Module III: Measures of central tendency

Mean, Median and Mode, Weighted Average, Geometric

Mean, Harmonic Mean, Relative merits of Mean, Median
and Mode in a distribution, Mean of two or more means -
Measure of dispersion – range – quartiles- standard
deviation - Coefficient of variation Skewness – Kurtosis.
Introduction to Averages in Statistics
• One key objective of statistical analysis is to determine numerical
measures that describe the characteristics of a frequency
distribution.
• The first and most important of these measures is the average.
What is an Average?
• An average condenses a large set of numerical data into a single
value that represents the entire distribution.
• This value provides a summary or "bird’s eye view" of the data.
• As Prof. R.A. Fisher noted, averages help us grasp large datasets by
simplifying them into a few key constants.
Definitions of Average
• A.L. Bowley: "Averages are statistical constants that help us
understand the significance of the whole."
• A.E. Waugh: "An average is a single value chosen to represent a
group of values."
• Croxton and Cowden: "An average is within the range of data and
represents all values."
• Lawrence J. Kaplan: "Averages are summary figures that
represent the central location of data."
Requisites of a Good Average

• According to Prof. Yule, an ideal average should:

1.Be Rigidly Defined: Clear and unambiguous, leading to only one
interpretation.
2.Be Easy to Understand and Calculate: Simple enough for non-experts to
compute.
3.Use All Observations: Based on the entire dataset to avoid loss of
information.
4.Be Suitable for Further Mathematical Treatment: Should possess
mathematical properties that allow for further analysis.
5.Have Sampling Stability: Should not vary much across different samples.
6.Not Be Affected by Extreme Values: Should remain stable even with very
large or small values.
Common Measures of Central Tendency
• The five most common measures of central tendency are:
1.Arithmetic Mean (Mean)
2.Median
3.Mode
4.Geometric Mean
5.Harmonic Mean
Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic Mean
• The Arithmetic Mean of a set of observations is simply the sum of
all the observations divided by the number of observations.
• Example: For the numbers 5, 8, 10, 15, 24, and 28:
• General Formula

• For Frequency Distributions:

When dealing with frequency distributions, where each observation
X has a corresponding frequency f:
Illustration 1
• The intelligence quotients (IQ’s) of 10 boys in a class are given
below
Solution
• Mean I.Q. of the 10 boys is given by
Illustration 2
Solution
Illustration 3
Solution
 Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean
• Merits:
1.Rigidly Defined: The arithmetic mean is clearly and unambiguously
defined.
2.Easy to Calculate and Understand: It is straightforward to compute
and comprehend.
3.Based on All Observations: The mean takes all data points into
account, making it comprehensive.
4.Suitable for Further Mathematical Treatment: The arithmetic mean
can be easily used in further calculations and has important
mathematical properties.
5.Stable Average: Among all averages, the arithmetic mean is least
affected by sampling fluctuations, making it a reliable measure.
 Demerits
1. Sensitive to Extreme Values: The arithmetic mean can be heavily influenced by outliers, leading to
misleading results. For example, including very high salaries in a dataset of workers' wages can distort the
average, giving a false impression of overall wages.
2. Not Suitable for Open-End Classes: The arithmetic mean cannot be accurately calculated for
distributions with open-end classes (e.g., "less than 10" or "more than 70") unless additional information is
provided.
3. Cannot be Determined by Inspection or Graphically: Unlike other measures, the arithmetic mean
cannot be easily identified by simply looking at the data or through graphical methods.
4. Not Applicable to Qualitative Data: It is not suitable for qualitative characteristics such as intelligence,
honesty, or beauty, which cannot be measured numerically.
5. Inapplicable with Missing Data: If any data point is missing, the arithmetic mean cannot be accurately
calculated unless the missing value is excluded or estimated.
6. Not Representative in Skewed Distributions: In highly skewed distributions, the arithmetic mean may
not accurately represent the central tendency, making it less useful.
7. Misleading Without Context: The arithmetic mean can lead to incorrect conclusions if the underlying
data details are not available, especially in non-homogeneous series. As H. Secrist noted, in such cases, the
mean has "little to recommend" despite its simplicity.
Illustration 4
• An investor buys Rs. 1,200 worth of shares in a company each
month. During the first 5 months he bought the shares at a price of
Rs. 10, Rs. 12, Rs. 15, Rs. 20 and Rs. 24 per share. After 5 months
what is the average price paid for the shares by him ?
Solution
Illustration 5
Solution
Illustration 6
Solution
Illustration 7
Illustration 8
Solution
Weighted Arithmetic Mean:
1.Purpose: Used when different items in a distribution have varying
levels of importance.
2.Importance: Items are assigned weights based on their
significance.
3.Formula:
• Frequency Distribution:

Application Example:
• Used to calculate the cost of living, where essential items (e.g., food,
housing) are weighted more heavily than non-essential items (e.g.,
cosmetics).
Illustration 9
Illustration 10
Median
Median
• Definition:
• The median is the value that divides a dataset into two equal
halves, where 50% of the data points are above it and 50% are
below it.
• Unlike the arithmetic mean, the median is a positional measure,
meaning it depends on the position of values in the ordered
dataset.
 Calculation
1. Ungrouped Data:
• Odd Number of Observations:
• The median is the middle value after arranging the data in ascending or descending order.

• Even Number of Observations:

• The median is the arithmetic mean of the two middle values.

2. Frequency Distribution:
Steps:
Illustration 11
 Merits of Median
1.Rigidly Defined: The median is clearly defined as the middle value in an ordered data set,
which gives it a precise and unambiguous interpretation.
2.Simplicity: It is easy to understand and calculate, making it accessible to non-mathematical
individuals. Even those with limited statistical knowledge can grasp the concept of the median.
3.Resilience to Outliers: Since the median is a positional average, it is not influenced by extreme
values (outliers). This makes it especially useful for skewed distributions, such as income or
wealth distributions, where extreme values might distort the mean.
4.Inspection and Graphical Computation: Sometimes, the median can be identified through
simple inspection or determined graphically, such as by using an ogive curve.
5.Qualitative Data: The median is the only average that can be applied to qualitative data, where
characteristics like intelligence, beauty, or honesty can be ordered but not quantitatively
measured.
Demerits of Median:
1.Approximation in Even Number of Observations: For ungrouped data with an
even number of observations, the median cannot be determined exactly. Instead, it is
estimated as the arithmetic mean of the two middle values, which may not precisely
reflect the central tendency.
2.Lack of Consideration for All Data Points: The median is a positional measure and
does not take into account the exact values of all data points. It only considers
whether observations are larger or smaller than the median, making it insensitive to
the magnitude of individual data points. For example, changing values that are below
or above the median does not affect the median itself.
3.Limited Mathematical Use: The median is not suitable for further mathematical
analysis. For instance, if you have the median values of different groups, you cannot
simply combine them to determine the median of the overall group.
4.Instability in Small Samples: The median is less stable than the mean, particularly
in small samples. It is more susceptible to fluctuations in sampling, which can make
it less reliable as a measure of central tendency in such cases
Illustration 12
Illustration 13
Solution
Grouped Data
• Grouped data refers to data that has been organized into groups
known as "classes" or "intervals."
• Instead of listing every individual data point, the data points are
grouped into ranges or intervals, and the number of data points
(frequency) within each interval is recorded.
• Suppose you have data on the weights of 50 apples, but instead of
listing each weight individually, you group them into intervals:
• Weight (in grams): 400–409, 410–419, 420–429, 430–439, 440–
449
• Number of Apples (Frequency): 5, 12, 15, 10, 8
Median from Grouped Data
Example

Find median.
Illustration 14
Solution
Illustration 15
Mode
Mode

• Mode is a statistical measure that identifies the most frequently

occurring value in a data set.
• Unlike the mean and median, which are central tendency
measures that provide a summary of the entire data set, the mode
specifically highlights the value that appears most often.
Definition:
• The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set.
• It is often referred to as the "most common" or "fashionable" value.
❖Unimodal, Bimodal, and Multimodal Distributions:
• Unimodal: A distribution with one mode (one value that occurs
most frequently).
• Bimodal: A distribution with two modes.
• Multimodal: A distribution with more than two modes.

❖Example of Mode in Everyday Life:

• The most common shoe size sold in a store.
• The most common height among a group of people.
Finding the Mode in a Frequency
Distribution
• Discrete Frequency Distribution:
To find the mode in a simple frequency distribution (like in a list of
numbers), identify the value with the highest frequency.
• Example: Suppose you have the following data:
(X): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Frequency (f): 3, 1, 18, 25, 40
Here, the value 5 has the highest frequency (40), so the mode is 5.
• Continuous Frequency Distribution:
• In continuous data, you use the modal class, which is the class
interval with the highest frequency.
• The formula to find the mode in a continuous frequency
distribution is:
Example of Calculating Mode in a Continuous
Distribution
Illustration 16
Illustration 17
Geometric mean
Geometric mean
• The geometric mean is a type of average that is especially useful
in certain situations, particularly when dealing with data sets that
involve rates of change, ratios, or percentages
Example:1) If an investment grows by 10% in the first year and
20% in the second year, the geometric mean will give you the
average annual growth rate over those two years.
2)If the price-to-earnings ratios of a stock over three years are 12,
15, and 18, the geometric mean will give you a better sense of the
central tendency than the arithmetic mean.
 Formula
• If we have two observations,
then their G.M. will be the
square root of their product.
• If we have three observations,
then their G.M. will be the cube
root of their product. And so on
Illustration 18
Illustration 19
Calculate the geometric mean of the annual percentage
growth rate of profits in business corporate from the year
2010 to 2015 is given below
50, 72, 54, 82, 93
Calculate Geometric mean.
Solution
Illustration 20
• The population in a city increased at the rate of 15% and 25% for
two successive years. In the next year it decreased at the rate of
5%. Find the average rate of growth
Solution
Work 1

Calculate Arithmetic mean

Work 2
• Prices of three commodities viz., A, B & C rised by 40 %, 60% and
90 % respectively. Commodity A is six times more important than
C, and B is three times more important than C. Calculate the mean
rise in price of these three commodities by using Weighted
Arithmetic mean?
Work 3
Find the
Geometric mean
of following data
Harmonic Mean
Harmonic Mean
• The Harmonic Mean (H.M.) is a measure of central tendency
that gives greater weight to smaller values in a dataset, making
it particularly useful in situations where smaller observations
need more emphasis.
• Harmonic means are used in various contexts, particularly when
dealing with rates, ratios, and situations where the average of
rates is more meaningful
• Example- when calculating the average price-earnings (P/E)
ratio of multiple companies, the harmonic mean is often used
because it accurately reflects the collective P/E ratio of the
group.
Illustration 21
• Find the harmonic mean of the following data {8, 9, 6, 11, 10, 5}?
Illustration 22
• A cyclist pedals from his house to his college at a speed of 10 km. p.h.
and back from the college to his house at 15 km. p.h. Find the average
speed using HM.
Solution
Illustration 23
• In a certain office, a letter is typed by A in 4 minutes. The same
letter is typed by B, C and D in 5, 6, 10 minutes respectively. What
is the average time taken in completing one letter ?
Solution
Illustration 24
• An investor buys Rs. 1,200 worth of shares in a company each
month. During the first 5 months he bought the shares at a price of
Rs. 10, Rs. 12, Rs. 15, Rs. 20, and Rs. 24 per share. After 5 months
what is the average price paid for the shares by him ?
Choice of a Suitable Average:
• 1) The Purpose:
• Arithmetic Mean: If the goal is to give all items equal importance, the
arithmetic mean is suitable. It’s often used in general data analysis, such as
finding average marks or prices.
• Mode: If you need to find the most common or typical value in a dataset, the
mode is ideal, such as identifying the most common shoe size in a store.
• Median: When determining the middle position of data, especially in a
skewed distribution, the median is best. It's often used for income or wealth
distribution.
• Geometric Mean: If smaller items are to be given slightly more importance,
the geometric mean is appropriate, such as calculating growth rates over
time.
• Harmonic Mean: When smaller values need significantly greater weight, as
in rates like speed or efficiency, the harmonic mean is used.
2) Nature and the Form of the Data Set:
• Skewed Distributions: If the data is skewed (lopsided), the mode or median is
preferred over the mean because the mean can be distorted by extreme values.
• Open-Ended Distributions: For data that doesn’t have clear boundaries, such as
income above a certain amount, mode or median is preferable.
• Symmetrical Data: For evenly spread data with little variation, the arithmetic
mean is a good choice.
• J-Shaped Distributions: In highly skewed distributions, like income distribution, the
median is a more representative average.
• Ratios and Percentages: For averaging ratios or percentages (like growth rates or
stock returns), the geometric mean is ideal.
• Rates with Constant Denominators: For cases where the numerator varies (e.g.,
speed with constant distance), the harmonic mean is best.
3) Amenability to Further Algebraic Treatment:
• If the data will be subject to further mathematical analysis or statistical calculations,
the arithmetic mean is often the best option because it integrates well into other
mathematical operations.
4) Qualitative Phenomena:
• When dealing with qualitative data (such as ranking or attributes
like beauty, honesty, or intelligence), the median is more suitable
as it represents the central tendency without needing precise
numerical values.
5) Special Purpose:
• For time-series data (data collected over time), the moving
average helps smooth out short-term fluctuations and highlight
longer-term trends.
EMPIRICAL RELATION BETWEEN MEAN
(M), MEDIAN (Md) AND MODE (Mo)
• In case of a symmetrical distribution mean, median and mode
coincide i.e., Mean = Median = Mode
• However, for a moderately asymmetrical (non-symmetrical or
skewed) distribution, mean and mode usually lie on the two ends
and median lies in between them and they obey the following
important empirical relationship, given by Prof. Karl Pearson.
MEASURES OF
DISPERSION
Batsman A :
• Match 1: 10 runs
• Match 2: 90 runs
• Match 3: 20 runs
The average score for Batsman A is:
Batsman B :
• Match 1: 35 runs
• Match 2: 45 runs
• Match 3: 40 runs
The average score for Batsman B is also
Batsman A has the same average score as Batsman B, but their performance
is unpredictable with a high spread between the scores.Batsman B is more
reliable and consistent, with scores tightly clustered around the average.
Introduction and Meaning
• The concept of measures of dispersion helps in understanding how
data points spread or scatter around a central value (like the mean).
• While measures of central tendency give us a sense of the center of the
data, measures of dispersion tell us how far the values are from that
center.
• Different distributions can have the same mean but vary greatly in how
spread out their values are.
• For example, the data sets A, B, and C that all have a mean of 15 show
different patterns of how their values are scattered.
• Dispersion describes the spread of values around the central value,
giving a more complete picture of the data.
Definitions of Dispersion
• Different statisticians define dispersion slightly differently, but the
general idea is the same: it's about the extent to which values
differ or vary from one another or from a central value.
• A.L. Bowley: "Dispersion is the measure of the variation of the
items."
• L.R. Connor: "Dispersion is a measure of the extent to which the
individual items vary."
• B.C. Brooks : Dispersion refers to the scatter or variation of
variables around a central value.
Objectives or Significance of Measures
of Dispersion
Dispersion is studied for several important reasons:
1.To determine the reliability of an average: When dispersion is small,
the average is more representative of the data. If it's large, the average
may not be reliable.
2.To control variation: In industries, dispersion is used to monitor
quality, like using the "3-sigma" rule in manufacturing.
3.To compare variability between different sets of data: By
comparing measures of dispersion, we can see which data set is more
consistent or scattered.
4.To help with further statistical analysis: Dispersion is crucial for
more complex methods like correlation, regression, and hypothesis
testing.
Characteristics of an Ideal Measure of
Dispersion
• An ideal measure of dispersion should:
1.Be rigidly defined.
2.Be easy to calculate and understand.
3.Be based on all observations.
4.Be amenable to further mathematical treatment.
5.Be affected as little as possible by sampling fluctuations.
6.Not be affected much by extreme values.
Common Measures of Dispersion
1.Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.
2.Quartile Deviation (or semi-interquartile range): Measures
spread around the middle 50% of the data.
3.Mean Deviation: The average of the absolute differences between
each data point and the mean.
4.Standard Deviation: The most commonly used measure, it gives
the average distance from the mean in squared terms.
5.Lorenz Curve: A graphical method of showing variability, often
used in economics to represent income inequality.
Range
Range
• The range is the simplest way to measure how spread out a set of
data is. It is found by subtracting the smallest number (minimum)
from the largest number (maximum) in the dataset. The formula
is:
• Absolute vs. Relative Range: The simple range is an absolute
measure, but if you want to compare datasets in different units
(like meters and inches), use the coefficient of range, which is
calculated as:
Merits of Range:
• Easy to understand and calculate.
• Useful for quick insights, like daily temperature ranges.
Demerits:
• It only considers the two extreme values and ignores the rest of
the data.
• Very sensitive to changes in the largest or smallest values.
• Not reliable for comparing datasets that have lots of variation
between data points.
Illustration 25
Solution
Illustration 26
Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) or
Semi Inter-Quartile Range
Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) or Semi Inter-
Quartile Range
• Quartile Deviation is a measure of dispersion that focuses on the
spread of the middle 50% of the data. It is based on two quartiles:
• Q1 (lower quartile): The value below which 25% of the
observations fall.
• Q3 (upper quartile): The value below which 75% of the
observations fall.
• Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)
The Inter-Quartile Range (IQR) is the difference between the upper
quartile (Q3) and the lower quartile (Q1):

• Quartile Deviation (Q.D.)

The Quartile Deviation (also known as the Semi Inter-Quartile
Range) is obtained by dividing the IQR by 2:

This is an absolute measure of dispersion because it represents

the spread of the data in the original units.
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
• For comparative studies of variability between different datasets,
the Coefficient of Quartile Deviation is used. It is a relative
measure and is calculated as:
Merits and Demerits of Quartile
Deviation
• Merits:
1.Easy to Understand and Calculate: Simple to compute from datasets.
2.Not Affected by Extreme Values: Since it focuses on the middle 50% of the
data, it ignores outliers.
3.Useful for Open-Ended Distributions: The only measure of dispersion that
can be calculated for distributions with open-ended classes.
• Demerits:
1.Ignores 50% of Data: Since it only considers the middle 50%, it may not
reflect the entire data's variability.
2.Sampling Fluctuations: It can be affected by fluctuations in samples.
3.Not Suitable for Further Mathematical Treatment: Unlike other measures
of dispersion, it cannot be easily used in further statistical calculations.
Illustration 27
Example
• Calculate the quartile Deviation and its coefficient of the following
data
• 24,32,46,48,39,42,28,25,26,24,38
Example
The number of vehicles sold by a major Toyota Showroom in a day
was recorded for 10 working days. The data is given as –
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Num 20 15 18 5 10 17 21 19 25 28

Find the Quartile Deviation and its coefficient

Solution
• Sorted Data – 5, 10, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 28
n(number of data points) = 10
Mean Deviation (or
Average Deviation)
Mean Deviation
• Mean Deviation (or Average
Deviation) is a measure of
dispersion that accounts for
the scatter or spread of
observations from a central
tendency (like the mean or
median).
• It helps to understand how the
data points deviate from the
central value, providing a more
comprehensive picture than
range or quartile deviation,
which ignore the full
distribution of data.
 Relative Measures of Mean Deviation:
To compare mean
deviation across
different distributions,
the coefficient of mean
deviation is used. This
is a relative measure,
making it unit-
independent and
allowing for
comparisons between
datasets of different
scales.
Standard Deviation (SD)
Standard Deviation (SD)
• Definition:
Standard deviation is a widely used measure of dispersion that
quantifies the amount of variation or spread in a set of data. It
shows how much the individual data points differ from the mean
(average) of the dataset.
• It was first proposed by Karl Pearson in 1893.
• The formula for standard deviation is the positive square root of
the average of the squared deviations from the mean.
Individual series
Grouped series
Relative measure- coefficient of variation
Variance and Standard deviation
Illustration 28
• Find the variance and standard deviation for the following data:
57, 64, 43, 67, 49, 59, 44, 47, 61, 59
Ans: Variance – 66.2, SD- 8.13
Other formulas..
• (Note that both formulas look
almost similar except for the
denominator which is N in the
case of the population SD but n-
1 in the case of the sample SD.
While calculating the sample
mean, all the data values in the
population are not considered
so the sample mean just is an
estimate of the population
mean, but this introduces some
uncertainty or bias in our
calculation of standard
deviation. To adjust this, the
denominator of the sample
standard deviation is corrected
to be n-1 instead of just n. This
is known as Bessel's correction.)
• Assumed Mean Method Direct Method
• This method is applied to • The relevance of this
calculate the standard method is particularly
deviation when the mean useful when the items
of the data is in fraction. are very small.
• Step Deviation Method
Example
• Calculate Standard deviation and coefficient of variation
Illustration 28
Illustration 29
• Calculate standard deviation Variance and coefficient of variation
Illustration 30

• Calculate Standard Deviation variance coefficient of variation.

Illustration 31
• Calculate Standard Deviation, variance, coefficient of variation.
(☓) (F)

3 7

8 10

13 15

18 10

23 6
Illustration 32
Skewness, Moments, and
Kurtosis
1. Skewness:
• Skewness measures the asymmetry of a frequency distribution. It
helps us understand whether the data leans more towards higher
or lower values.
• Literal meaning of skewness is ‘lack of symmetry’.
• It helps us to determine the nature and extent of the concentration
of the observations towards the higher or lower values of the
variable.
• Symmetrical Distribution: In a perfectly
symmetrical distribution, the left and right sides
of the histogram are mirror images, and the mean,
median, and mode are equal (M = Md = Mo).
Characteristics:
Mean = Median = Mode.
• The distribution has no skew; the left and right
tails are of equal length.
• Graph: A bell-shaped curve (like the normal
distribution).
• Positive Skewness: If the tail of the
distribution extends more to the
right (towards higher values), it is
positively skewed.
Characteristics:
Mean > Median > Mode.
• The long tail is on the right side,
showing a concentration of data on
the lower end with extreme high
values pulling the average upwards.
• Graph: The peak of the distribution
is to the left, with a tail extending to
the right.
• Negative Skewness: If the tail extends more to
the left (towards lower values), the distribution
is negatively skewed.
• Example: Ages of retirement in a community
where most people retire around 60-65, but
some retire earlier at 40 or 50.
• Characteristics:
• Mode > Median > Mean.
• The long tail is on the left side, showing a
concentration of data on the higher end with a
few extreme low values pulling the average
downwards.
• Graph: The peak of the distribution is to the
right, with a tail extending to the left.
Measures of Skewness.

(These are the absolute measures of skewness and are not of much
practical utility)
Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness
Formulas
Illustration 32
Illustration 33
• Calculate Karl – Pearson’ s coefficient of skewness for the
following data. 25, 15, 23, 40, 27, 25, 23, 25, 20
Kurtosis
Kurtosis
• Kurtosis is a statistical measure used to describe the shape of a
distribution's probability curve, focusing on the peakedness or
flatness of the distribution compared to a normal distribution.
• While measures like central tendency, dispersion, and skewness
provide insights into the center, spread, and asymmetry of the
data, kurtosis is specifically concerned with how the data's
variability is concentrated in the tails or around the mean.
 Types of Kurtosis
Kurtosis helps to categorize the distribution into three types based on the nature
of the hump (middle part) of the curve:
1.Meso-kurtic (Normal Kurtosis):
• The normal distribution has a kurtosis that serves
as the standard or reference point.
• These curves are neither too peaked nor too flat,
hence they are considered to have "normal"
kurtosis.
• β₂ = 3 and γ₂ = 0 for meso-kurtic distributions,
where β₂ is the measure of kurtosis and γ₂ is the
excess kurtosis.
• Example: A normal bell-shaped curve.
2. Lepto-kurtic (High Kurtosis):
• These curves are more peaked than the normal curve, with a
sharp rise near the mean and longer, fatter tails.
• A distribution that is lepto-kurtic indicates many outliers in the
data (values far from the mean).
• β₂ > 3 and γ₂ > 0 for lepto-kurtic distributions.
• Example: The curve looks like a tall, thin peak, similar to a
kangaroo’s leap.
3. Platy-kurtic (Low Kurtosis):
• These curves are flatter than the normal curve, with a broad, flat
peak and shorter, thinner tails.
• A platy-kurtic distribution indicates fewer outliers or extreme
values.
• β₂ < 3 and γ₂ < 0 for platy-kurtic distributions.
• Example: The curve resembles a flat, wide hump, similar to the
shape of a platypus, as humorously noted by the statistician W.S.
Gosset.
 Moments in Statistics
• A moment in statistics is a measure used to understand the shape,
spread, and characteristics of a probability distribution or dataset.
• Moments help describe different properties of the distribution,
such as its central location, spread, skewness, and peakedness.
Formulas

OR
Illustration 34
• Calculate kurtosis and interpret the result.
Illustration 35
• Calculate kurtosis and interpret the result.
 University Questions
• Measures of dispersion

• Make a comparative study between different measures of central tendency

• General rules of forming frequency distribution

• Define central tendency and dispersion. Explain the different measures of central tendency and dispersion

• Geometric mean versus harmonic mean

• Standard deviation versus variance

• Median versus mode

• Define the following. 1) standard error 2) measures of central tendency

• Binomial distribution

• Coefficent of determination

• What is normal distribution? Compare it with binomial and poison distribution?

• Skewness and kurtosis

• Features of normal distribution

• What are the different measures of dispersion

• What is coeffient od dispersion? What purpose does it serve?

• Quartiles

• Kurtosis

• Coefficent of variation