to cope with
stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in the long run, it’s easier
than railing against a situation you can’t change.

 Don’t try to control the uncontrollable. Many things in life are beyond our control—
particularly the behavior of other people. Rather than stressing out over them, focus on the things
you can control such as the way you choose to react to problems.
 Look for the upside. When facing major challenges, try to look at them as opportunities for
personal growth. If your own poor choices contributed to a stressful situation, reflect on them and
learn from your mistakes.
 Learn to forgive. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world and that people make
mistakes. Let go of anger and resentments. Free yourself from negative energy by forgiving and
moving on.

Stress management strategy 7: Make time for fun and relaxation

Beyond a take-charge approach and a positive attitude, you can reduce stress in your life by
nurturing yourself. If you regularly make time for fun and relaxation, you’ll be in a better place
to handle life’s stressors.

Develop a "stress relief toolbox"

Come up with a list of healthy ways to relax and recharge. Try to implement one or more of
these ideas each day, even if you're feeling good.

 Go for a walk  Savor a warm cup of coffee or tea

 Spend time in nature  Play with a pet
 Call a good friend  Work in your garden
 Play a competitive game of tennis or  Get a massage
racquetball  Curl up with a good book
 Write in your journal  Listen to music
 Take a long bath  Watch a comedy
 Light scented candles

Don’t get so caught up in the hustle and bustle of life that you forget to take care of your own
needs. Nurturing yourself is a necessity, not a luxury.

 Set aside relaxation time. Include rest and relaxation in your daily schedule. Don’t allow other
obligations to encroach. This is your time to take a break from all responsibilities and recharge
your batteries.
 Do something you enjoy every day. Make time for leisure activities that bring you joy, whether
it be stargazing, playing the piano, or working on your bike.
 Keep your sense of humor. This includes the ability to laugh at yourself. The act of laughing
helps your body fight stress in a number of ways.

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Stress management strategy 8: Adopt a healthy lifestyle
In addition to regular exercise, there are other healthy lifestyle choices that can increase your
resistance to stress.

 Eat a healthy diet. Well-nourished bodies are better prepared to cope with stress, so be mindful
of what you eat. Start your day right with breakfast, and keep your energy up and your mind clear
with balanced, nutritious meals throughout the day.
 Reduce caffeine and sugar. The temporary "highs" caffeine and sugar provide often end in with
a crash in mood and energy. By reducing the amount of coffee, soft drinks, chocolate, and sugar
snacks in your diet, you’ll feel more relaxed and you’ll sleep better.
 Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs. Self-medicating with alcohol or drugs may provide an
easy escape from stress, but the relief is only temporary. Don’t avoid or mask the issue at hand;
deal with problems head on and with a clear mind.
 Get enough sleep. Adequate sleep fuels your mind, as well as your body. Feeling tired will
increase your stress because it may cause you to think irrationally.

Here are five healthy techniques that psychological research has shown to help reduce stress in
the short- and long-term.

Take a break from the stressor. It may seem difficult to get away from a big work project, a
crying baby or a growing credit card bill. But when you give yourself permission to step away
from it, you let yourself have time to do something else, which can help you have a new
perspective or practice techniques to feel less overwhelmed. It’s important to not avoid your
stress (those bills have to be paid sometime), but even just 20-minutes to take care of yourself is
helpful.

Exercise. The research keeps growing — exercise benefits your mind just as well as your body.
We keep hearing about the long-term benefits of a regular exercise routine. But even a 20-minute
walk, run, swim or dance session in the midst of a stressful time can give an immediate effect
that can last for several hours.

Smile and laugh. Our brains are interconnected with our emotions and facial expressions. When
people are stressed, they often hold a lot of the stress in their face. So laughs or smiles can help
relieve some of that tension and improve the situation.

Get social support. Call a friend, send an email. When you share your concerns or feelings with
another person, it does help relieve stress. But it’s important that the person whom you talk to is
someone whom you trust and whom you feel can understand and validate you. If your family is a
stressor, for example, it may not alleviate your stress if you share your works woes with one of
them.

Meditate. Meditation and mindful prayer help the mind and body to relax and focus.
Mindfulness can help people see new perspectives, develop self-compassion and forgiveness.
When practicing a form of mindfulness, people can release emotions that may have been causing
the body physical stress. Much like exercise, research has shown that even meditating briefly can
reap immediate benefits.

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Conflict
 Is an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles:

 Two or more interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources,
and interference from others in achieving that goal (Hocker & Wilmot, 1995)

 Competition between interdependent parties who perceive that they have incompatible
needs, goals, desires, or ideas (Van Slyke, 1999)

 The interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and
values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these
goals (Putnam & Poole, 1987)

Ten Causes of Conflict

Personalities

Organizational strife is sometimes traced to "personalities." This is one person

differing with another based simply on how he or she feels about that person.

Solution: Train everyone to recognize the personality types along with their
inherent strengths and weaknesses so that they understand each other.

Sensitivity/hurt

This occurs when a person, because of low self-esteem, insecurity, or other

factors in his or her personal life, sometimes feels attacked by perceived
criticism or other interpersonal directness.

Solution: Adopt the empowering belief that even negative behaviours have a
positive intention. Use active listening and questioning techniques to
understand the root cause of the problem. Adjust your communication to match
the needs of the other person.

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 Differences in percentions and values

Most conflict results from the varying ways different people view the world.
These incongruent views are traceable to differences in upbringing, culture,
race, experience, education, occupation, socio-economic class, and other
environmental factors.

Solution: Management must set and communicate the values hierarchy for the
organization.

Differences over facts

A fact is a piece of data that can be quantified or an event that can be

documented. Arguments over facts typically need not last very long since they
are verifiable. But a statement like,’ It is a fact that you are insensitive to my
feelings," is neither documentable nor quantifiable, and so is actually a
difference in perception.

Solution: Have a neutral third party or expert arbitrate the dispute.

Differences over goals and priorities

An argument about whether a bank should focus more resources on

international banking or on community banking is a disagreement over goals.
Another example would be whether or not to increase the amount of advanced
professional training given to tellers.

Solution: Management must set, communicate, and enforce the values

hierarchy for the organization.

Differences over methods

Two sides may have similar goals but disagree on how to achieve them. For
example, how should advanced teller training be conducted?

Solution: Have a neutral third party or expert arbitrate the dispute.

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 Competition for scarce resources

Two managers might argue over who has the greater need for an assistant,
whose budget should be in- creased more, or how to allocate recently purchased
computers.

Solution: Management must set and communicate the values hierarchy for the
organization.

Competition for supremacy

This occurs when one person seeks to outdo or out- shine another person. You
might see it when two employees compete for a promotion or for comparative
power in your organization. Depending on personalities, this type of conflict
can be very subtle sometimes.

Solution: Management must set and communicate the values hierarchy for the
organization.

Misunderstanding

The majority of what looks like interpersonal conflict is actually

communication breakdown. Communication, if not attended to with care, is as
likely to fail as to succeed. And when it does, a listener's incorrect inferences
about a speaker's intent often create inter- personal conflict.

Solution: Ask the question “what else could this mean?”

Unfulfilled expectations

Many of the causes listed above contribute to one person not fulfilling the
expectations of another. Unfulfilled expectations are the ultimate cause of
divorce, firings, and other forms of relational breakdown. The major reason that
expectations go unfulfilled is that they are unreasonable, inappropriate, too
numerous, or unstated.

Solution: Use active listening and questioning techniques to set and clarify
expectations.

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Conflict’s Positive and Negative Aspects
Though many of us tend to view conflict as a negative occurrence, it has both positive and
negative aspects, which arise both during and as a result of interactions between conflicting
individuals or groups.

The Positive Aspects of Conflict

In Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate and Settlement, Dean Pruitt and Jeffrey Rubin identify
five positive or beneficial aspects of conflict.

 Conflict contributes to social change ensuring both interpersonal and intergroup

dynamics remain fresh and reflective of current interests and realities
 Conflict serves to “discourage premature group decision making,” forcing participants in
the decision making process to explore the issues and interests at stake
 Conflict allows for the reconciliation of the parties’ concerns, which can lead to an
agreement benefiting both parties’ needs, and often their relationship and organizations
 Conflict strengthens intragroup unity by providing an outlet for group members to discuss
and negotiate their interests within the group. Without intragroup conflict, the health of
the group typically declines
 Conflict between groups produces intra-group unity as the conflict provides the
opportunity for increased intra-group cooperation while working towards the group’s
common goal for the conflict’s outcome

The Negative Aspects of Conflict

Pruitt and Rubin also note that, despite most conflicts being resolved peacefully with positive
outcomes, conflict has definite negative and sometimes even severe consequences.

 Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them
with less time and resources for other activities. When conflict involves the use of “heavy
contentious tactics,” it can cause the individuals or groups involved in the conflict as well
as individuals or groups not involved in the conflict to divert time and resources away
from other needs
 Conflict can have both short term and long term effects on the physical and psychological
health of the individuals involved in or affected by the conflict. In worst case scenarios
the psychological consequences can include deep trauma and diminished coping
mechanisms
 Conflict can lead to “collective traumas,” which lead to “chosen trauma” and can be
transmitted to future generations in the form of resentment against one’s ancestors’
enemies. Chosen trauma gives rise to group identity and keeps the flame of conflict
burning

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Consequences of Conflict

Unmanaged conflict has the potential to cause several negative consequences in workplaces,
communities, and homes. Many times these costs are “hidden,” that is, they are not readily
apparent. At the same time, these costs are very detrimental to individuals, groups, and
organization

#1: Wasted time

#2: Opportunity cost of wasted time

#3: Lowered job motivation and productivity

#4: Lost performance due to conflict-related absenteeism

#5: Loss of investment in skilled employees

#6: Conflict-incited theft, sabotage, vandalism, & damage

#7: Restructuring around the problem

#8: Health costs

#9: Degraded decision quality

A lot of these conflicts are very subtle within an organization, yet still have the power to
negatively affect an organization’s bottom line.
CONFLICT CAN CAUSE . . .
~ Increased costs (time, money) devoted to dealing with the conflict
~ Wasted resources and energy spent dealing with the conflict
~ Decreased productivity
~ Lowered motivation
~ Decreased morale
~ Poor decision-making
~ Withdrawal and miscommunication or non-communication
~ Complaints and blaming
~ Backstabbing and gossip
~ Attitudes of distrust and hostility (that may influence all future interactions

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 ~ (Permanent) erosion to personal, work, and community relationships
~ Harm to others not directly involved in the conflict
~ Damaged emotional and psychological well-being of those involved in the conflict
~ Dissatisfaction and stress

Measures of Reducing Conflict in an

Organization
Conflict, like death and taxes, is inevitable. This is especially true in today's diverse
environments where people can have dramatically different values, communication styles, work
styles, and personality types. Fortunately, conflict does not have to negatively impact our lives.
In fact, many organizational conflicts can be prevented, or at least minimized, if we take 10
proactive steps.

1. Provide conflict resolution training. You can reduce the negative impact of conflict by
helping employees develop the skills they need to successfully resolve the conflicts that occur in
their lives. This gives people more confidence in their ability to resolve both personal and
professional conflict. It also makes people more effective at addressing minor conflicts as they
occur, instead of allowing them to become major distractions.

2. Provide communication skills training. By providing communication skills training,

employees can increase their ability to communicate effectively with a diverse range of
individuals, and manage the communication problems that are often at the heart of organizational
conflict.

3. Help staff develop positive work relationships. Give employees a chance to get to know
each other better, and to feel more comfortable with each other. This can be done by providing
opportunities for social interaction on a continuous basis, by giving assignments that put staff
into contact with people they don't normally interact with, and by providing cross-training
opportunities.

4. Implement team building activities. You can significantly improve team relationships and
performance through the team development process. Such activities provide an opportunity for
team members to get more comfortable with each other, to identify acceptable behaviors and
modes of interaction, and to determine how team problems and conflicts will be resolved.

5. Develop strong communication channels. You can improve communication within a team or
organization by strategically employing informational and problem-solving meetings, and by
utilizing a diverse range of organizational communication tools. Such tools include face-to-face
discussions, e-mail, texting, videoconferences, online meetings, bulletin boards (both physical
and electronic), voice mail and faxes.

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6. Create an environment that encourages participation. This can be done through formal
employee involvement programs such as self-directed work teams, and suggestion systems that
ask for employee input and reward people for their participation. This is especially important
because research has consistently shown that employee involvement programs have a positive
impact on both individual and organizational performance.

7. Provide conflict mediation training for leaders. No matter how hard you work at reducing
dysfunctional conflict (conflict that hinders performance and prevents you from achieving
organizational goals), sooner or later it is going to occur. Therefore, organizational leaders
should develop their conflict mediation skills so they can help employees resolve the conflicts
that will inevitably arise.

8. Provide third-party conflict mediation services. There will be times when a manager or
supervisor cannot mediate a conflict between employees. During these times, it helps if
employees feel they have an experienced, objective third-party where they can confidentially
address a conflict situation.

9. Make sure employees are clear about organizational goals and priorities. Generally
speaking, conflicts occur because of differences over facts, goals, methods or values. By
ensuring that employees (especially the members of a given work team) are on the same page
regarding objectives, priorities and plans, you will decrease the chances that dysfunctional
conflict will occur due to differences over facts, goals or methods.

10. Treat everyone fairly. This may seem obvious, but many managers are accused of
preferential treatment, and it is incumbent upon organizational leaders to make sure they are
behaving in an egalitarian fashion. Even the appearance of preferential behavior can create
conflict situations.

Employee Participation in Management

Participative (or participatory) management, otherwise known as employee involvement or
participative decision making, encourages the involvement of stakeholders at all levels of an
organization in the analysis of problems, development of strategies, and implementation of
solutions.

A process by which subordinate employees, either individually or collectively, become involved

in one or more aspects of organizational decision making within the enterprises in which they
work.

Workers’ participation in management is an essential ingredient of Industrial democracy. The

concept of workers’ participation in management is based on Human Relations approach to
Management which brought about a new set of values to labour and management. Traditionally
the concept of Workers’ Participation in Management (WPM) refers to participation of non-
managerial employees in the decision-making process of the organization. Workers’
participation is also known as ‘labour participation’ or ‘employee participation’ in management.
In Germany it is known as co-determination while in Yugoslavia it is known as self-
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management. The International Labour Organization has been encouraging member nations to
promote the scheme of Workers’ Participation in Management.

Workers’ participation in management implies mental and emotional involvement of workers in

the management of Enterprise. It is considered as a mechanism where workers have a say in the
decision-
The philosophy underlying workers’ participation stresses:

1. democratic participation in decision-making;

2. maximum employer-employee collaboration;
3. minimum state intervention;
4. realisation of a greater measure of social justice;
5. greater industrial efficiency; and
6. higher level of organisational health and effectiveness.

It has been varyingly understood and practised as a system of joint consultation in industry; as a
form of labour management cooperation; as a recognition of the principle of co-partnership, and
as an instrument of industrial democracy. Consequently, participation has assumed different
forms, varying from mere voluntary sharing of information by management with the workers to
formal participation by the latter in actual decision-making process of management.

Four processes influence participation. These processes create employee involvement as they are
pushed down to the lowest levels in an organization. The farther down these processes move, the
higher the level of involvement by employees. The four processes include:

1. Information sharing, which is concerned with keeping employees informed about the
economic status of the company.
2. Training, which involves raising the skill levels of employees and offering development
opportunities that allow them to apply new skills to make effective decisions regarding
the organization as a whole.
3. Employee decision making, which can take many forms, from determining work
schedules to deciding on budgets or processes.
4. Rewards, which should be tied to suggestions and ideas as well as performance.

Forms of Participation

Different forms of participation are discussed below:

Collective Bargaining: Collective bargaining results in collective agreements which lay

down certain rules and conditions of service in an establishment. Such agreements are
normally binding on the parties. Theoretically, collective bargaining is based on the
principle of balance of power, but, in actual practice, each party tries to outbid the other
and get maximum advantage by using, if necessary, threats and counterthreats like; strikes,
lockouts and other direct actions. Joint consultation, on the other hand, is a particular
technique which is intended to achieve a greater degree of harmony and cooperation by

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 emphasising matters of common interest. Workers prefer to use the instrument of
collective bargaining rather than ask for a share in management. Workers’ participation in
the U.S.A has been ensured almost exclusively by means of collective agreements and
their application and interpretation rather than by way of labour representation in
management.

Works Councils: These are exclusive bodies of employees, assigned with different
functions in the management of an enterprise. In West Germany, the works councils have
various decision-making functions. In some countries, their role is limited only to
receiving information about the enterprise. In Yugoslavia, these councils have wider
decision-making powers in an enterprise like; appointment, promotion, salary fixation and
also major investment decisions.

Joint Management Councils and Committees: Mainly these bodies are consultative and
advisory, with decision-making being left to the top management. This system of
participation is prevalent in many countries, including Britain and India. As they are
consultative and advisory, neither the managements nor the workers take them seriously.

Board Representation: The role of a worker representative in the board of directors is

essentially one of negotiating the worker’s interest with the other members of the board.
At times, this may result in tension and friction inside the board room. The effectiveness of
workers’ representative at the board depend upon his ability to participate in decision-
making, his knowledge of the company affairs, his educational background, his level of
understanding and also on the number of worker representatives in the Board.

Workers Ownership of Enterprise: Social self-management in Yugoslavia is an example

of complete control of management by workers through an elected board and workers
council. Even in such a system, there exist two distinct managerial and operative functions
with different sets of persons to perform them. Though workers have the option to
influence all the decisions taken at the top level, in actual practice, the board and the top
management team assume a fairly independent role in taking major policy decisions for
the enterprises, especially in economic matters.

Levels of Participation

Workers’ participation is possible at all levels of management; the only difference is that of degree and
nature of application. For instance, it may be vigorous at lower level and faint at top level. Broadly
speaking there is following five levels of participation:

1. Information participation: It ensures that employees are able to receive information and express their
views pertaining to the matters of general economic importance.

2. Consultative participation: Here works are consulted on the matters of employee welfare such as
work, safety and health. However, final decision always rests at the option of management and
employees’ views are only of advisory nature.

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3. Associative participation: It is extension of consultative participation as management here is under
moral obligation to accept and implement the unanimous decisions of employees.

4. Administrative participation: It ensure greater share of works in discharge of managerial functions.

Here, decision already taken by the management come to employees, preferably with alternatives for
administration and employees have to select the best from those for implementation.

5. Decisive participation: Highest level of participation where decisions are jointly taken on the matters
relation to production, welfare etc. is called decisive participation.

Pre-requisites for Effetive Participation

The pre-requisites for the success of any scheme of participative management are the following:

1. Firstly, there should be a strong, democratic and representative unionism for the success of
participative management.
2. Secondly, there should be mutually-agreed and clearly-formulated objectives for participation to
succeed.
3. Thirdly, there should be a feeling of participation at all levels.
4. Fourthly, there should be effective consultation of the workers by the management.
5. Fifthly, both the management and the workers must have full faith in the soundness of the
philosophy underlying the concept of labour participation.
6. Sixthly, till the participative structure is fully accepted by the parties, legislative support is
necessary to ensure that rights of each other are recognised and protected.
7. Seventhly, education and training make a significant contribution to the purposeful working of
participative management.
8. Lastly, forums of participation, areas of participation and guidelines for implementation of
decisions should be specific and there should be prompt follow-up action and feedback.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Participative Management
After having read lots of stuff about participative management and its implementation, lots of
questions arise in the mind. Is participative management really beneficial? What are the pros and
cons? What are the challenges involved in implementation?

Advantages of Participative Management

Undoubtedly participative approach to management increases the stake or ownership of

employees. But there is more to it. The following points makes clear the same.

 Increase in Productivity: An increased say in decision making means that there is a strong
feeling of association now. The employee now assumes responsibility and takes charges. There is

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 lesser new or delegation or supervision from the manager. Working hours may get stretched on
their own without any compulsion or force from the management. All this leads to increased
productivity.
 Job Satisfaction: In lots or organizations that employ participative management, most of the
employees are satisfied with their jobs and the level of satisfaction id very high. This is specially
when people see their suggestions and recommendations being implemented or put to practice.
Psychologically, this tells the individual employee that, ‘he too has a say in decision making and
that he too is an integral component of the organization and not a mere worker’.
 Motivation: Increased productivity and job satisfaction cannot exist unless there is a high level
of motivation in the employee. The vice versa also holds true! Decentralized decision making
means that everyone has a say and everyone is important.
 Improved Quality: Since the inputs or feedback comes from people who are part of the
processes at the lowest or execution level. This means that even the minutest details are taken
care of and reported. No flaw or loophole goes unreported. Quality control is thus begins and is
ensured at the lowest level.
 Reduced Costs: There is a lesser need of supervision and more emphasis is laid on widening of
skills, self management. This and quality control means that the costs are controlled
automatically.

Disadvantages of Participative Management

There is a flip side to everything; participative management stands no exception to it. Whereas
this style of leadership or decision making leads to better participation of all the employees, there
are undoubtedly some disadvantages too.

 Decision making slows down: Participative management stands for increased participation and
when there are many people involved in decision making, the process definitely slows down.
Inputs and feedback starts pouring from each side. It takes time to verify the accuracy of
measurements which means that decision making will be slowed down.
 Security Issue: The security issue in participative management also arises from the fact that
since early stages too many people are known to lots of facts and information. This information
may transform into critical information in the later stages. There is thus a greater apprehension of
information being leaked out.

The advantages seem to outnumber the disadvantages. This however is no assurance that one
should blindly adopt it for his/her organization. Organizations are different and therefore the
culture, the human resources. A deep understanding of both is required in order to ascertain a
decision making style and adopt the same.

EMERGING TRENDS IN HUMAN RELATIONS

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Impact of Global Trends:
 The use of technology will increase at a rapid pace,
 Work will be come more complex and interdependent,
 Work and thus people will be more mobile and global in orientation leading to increased
workforce migration,
 There is likely to be a growing mismatch between skills needed and talent available,
 There will be an increased need for demographic and cultural sensitivity,
 More work will be done by diverse work teams often at a distance from one another,
 Declining loyalty between organizations and employees,
 The traditional definition of family is undergoing transformation.

HR Managers today are focusing attention on the following-

 1. Policies- HR policies based on trust, openness, equity and consensus.

 2. Motivation- Create conditions in which people are willing to work with zeal, initiative and
enthusiasm; make people feel like winners.
 3. Relations- Fair treatment of people and prompt redress of grievances would pave the way for
healthy work-place relations.
 4. Change agent- Prepare workers to accept technological changes by clarifying doubts.
 5. Quality Consciousness- Commitment to quality in all aspects of personnel administration will
ensure success.

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