PERSONAL GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
BY
MUCH
 Unit Learning Outcomes
• Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1.Define the terms ‘growth’ and ‘development’

2.Outline the factors that affect growth and development

3.Explain current theories of growth and development

4.Describe the stages of the human life cycle

 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Growth refers to the quantitative changes that result
in increased body dimensions such as height and
weight.
• As a result of growth, the size and structure of internal
organs including the brain increase. This implies that
as a child, we grow mentally as well as physically.
• As a result of mental growth, a child has the capacity
to learn, remember and reason.
 CONT………………..

• Growth starts to slow down from the age of 20 years.

During growth, the following occurs:
➢There are physical changes and an increase in size which
can be measured quantitatively

➢There are changes in indicators of growth such as

weight, bone size, and dentition.
CONT…………

➢Growth rates vary during different stages of growth and

development.
➢Growth rate is rapid during the prenatal, neonatal,
infancy and adolescent stages and slows during
childhood. Physical growth is minimal during
adulthood.
CONT……….
• Growth is therefore, said to have taken place when there are
noticeable physical changes, for example, height or weight. This is
referred to as quantitative measurement.

• Growth can also be measured in terms of its speed and this is

known as the rate of growth.

• The rate of growth can be noted during pregnancy, for example,

when pregnant women attend their appointed prenatal check-ups.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Development is the sequence of changes that
occur during our entire life. This is a general term
indicating physical, mental and social changes.
• It is regulated by the relationship between
hereditary traits (inherited factors) and
environmental factors.
CONT……………

• Development can also be defined as a

progressive sequence of orderly coherent
changes. This suggests that there is a
relationship between any given developmental
stage and subsequent stages.
 CONT………..

•There are three main principles of

development. These are:
a. It is sequential
b. It is irreversible
c. The change is progressive
Three main principles of development.
CONT…………
a) Sequential ;Human development happens in a sequence, with
progression from one stage to the next. For example, motor development
in children usually takes place as follows:

• At 2 months, a baby can raise their head.

• At 4 to 7 months, a baby shows improvement in hand and eye

coordination.

• At 7 months, a baby can sit up and stand up while holding on to a

chair.
 CONT……………..…
❑You can see that the sequential development
started first with movement of the head, then
progressed to the baby’s ability to coordinate their
hand eye movement and finally the baby’s ability
to sit and stand up with the help of a chair.
Three main principles of development.
CONT…………
b) Irreversible
•This means that development is
unidirectional and does not switch back and
forth.
•Under normal conditions we expect mental
and social developments to go hand in hand
with biological development.
Three main principles of development.
CONT…………
c) Progressive Change
•This means that development happens
gradually over time, building upon itself.
•For example, in cognitive (mental)
development the progress is from
sensory knowledge to abstract thinking.
• Factors Affecting Growth and Development
 Factors Affecting Growth and Development

• Genetics

• Environment

• Nutrition

• Hormones

• Exercise

• Sex

• Familial Influence

• Geographical Influence
1.Genetics
• This is a branch of biology that deals with the
study of genes and heredity. It seeks to
understand how specific qualities or traits are
transmitted from parent to child.
• Life begins as a single cell and later develops
into a human being made up of millions and
millions of cells. The nucleus of each cell contains
23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes).
 CONT……………
• Chromosomes contain the remarkable genetic
substance called DNA, which are complex
molecules that contain genetic information.
• Genes are the basic units of hereditary
information Every person has two genes for each
characteristic inherited from their parents.
• When genes combine to determine our
characteristics, some genes are dominant over
others.
CONT…………
•According to the dominant recessive
gene principle, if one gene in the pair is
dominant, the other one will be
recessive.
•A dominant gene exerts its effect while a
recessive gene exerts its influence only
if both genes of the pair are recessive.
 CONT…………….

• Parents pass on genes to their children that may

determine their height, rate of growth, skin colour, and
eye colour among other things.
• Some of the genetic and chromosomal factors that
affect growth and development are Down’s syndrome
and Sickle cell Anaemia.
 2. Environment

• The environment plays a critical role in the

development of children and it represents the
sum total of physical and psychological
stimulation the child receives.
• Some of the environmental factors that influence
early childhood development are the physical
surroundings and geographical conditions where
the child lives.
CONT…………….
• Also, the social environment and relationships with family and peers
influence childhood development.
• You will agree that a well-nurtured child does better than one who is
deprived.
• This is based on the influence of their environment. Also children who go
to good schools and have loving families tend to develop strong social and
interpersonal skills, which enable them to excel in other areas, such as,
academics and extracurricular activities.
 3 Nutrition

• Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as the food we eat provides

everything the body needs to build and repair itself.

• Malnutrition can cause diseases that adversely affect the growth and
development of children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to obesity
and health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart disease.

• A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates

and fats is essential for the development of the brain and body.
 4 .Hormones

• Hormones belong to the endocrine system and

influence the various functions of our bodies. They are
produced by different glands that are situated in specific
parts of the body to control many body functions.
• Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical
growth and development in children.
 CONT……………………

• Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting glands

can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems
and other diseases.
• During puberty, the gonads produce sex hormones which
control the development of the sex organs and the
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and
girls.
 5 Exercise
• Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sports activities which help
the body increase in muscular strength and gain bone mass.
• Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones on time or
sooner.
• Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening
their immune system, especially if they play outside. This is because
outdoor play exposes them to microbes that help them build resistance
and prevent allergies.
 6 .Sex
• The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development
of a child.

• Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially closer to puberty. Boys tend to be taller
and physically stronger than girls.

• However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence, while boys mature over a longer
period of time.

• The physical structure of their bodies also has differences, which make boys more athletic
and suited for activities that require physical rigour. Their temperaments also vary, making
them show interest in different things.
 7 .Familial Influence

• Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and

determining the ways in which they develop psychologically and
socially.
• Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents or foster
care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as
healthy functional individuals.
• The most positive growth is seen when families invest time,
energy and love in the development of the child through
activities, such as reading to them, playing with them and
having deep meaningful conversations.
 CONT……………
• Families that abuse or neglect children affect their positive
development. These children may end up as individuals who have
poor social skills and difficulty bonding with other people as adults.

• Helicopter parenting (that is, parents who pay excessive attention to

their children) also has negative effects as it makes the children too
dependent on their parents even as young adults and unable to deal
with difficulties in life on their own.
 8 .Geographical Influence

• Where you live also has a great influence on the growth

and development of children.
• The schools one attends, the neighbourhood where
one lives, the opportunities offered by the community
and peer circles are some of the social factors that
affect a child’s development.
• Living in an enriching community that has parks,
libraries and community centres for group activities and
sports plays a role in developing the child’s skills,
talents, and behaviour.
 CONT………

• Uninteresting communities can push some children to

avoid outdoor activities and play video games at home
instead.

• Even weather influences children in the form of bodily

rhythms, allergies and other health conditions.
• Current Theories of Growth and Development
 Current Theories of Growth and Development

• Theories are broad explanations and predictions concerning

phenomena of interest.

• They provide a framework for understanding the relationships among

a set of unorganised facts or principles (Feldman, 1996).

• Theories do not only address the main developmental stages in a

specific lifecycle but also reflect the relationship between
development and growth.
CONT…….

❑The common theories of human growth and development.

These are:

• Cognitive development by Jean Piaget.

• Psychosexual stages of development by Sigmund Freud

• Psychosocial stages development by Erik Erikson

1.Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory
• Cognitive development means how children think,
explore and figure things out.
• It is the development of knowledge, skills, problem
solving and dispositions, which help children to think
about and understand the world around them.
• Brain development is part of cognitive development.
• Jean Piaget was a famous Swiss developmental
psychologist who proposed the cognitive theory of
development.
CONT…………

• He believed that human beings went through

four stages in their attempt to understand
the world.
• These stages range from infancy to
adulthood. According to Piaget, each stage
is age-related and consists of distinct ways
of thinking and doing things.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION
a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs. Sensory organs & muscles become more functional

Stage 1: Use of reflexes Birth to 1 month Movements are primarily reflexive

Stage 2: Primary circular 1-4 months Perceptions centre on one’s body. Objects are perceived as

reaction extensions of the self.

Stage 3: Secondary circular 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment. Initiates acts to
reaction change the movement.
Stage 4: Coordination of 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
secondary schemata
Stage 5: Tertiary circular 12-18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals. Develops rituals that
reaction become significant.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development….
Stage 6: Invention of new 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the environment.Uses
means fantasy.

b. Preoperational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think

Pre-conceptual stage
2-4 year Thinking tends to be egocentric. Exhibits use of
symbolism.
Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts. Able
to classify objects according to one trait.

c. Concrete Operational 7-11 years Learns to reason about events in the here-and-now.

d. Formal Operational 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.
a. Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years)

• This stage is characterised by the use of sensory

experiences and motor skills.
• The baby learns how to fling arms towards the crib, turns
towards the breast and grasps objects close to it.
• After a few months, a child develops increasing control
over their movements.
• A child usually has no awareness of objects or people who
are not immediately visible to them.
a. Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years)…………

• This phenomenon is known as a lack of object permanence,

that is, the awareness that objects and people continue to exist
even if they are out of sight. For example, if a child is playing
with a toy, then you hide it, they will not bother to look for it.
• At this stage, children develop some degree of perception
using their senses in combination with their motor skills. This
improves their ability to understand people and basic objects.
 b. Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)

• This stage is characterised by language

development. Children at this stage are able to
describe people, events and feelings.
• When a child is playing, they may use symbols, for
example, pretending that a stick is a gum.
• Children at this stage are also engrossed in
egocentric thought. This is a way of thinking in
which the child views the world entirely from their
own perspective.
b. Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)………………

• The child believes that everyone shares their perspective and

knowledge. Another example of egocentric thinking is seen in
how they play a game of hide and seek.
• They believe that the action of covering their eyes and hiding
their face during hide and seek prevents other people from
seeing them, not realising that their bodies are still in full view of
everyone else.
 c. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
• During this stage, the child becomes capable of
limited logical thought processes based on
concrete objects.
• For example, a 7-year-old child can sort objects
regardless of their colour. They are able to
internalise quantities such as volume, length,
weight through the application of principles such
as reversibility.
c. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)…..
• They become aware of the fact that certain aspects of objects
remain the same despite changes in appearance (conservation).
They can focus on multiple aspects of a situation at the same time
(occasion).

• They can deduce how relationships form. They can order other
things in sequence (series) and can group objects on the basis of
common features (classification).
d. Formal Operational Stage (above 12 years)

• During this stage, a child can think in abstract terms.

The child can reason by hypothesis. The child thinks
about concepts such as, the future, career and
religion.
• As an adolescent, they start to experiment with a
number of things like alcohol, sex and other vices.
• Their personality is fully developed and the child
learns how to plan and solve problems systematically.
2 .Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual
Development Theory
• Freud believed that during the first five years of life, a child passes through
several psychosexual stages of development that affect their future
personality.
• Each of these stages focus on specific areas of the body which are
sensitive to stimulation.
• Freud called these areas erogenous (causing sexual excitement) zones.
• He believed that gratifying erogenous zones was necessary for emotional
well-being and lack of gratification would have negative effects on
behaviour and interfere with psychological development.
Stages in Freud’s psychosexual development theory

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Oral Birth to 1½ yrs. Centre of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification &
exploration)

Primary need: Security

Major conflict: weaning

2. Anal 1½ to 3 yrs. Centre of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction & self-
control)

Major conflict: toilet training

Stages in Freud’s psychosexual development theory

3. Phallic 4 to 6 yrs. Centre of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)

Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex

6 yrs. to puberty
4. Latency Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities

Sexual impulses repressed

Relationship between peers of same sex

5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function &
onwards development of skills to cope with the environment
 a).Oral Stage: 0 – 2 years
• During this stage, the mouth is thought to be the
erogenous zone. This is because the mouth is the
child’s primary way of interacting with their world.
• They obtain gratification through stimulation of the
mouth, by sucking, biting and eating. The object of
gratification is the mother’s nipples, child’s thumb and
fingers.
• Biting, sucking and eating are not only used during
feeding but also as a way of satisfying sexual
pleasure (libido).
a).Oral Stage: 0 – 2 years…………

• Children trust their caregiver and are completely dependent on them

for their feeding at this stage. Freud suggested that if infants were
over indulged (being fed every time) or frustrated in their search for
gratification, they might become fixed at this stage.
• Fixation refers to showing personality traits characteristic of an
earlier stage of development.
• For example, insufficiently gratified infants compensate by drinking,
smoking, eating a lot when they grow up and sucking their thumb.
Over gratified children may become over dependant
 b).Anal Stage: 2 – 3 years

• During this stage, the erogenous zone is the anus. The child
becomes aware of the other end of the alimentary canal (anus).
They find pleasure in emptying their bowels.
• The child derives pleasure from aggressively expelling faecal
matter (anal sadistic phase) and later from withholding faeces
(anal erotic phase). In doing so, a child learns how to control
biological functions.
b).Anal Stage: 2 – 3 years………

• Toilet training is done during this phase. Freud believed that

if parents are too strict during toilet training, the child would
become a perfectionist and would be obsessed with certain
practices like cleanliness, later in life.

• Harsh and strict toilet training may also cause the child to
be inhibited and fail to develop self-confidence.
 c).Phallic Stage: 4 – 7 years

• Phallic comes from a Greek word phallus which

means penis. Freud used the term penis to cater
for both sexes. During this stage, the erogenous
zone is the genitals. The child enjoys fondling
their private parts.
• During this stage, Freud believed that boys would
begin to develop sexual interest in their mother
and view their father as a rival. He called these
theory the Oedipus complex.
c).Phallic Stage: 4 – 7 years………….
• The similar phenomenon observed in girls where they develop feeling for their
father and view their mother as a rival is called the Electra complex. Freud
suggested that the child will unconsciously desire to replace the parent in the
family group and enjoy affection from the parent of the opposite sex.

• The Oedipus and Electra complexes should resolve at some point in life to have
a mentally healthy adult.

• Fixation at the phallic stage would lead to inadequate development of masculine

or feminine identity leading to possible homosexual behaviour, impotence and
frigidity.
 d).Latent Stage: 7 – 11 years

• During this stage, the child’s sexual urges are

dormant and they direct their energy towards
intellectual achievement, developing social skills and
coping with their expanding environment.
• Children try to identify people of their own sex until
they reach puberty.
 e).Genital Stage: 12 years and above

• During this stage, the libido is reawakened and the focus is the opposite
sex. Stories about sex are common during this stage.
• The reproductive system is active and sexual desires are experienced.
• How these desires are resolved is cardinal. Masturbation, watching
pornographic materials and reading romantic books is common.
• If this stage is not handled properly, it may result in sexual
perversion/homosexuality.
3. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Theory
• Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed
one of the most popular and influential theories of
development.
• While his theory was impacted by the work of
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centred on psychosocial development rather than
psychosexual development.
CONT…………
• Like Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a
series of stages.
• Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however,
Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience
across the human lifespan. Erikson was interested in the role of
social interaction and relationships in the development and
growth of human beings.
 cont……………

• There are two underlying principles in

Erikson’s developmental theory. These are:
• Conflict
• Mastery
 cont……………
a. Conflict ; Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding
stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In
each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development.

• In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on either developing or

failing to develop a psychological quality. During this period, the
potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.
Cont………….

• If people successfully deal with the conflict, they

emerge from this stage with psychological strengths that
will serve them well for the rest of their lives.
• If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they
may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong
sense of self.
 cont………….
b). Mastery ;Erikson also believed that a sense of competence
motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is
concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

• If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery,
which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the
stage is poorly managed, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of development.
Stages of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

❑ Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development happens in eight stages. These are:

• Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

• Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

• Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

• Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

• Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

• The first stage of development happens between birth and 1 year of age
and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent on their caregivers, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the caregivers.

• At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult

caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth,
safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love,
the child will stop trusting or depending on the adult in their life.
 Outcomes

• If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and
secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally
unavailable, or rejecting, contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children under their care. Failure to develop trust results in fear and
a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
• During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop
a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
cont……………
• No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between
the two opposing sides.

• When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an

openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be
present.

• Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

(1991) demonstrated the importance of trust in forming healthy attachments
during childhood and adulthood.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place

during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.

• The Role of Independence

• At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little

independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers help children to develop a
sense of autonomy.
 cont……………..
• Potty Training

• The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training
plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.

• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson
believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control
and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more
control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
 Outcomes

• Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of
psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in
feelings of shame and doubt.
• Finding Balance; Children who successfully complete this stage feel
secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance
between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the
belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

• The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the

preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children
begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.

• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to
lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
 Outcomes

• The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that

children need to begin asserting control and power over the
environment.
• Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to
exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
• When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work
with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

• The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school
years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
• Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.
 Outcomes

• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and

teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers doubt their ability to be successful.
• Finding a successfully a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence, in which
children develop a belief in their ability to handle the tasks set before
them.
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

• The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent

teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a
sense of personal identity which continues to influence behaviour
and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to
develop a sense of self and personal identity.

• Success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself, while failure leads

to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
 cont………….
• During adolescence, children explore their independence and
develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement
and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and
control.

• Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
 cont…………
• What Is Identity?

• When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. Completing this stage
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations.

• While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important,
he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a
central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
 cont……………
• According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and the information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder
the development of identity.

• Why Identity Is Important

• Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide
our actions, beliefs, and behaviours as we age.
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other

people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.

• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.
• Erikson believed that it was vital for people to develop close,
committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful
at this step form relationships that are enduring and secure.
 cont…………..
• Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps.
Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for
developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those
with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to struggle with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

• Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is

marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other
people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by
having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.

• During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career

and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they
are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.
 cont………………..
• Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
• Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled
successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching
your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important accomplishments of this
stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

• The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life. At this point in development, people look back at the events of their
lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret
the things they did or didn't do.

• Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development

throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back
on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
 cont…………….
• At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their
lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they
feel was well-lived become satisfied and ready to face
the end of their lives with a sense of peace.
• Those who look back and only feel regret tend to feel
fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the
things they feel they should have
Outcomes

• Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life
has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will
be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

• Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of

integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back
with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These
individuals attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
The Human Life Cycle
The Human Life Cycle
• Human development starts as early as conception. It is common
sense that growth and development begin following fertilisation.

• As pregnancy develops, the uterus increases in size and this

signifies growth. The growing foetus that could hardly move at the
beginning of the pregnancy starts to move and kick as it develops.

• Therefore, development consists of different levels according to the

growth of an individual in the life cycle.
List of six stages of the human life cycle in
chronological order.
• Intrauterine life

• Infancy

• Childhood

• Adolescence

• Adulthood

• Aging
1 Intrauterine Life (from conception to birth)

• The term intrauterine means inside the uterus. Intrauterine life

therefore means life within the uterus. This is the time when
most of the physical processes of growth occur. There is
significant development of the organs as well as the mobility of
the foetus.
• Let us now look at a timeline of intrauterine growth and
development:
• Week 4: The heart is already formed.
• Week 6: Ossification begins and the development of bones
takes place.
cont………
• Week 8: Nose, external ears, fingers and toes can be identified.

• Week 12: External ears show most of the features and nails are forming.

• Week 16: External genitalia can be identified.

• Week 20-24: Sucking reflex is present and respiratory movements

happen.

• Week 28: The foetus is viable (can live extra uterine, that is outside the
uterus).
 cont………………

• Week 32-36: The foetus develops more active movements

which can be sustained for longer periods. It also develops in
size and cries out when hungry.

• Week 36-40: The foetus has definite periods of being alert and
has a strong sucking reflex.

• Week 40: The baby is ready to survive an extra uterine life.

2. Infancy (From birth to 2/3 years)

• When a baby is properly and lovingly cared for,

they should proceed through a series of physical
and emotional milestones. For example,
recognition of their mother or primary caregiver,
smiling, reaching out, and sitting up.
• They can agree to be held by strangers until
about 6-12 months when they become discerning
about who can hold them. This anxiety builds
attachment and trust.
 cont……………
• The baby starts weaning and eating. By 12 months, the baby begins to talk
and walk. They are sociable and able to participate in activities in their
environment. They become more possessive of their toys and start
showing stubborn behaviour. They are not always interested in playing
with others.
➢ At three years they start to develop emotionally. This may present as
follows:
• They develop a temper and wants independence
• They can also be co-operative and pleasant company

• They try to please parents and elders

• They imitate other people’s behaviour
• They become more sociable and want to play with others
• They become adventurous and constructive
• They develop eating problems because they are too playful
• They adapt to toilet training
 3. Childhood (From infancy to puberty)

❑This stage is further divided into pre-school and school age.

• Pre-school age (3-5 years)

• At this stage, a child has improved their motor co-ordination and is still
social. They speak clearly and have developed a large vocabulary. As
they approach 5 years they becomes timid, fearful and reluctant to try new
things, fearing injury.
• Their sleep is often disturbed by night mares. They become very curious
and this is how they learn about their world.
 cont………

• At five years, their conscience has become quite well developed

and sexual identification is present (Oedipus complex). They
discover their roles within their family. They are self-confident
and have developed good judgment.
 cont……………

• School age
• At this stage children’s capacity to learn has improved.
They gain self-confidence and a feeling of
independence. They become responsible people, for
example, bathing themselves. Their milk teeth also start
to fall out to make room for permanent teeth.
 cont…………..

• They are trained to take on responsibilities, duties and

chores related to the parent of the same sex. There is little
sexual interest and their sexual identity and physical growth
remain steady. Self-control also undergo further
development. They are able to appreciate the rights of
others and their appropriate place in the group.
4. Adolescence (from the onset of puberty to beginning of adulthood)

• This stage begins at the onset of puberty (the earliest stage at which
reproduction is possible), and on average may range between ages 10 to
19. Puberty occurs on average, 2 years earlier in girls than in boys. During
puberty, both boys and girls undergo distinct physiological changes.

• There is an increase in sexual attraction. Academic performance may be

negatively impacted by increased interest and distraction by the opposite
sex. Adolescents develop a desire for independence and separate
identities from their families.
5. Adulthood (18-65 years)

• This is the age of maturity where people seek

relationships with the opposite sex for purpose of
starting a family. They also seek career opportunities
with the hope of fulfilling their ambitions.
• There is consolidation of occupational, domestic and
other social roles. There is also increase in self-esteem.
 6. Aging (Above 65 years)

• At this stage, there is a decline in physical changes, for

example, bending of the body, wrinkles on face.

• If there is satisfaction with life, they accept and

welcome death. It is also a time of retirement.
THE END