Mechanics • Resultant Force is vector sum of all the forces

• Unit = N
Scalar A quantity without direction. • Ensure mass is in kg
Length/Distance, Speed, Mass, Temperature, Time, Energy • Acceleration is in the same direction as resultant force.
Vector A quantity with both direction and magnitude Newtons 3rd If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal but
Displacement, Velocity, Force (inc. Weight), Acceleration, Momentum Law opposite force on object A
Equilibrium When all forces acting on an object are balanced and cancel each other Freefall When there is only gravity acting upon an object. i.e. motion with an
out.  There is no resultant force acceleration of g (9.81ms-2)
Free-body A diagram of all the forces acting on a body, but not the forces it exerts The same SUVAT equations apply, however, u = 0 and a = g {{ng}} NB:
Diagram on other things. The arrows indicate magnitude and direction. 'direction' of motion, dictates the sign of g
Principle of For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments equals Projectile An object given an initial velocity, then left to move freely under g. There
Moments the sum of the anticlockwise moments. Motion is separate horizontal and vertical motion with time being the only
Moment The product of the size of the force and the perpendicular distance common attribute. Both motion follows SUVAT equations but horizontal
between the turning point and the line of action of the force. motion has no acceleration.
Couple A pair of forces with equal size which act parallel to each other but in Friction Force that opposes motion. When in a fluid (liquid or gas) it is drag, drag
opposite direction. E.g. turning a car's steering wheel. depends on:
Centre of Mass The single point from which the body's weight acts through. The object • Viscosity of the fluid
will always balance around this point. • Speed of object
To calculate for uniform objects: Σmx = Mx̄ • Shape of the object
SUVAT v = u + at
(Constant s = 1/2 (u+v)t For all frictional forces
Acceleration) v2 = u2 + 2as • Force is in the opposite direction to motion
s = ut + 1/2 at2 • Can never increase speed or induce motion
s = vt - 1/2 at2 • They convert kinetic energy  heat.
Displacement- Displacement (y) against Time (x). Lift Upwards force on a object in a fluid
Time Graph Gradient = Velocity Terminal Speed When frictional forces equal the driving force. For a falling object, when
Acceleration = Δgradient drag equals the force due to their mass.
Velocity-Time Velocity (y) against Time (x) Momentum The product of the mass and velocity of an object. Momentum
Graph Gradient = Acceleration in any collision is conserved (when no external forces are involved)
ΔGradient = ΔAcceleration Inelastic Not all of the kinetic energy is conserved. Momentum
Area = Displacement Collision however is conserved.
Variable Differentiate Elastic Collision Kinetic energy is conserved i.e. no energy is dissipated as heat or other
Acceleration x energy forms.
v Impulse An extension of N2L. Impulse is the product of force and time and is
a equal to the momentum of that body.
Δa FΔt = Δ(mv)
Integrate Also equal to the area under a force-time graph.
Acceleration- Acceleration (y) against Time (x). Work Done The energy transferred from one form to another.
Time Graph Gradient = ΔAcceleration W = Fd
0 Gradient = No acceleration  constant velocity. Work Done = The force causing motion x distance moved
Constant Gradient = constant acceleration Power The rate of work done over time
Area = Velocity P = ΔW/Δt
NB: Remember to treat area below the time axis as negative! P = Fv  derived from combining P and W = Fs
Newtons 1st The velocity of an object will not change unless a resultant force acts on Force-Displa- Area = Work Done
Law it. cement Graph
Newtons 2nd F = ma Conservation of Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only converted from one form to
Law The acceleration of an object is ∝ to the resultant force acting upon it. (for Energy another, but the total energy of a closed system will not change.
objects with a constant mass) Efficiency useful output/input in terms of energy or power.
Points to remember:
Materials Heat Transfer Heat is always transferred from a hot area/substance to a cold area/subs-
tance.
Density ρ = m/V Specific Heat The amount of energy required to heat up 1kg of the material by 1°C/1 K
A property all materials have and is independent of both shape and size. Capacity ΔQ = mcΔT
Limit of The point where Hooke's law no longer applies. On a force-extension graph, Energy Change is equal to the product of the mass, specific heat capacity
Proportio- the limit of proportionality is where the line is no longer straight and the change in temperature.
nality Specific The specific latent heat of fusion ( Solid) / vaporisation ( gas) is the
Hooke's F = kΔL Latent Heat quantity of thermal energy needed/will be lost to change the state of 1kg of
Law The force is proportional to the extension of a stretched wire. the substance.
k is the stiffness constant  a measure of how hard it is to stretch Q = ml
Elastic Limit The point on a force-extension graph where the line begins to curve. Beyond where m is the mass and l the latent heat.
this point, permanent deformation occurs where the wire will no longer return
to its original shape. When a substance changes state, there is a period where the temperature of
Force-Ext- Straight section  Gradient = k the material is constant, as the internal energy rises, this is due to the latent
ension Loading and unloading plot a loop, if a stretch is elastic, the curve starts and heat.
Graph finishes in the same position (the origin). If plastic deformation occurs, the Boyle's Law At a constant temperature, pV is constant. i.e.
unloading line has the same gradient (k) but crosses the x axis at a different p1V1 = p2V2
point On a p-V plot, the higher the line, the higher the temperature.
Charles' LawAt a constant pressure: V is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
Area = Elastic Strain Energy T
V1/T1 = V2/T2
The area between the loading and unloading line (after plastic deformation) is Pressure Law At a constant volume: p is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
equal to the work done in deforming the material p1/T1 = p2/T2
Tensile The ratio of forced applied and cross-sectional area. Molecular the sum of the masses of all the atoms that make up the molecule.
Stress stress = F/A Mass
Tensile The ratio of extension to original length, it has no units and is just a ratio. Relative The sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms.
Strain strain = ΔL/L Molecular
Youngs The ratio of tensile stress and tensile strain Mass
Modulus E = FL/AΔL Avogadro The number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon isotope 126C.
The YM of a material is the constant value up to the limit of proportionality, Constant NA = 6.02 x1023 mol-1
Stress-Strain Stress (y) against Strain (x). Molar Mass The mass of a material containing NA molecules
Graph Gradient = Young's Modulus Ideal Gas pV = nRT
Area = strain energy per unit volume Equations n = number of moles
Yield Point The point on a stress-strain graph where the material stretches without any R = molar gas constant
extra load.
Brittleness When a material breaks after a certain about of force is applied. The line pV = NkT
simply stops on a stress-strain graph. The same thing applies on a force-ext- N = number of molecules
ension graph, the line just stops. k = Boltzmann constant
Thermal Physics
A way of remembering which n is which. Moles will be small, therefore
Kelvin A temperature scale that is in terms of an atoms movements. small n. Number of molecules will be large so, big N.
°C  K Kinetic The pressure exerted by an ideal gas can be derived by considering the gas
+ 273 Theory as individual particles.
Absolute Zero The lowest theoretical temperature of anything  0 K = -273°C pV = 1/3 x Nm(Crms)2
Internal The internal energy of a body is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic Crms is the root mean square speed.
Energy and potential energies of all its particles
Closed A system where no matter or energy is transferred in or out of the system Assumptions
System • All molecules in the gas are identical
• Ga contains a large number of molecules
 • The volume of the molecules is negligible when compared to the volume Annihilation When a particle and antiparticle collide producing 2 photons in opposite
of the container/gas as a whole. directions.
Brownian Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid helped provide evidence Emin = E0
Motion that the movement of the particles was due to the collisions of the fast This collision is used in PET scanners to detect cancers.
randomly-moving particles, which supported the model of kinetic theory. Hadron Particles that can feel the strong force. Either a baryon or a meson
Average 1/2 x m(Crms)2 = 3/2 x nRT/N depending on its quark structure
Kinetic  Baryon A hadron consisting of 3 quarks. All are unstable except a free proton - all
Energy 1/2 x m(Crms)2 = 3/2 x RT/NA eventually decay into a proton.
Particles and Radiation Proton: uud
Neutron: ddu
Proton & The 2 Baryons that make up the nucleus of an atom. Comprised of 3 Baryon A quantum number which is always conserved. Baryons have a B.N. of
Neutrons quarks. Protons have a relative charge: +1, neutrons: 0. Both have a Number +1. Antibaryons have a B.N. of -1 and all other particles have a B.N of 0.
relative mass of 1 (1.67 x10-27 kg). Mesons A hadron consisting of 2 quarks - a quark-antiquark pair. There are 9
Electron A fundamental lepton, with a charge of -1. Cannot be broken down into possible combinations, making either Kaons or Pions.
other subatomic particles. Relative mass of 1/2000 (9.11x10-31 kg) Lepton A fundamental particle that doesnt feel the strong force. Interacts via the
Nuclide The general notation of elements. weak interaction.
Notation AZX Lepton Another quantum number that is always conserved. Must be separate for
Proton Number The number of protons in an atom. Defines the element. For a neutral Number lepton-electron number and electron-muon number.
(Z) atom, proton no. also == the electron number Strange Particles that have a property of strangeness - contain a strange/anti-st-
Nucleon AKA Mass Number - number of total nucleons (protons + neutrons) Particles range quark.
Number (A) Created via the strong interaction
Specific The ratio of a particles charge to its mass. Specific meaning per kg. Decay via the weak interaction
Charge S.C. = Charge (Q) / Mass (kg) Rules of conversation mean that strange particles are only produced in
Isotope Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of pairs.
neutrons. Affects the stability of a atom Strangeness Another quantum number - however it can change by ±1 or 0 in an intera-
Strong Nuclear A strong force that holds atoms together at small distances, strong enough ction.
Force to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the protons. Quark A fundamental particle that makes up hadrons. There are 6 types:up/d-
Distances own, top/bottom, strange/charm.
Repulsive: <0.5 fm (0.5 x10-15m) Quark Confin- There is no where to get a quark on its own, when enough energy is
Attractive: 0.5 to 3 fm ement provided, pair-production occurs, with one quark remaining in the particle.
Rapidly falls to ) after 3 fm. Weak Intera- β+ and β- are both examples of weak interactions, which is interaction via
Alpha Decay Occurs in big atoms (82+ protons). Atoms emits a helium nucleus (2 ction the weak force, the force acting between leptons.
(α) protons 2 neutrons). Particles is too big to be kept stable by the SNF. Feymann A diagram of particle interactions, with:
Beta-Minus Emission of a electron and anti-electron-neutrino. Happens in neutron rich Diagram Wavy Lines : Exchange Particle
Decay (β-) particles. In nucleus structure terms, a neutron turns into a proton by Straight Lines : Particles in/out of the interaction (with arrows indicating
changing an d quark to a u quark, emitting an electron and anti-electron- direction)
neutrino. Magnetic Fields
Beta-Plus Emission of a positron and an electron neutrino. One of the atoms protons,
Decay (β+) changes a u quark to a d quark, changing to a neutron emitting a positron Magnetic A region where a force acts, force is exerted on magnetic/magnetically
and an electron-neutrino. Field susceptible materials (e.g. iron).
Photon A discrete packet of electromagnetic radiation with 0 mass. Magnetic Lines that show a magnetic field. They run from north to the south pole of a
E = hf = hc/λ Field Lines magnet. The more dense the lines are, the stronger the field
Antiparticle The corresponding antiparticle to any particle has the same mass and rest Magnetic The force on one metre of wire carrying a current of 1 A at right angles to
energy but opposite charge. Flux Density the magnetic field. AKA The strength of the magnetic field
Pair Production When 2 of the same particles collide at high speed and produce a particle-- B = F/Il
antiparticle pair. The energy of the collisions is converted into the pair. Magnetic flux density is the force by the current meter
Also occurs when a photon has enough energy to produce an electron-pos- Magnetic When current flows, a magnetic field is induced.
itron pair. Field around Right hand rule:
Emin = 2E0 (in MeV) a wire • Curl Fingers around "wire".
 • St ck up thumb
Thumb:Direction of current Flux Linkage and Induced e.m.f. are 90° out of phase.
Fingers: Direction of magnetic field Generator Ek is converted into electrical energy, the kinetic energy turns a coil in a
Solenoid A cylindrical coil of wire acting as a magnet when carrying electric current. magnetic field so that they induce a electric current.
Forms a field like a bar magnet. Right-hand For Generators.
Force on a A current-carrying wire, running through a magnetic field generates a Rule • humb upwards
Current-C- resultant field of the one induced by the current and the pre-existing one. • Fi st finger forwards
arrying Wire The direction of the force is perpendicular to the current direction and the • Second finger to the left (perpendicular to f.f.)
mag. field.
LeFt-hand For finding the direction of the Force. Thumb:Force/Motion
Rule • humb upwards First Finger:Field
• Fi st finger forwards Second Finger:Current
• Second finger to the right (perpendicular to f.f.) Alternating Current that's direction changes over time. The voltage across the resistance
Current goes up and down.
Thumb:Force/Motion Root Mean Vrms = V0/sqrt(2)
First Finger:Field Squared Irms = I0/sqrt(2)
Second Finger:Current (rms) Power Prms = Irms x Vrms
Charged F = BQv Transformer A device that uses electromagnetic induction to change the size of a voltage
Particles in a for an alternating current.
mag. field
Circular Path For a charge travelling perpendicular to a field is always perpendicular to the An alternating current flowing in the primary coil causes the core to
direction of motion  The condition for circular motion. magnetise/demagnetise continuously in opposite directions. This produces
a rapidly changing magnetic flux in the core (made of magnetically soft
F = mv2/r can be combined with F = BQv. material. The changing flux passes through the secondary coil induces a
Rearranged for r, this shows that: alternating e.m.f. if the same frequency but different voltage (if the no. of
• increases if mass or velocity increases turns is different)
• decreases if the mag. field strength is increased or the charge increases Transformer P.Coil: Vp = Np x ΔΦ/Δt
• = v/2πr Equations S.Coil: Vs = Ns x ΔΦ/Δt
•Combined with r = mv/BQ  f = BQ/2πm
Particle A cyclotron consists of 2 hollow semiconductors, with a uniform magnetic Combines to:
Accelerator field applied perpendicular to the plane of the D magnets. An A.C. is Ns/Np = Vs/Vp
applied. Charged particles are fired into the D's. They accelerate across the Inefficiencies• ddy Currents (looping currents induced by changing flux)  create
gap between magnets, taking the same amount of time for the increasing in a Transf- opposing magnetic fields reducing its strength  reduced by laminating the
radius. ormer core so that current cannot flow between the cores layers
Magnetic The number of flux lines through a certain area hence{{n}}Φ = BA • Heat Ge eration  due to the resistance in the coils reduced by using a
Flux In other words its the amount of flux passing through an area wire with a low resistance
Electroma- Relative motion between a conductor and a mag. field, causes an emf to • Mag etising/Demagnetising the core  energy is wasted as the core is
gnetic generate at the ends of the conductor as the electrons accumulate at one end.
heated  reduced by using a magnetically soft core, which has a small
Induction
hysteresis loop, this the energy required to create/collapse the field is
Flux Linkage The amount of field lines being cut
minimised
NΦ = BANCos(θ)
where θ is the angle between the normal to the coil and the field. (if it is
perpendicular, θ = 0°
Efficiency Equations
Faraday's Induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage...
efficiency = IsVs/IpVp  powerout/powerin
Law ε = NΔΦ/Δt
Lenz's Law The induced e.m.f. is always in such a direction that it opposes the change
that caused it.
e.m.f in a NΦ = BANCos(ωt)
rotating coil ε = BANωSin(ωt)
Electricity Kirchhoff's The total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving it,
First Law i.e. current is split when it reaches a junction
Current (I/A) The rate of flow of charge. Conventionally running from + to -. Measured Kirchhoff's The total emf of a series circuit, equals the sum of the pd across each
my an Ammeter (in series) Second Law component, i.e. pd is split between components in series but not parallel.
I = ΔQ/Δt ε = ΣIR
Potential The work done in moving a unit charge between 2 points. 1 V = 1JC-1. Resistance Series: RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + ...
Difference Measured by a voltmeter (in parallel) across Parallel: 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R 2 + 1/R3 + ...
(V/V) V = IR / V = W/Q Circuits
Resistance A measure of how difficult it is to move current around the circuit. Potential A circuit with a voltage source and resistors in series. The voltage of one of
(R/Ω) R = V/I Divider the resisitors can vary and therefore be used to detect certain changes when
Ohmic Under constant physical conditions, I is proportional to V. On a graph of I thermistors and LDRs are used.
Conductor (y) against V (x), the gradient is equal to 1/R. Gravitational Fields
Filament A filament lamp has an IV characteristic of a cubic (s shape) going through
Lamp the origin. The heat in the filament causes the resistance to increase - the Force Field A region in which a body experiences a non-contact force.
particles in the filament vibrate more, meaning its harder for the current-c- Newtons Law The force a body experiences due to gravity is dependant on its weight,
arrying electrons to move through it, therefore resistance increases as the of Gravitation the weight of the object exerting the force and the distance between
current increases. them  An inverse square law.
Diode A diode only allows current to flow in one direction. The IV characteristic F = GmM/r2
is virtually no current until the threshold voltage, where the voltage NB The result of this is the magnitude of the force, the direction
increases exponentially. The threshold voltage is approx. 0.6V is always towards the centre of the mass causing the gravitational force.
Resistivity How difficult it is for current to flow through a material. Depends on: Gravitational The force per unit mass, depending on the location of the body in a field.
• Length of the wire Field Strength g = F/m
• Cross-sectional area Also a vector quantity, directed towards the centre of the mass causing
• Resistance. the force.
ρ = RA/L
Unit: Ωm g = -ΔV/Δr
The lower the resistivity, the better it is at conducting electricity. Earth's g ≈ 9.81 Nkg-1
Radial Field Point masses have a radial gravitational field (such as planets):
For Reference: Copper: 1.68x10-8 Ωm g = GM/r2
Semico- A group of materials that arent as good as conducting as metals, however, if Gravitational The gravitational potential energy that a unit mass would have. It is
nductor more energy is supplied, the resistance lowers  more charge carriers are Potential negative on the surface of a mass and increases with the distance from the
released. mass. It can also be considered as the energy required to fully escape the
Supercond- A metal that can be cooled, and the resistivity is reduced. There is no resist- body's gravitational pull
uctor ivity below the critical. V = -GM/r
The main uses are for strong electromagnets, power cables with no energy Gravitational The energy required to move a unit mass. When an object is moved, work
loss and fast electronic circuits with minimal energy loss. Potential is done against gravity  ΔW = mΔV
Power (P/W) The rate of transfer of energy. Difference
1W = 1JS-1 Equipotentials Lines/Planes that join points of equal gravitational potential  similar to
contour lines on maps.
P= E/t = IV = V2/R = I2R Along these lines both ΔV and ΔW are zero, the objects energy isn't
Energy (E/J) E = ItV = V2t/R = I2Rt changing.
Satellite Are smaller objects orbiting a larger object, they are kept in orbit by the
kWh  J force due to the larger body's gravitational field.
kWh x 3.6x106
Electromotive The amount of electrical energy the battery provides and transfers to each In terms of planets  Orbits are ≈ circular, therefore circular motion
Force (e.m.f.) coulomb of charge. equations apply.
ε = E/Q Orbital Period T2 ∝ r3
Internal The resistance inside cells. Proportionality PROOF
Resistance ε = I(R + r)
 • Combine F=mv2/r and F = GmM/r2  Solve for v Line-Abso- When light with a continuous spectrum of energy (white light) pass through
• T = 2πr/v  Sub in v rption a cool gas. Most of the electrons will stay in their ground states but some will
Escape Velocity The minimum speed an powered object needs to leave the gravitational Spectra be absorbed and excite them to higher states, these photons are then missing
field of a planet from the spectrum causing black lines on the continuous spectrum.
Synchronous When an orbiting object has an orbital period equal to the rotational Diffraction When a beam of light passes through a narrow gap and spreads out.
Orbit period of the object its orbiting Wave-P- An entity behaving with both particle and wave-like behaviour. Light has a
Geostationary An satellite in orbit of a body that remains in the same place  it has the article relationship between wavelength and momentum: DeBroglie's Wavelength:
Orbit same time period. It would have to be over the equator to be a true Duality λ = h/mv
geostationary orbit Electron When electrons are accelerated and sent through a graphite crystal, they pass
Low Orbiting Satellites that orbit between 180 and 2000 km above Earth. They are Diffraction through the spaces between the atoms producing a diffraction pattern
Satellite designed for communication and as they are low-orbit, they're cheaper to Waves
launch and require less powerful transmitters.
EM Radiation and Quantum Reflection When a wave is bounced back when hitting a boundary
Refraction When a wave changes direction as it enters a different boundary medium.
PhotoelectricThe emission of electrons from the surface of a metal in response to an The change in direction is as a result of the wave changing speed in the new
Effect incidence light, where the frequency of the incidence light is above that of medium
the metals threshold frequency. Diffraction When a wave spreads out as it passes through a gap or around a obstacle.
Threshold The lowest frequency of light that can cause electrons to be emitted from the Displacement The distance a wave has moved from its undisturbed position/its starting
Frequency surface of a metal. (x/m) point. It is a vector quantity
Work The minimum quantity of energy which is required to remove an electron to Amplitude The maximum magnitude of displacement.
Function infinity from the surface of a given solid, usually a metal. (A/m)
Φ = hf0 Wavelength The length of one whole oscillation of the wave.
Maximum The energy a photon is carrying minus any other energy loses. These energy (λ/m)
Kinetic loses explain the range of kinetic energies of the photons. The max is equal Period (T/s) The time taken for a whole wave cycle.
Energy to hf, with no energy loss. T = 1/f
hf = Φ + 1/2(m)(vmax)2 Frequency The number of whole waves per second, passing a given point.
Stopping The potential difference required to stop the fastest moving electrons (f/Hz) f = 1/T
Potential travelling at Ek(max) Phase A measurement of the position if a certain point along the wave cycle
eVs = Ek(max) Phase The amount by which one wave differs from another
Electron The kinetic energy carried by an electron after it has been accelerated from Difference
Volt rest to a pd of 1 V. Wave Speed c = fλ
1eV = 1.6 x10-19 J Transverse The displacement of the particles/field is at a right angle to the direction of
Ground The lowest energy level of an atom/electron inside an atom. Wave energy transfer. e.g. a spring shaking up and down as displacement  and
State energy transfer is
Excitation The movement of an electron to a higher level in an atom, requiring energy. Longitudinal The displacement of the particles/fields is along the line of energy transfer
ΔE = E1 - E2 = hf Wave
De-Exc- An electron moving towards ground state releasing energy equal to the Polarisation A wave passing through a filter resulting in a polarised wave that oscillates
itation difference between the states in the form of a photon. in one direction only. 2 polarising filters at right angles blocks all light as it
Fluorescent The tubes contain mercury vapour, when a high voltage is passed across, blocks both directions. Polarising filters are common sunglasses
Tubes producing free electrons, which collide with the mercury electrons exciting Glare Polarising filters reduces the amount of reflected light therefore reducing
them. When they return to the ground state, they release a photon in the UV Reduction the intensity of the light on your eyes
range. These then collide with the tubes phosphorus coating exciting it's TV Signals TV signals are polarised by the rod orientation on the transmitting aerial. If
electrons, and then when they return to the ground state they release photons the rods are lined up, you receive a good signal.
in the visible light range Superpostion When 2 waves pass through each, at the instance where the wave cross, the
Line-E- A series of bright lines against a black background, with each line corres- displacement is combined, then each wave continues.
mission ponding to a wavelength of light. Constructive When 2 waves meet and their displacements are in the same direction, the
Spectra Interference displacements combine to give a bigger one.
Destructive When 2 waves meet and their displacement is in opposite directions, they where c is the speed of light and cs is the speed of light in the material.
Interference cancel out 'destroying' the displacement. The displacement of the combined
wave is the sum of the individual displacements. Common Refractive Indexes
Exactly Out When 2 points on a wave are a odd multiple of 180°/Ⲡ apart. Vacuum = 1
of Phase Glass ≈ 1.5
In phase When the phase difference of 2 points is 0 or a multiple of 360°/2Ⲡ. Water ≈ 1.33
Stationary The superposition of 2 progressive waves with the same frequency/wavel-
Wave ength and amplitude moving in opposite directions At a boundary: 1n2 = c1/c2 = n2 / n1
Node A point on a stationary wave where no movement occurs - zero amplitude. The relative refractive index from material 1 to material 2. Note when using
There is total destructive interference. the refractive indexes of the materials its 2/1 rather than 1/2 with the speeds.
Antinode Points on a stationary wave with maximum amplitude - constructive interf- Snells Law n1Sin(θ1) = n2Sin(θ2)
erence When a ray of light travels from one refractive medium to another.
Resonant When the stationary wave produced has an exact number of half-wave- Critical Angle The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction = 90° i.e. Sin(θ-
Frequency lengths crit) = n2/n1 where n1>n2
First When the stationary wave is at its lowest possible frequency - a single loop Total Internal When all light is completely reflected back into a medium at a boundary
Harmonic with one antinode and a node at each end. To find the freq of the nth Reflection with another medium instead of being refracted. Occurs when θi > θcrit
harmonic, multiply the 1st harmonics freq. by n. Optical Fibre A very thin flexible tube of glass/plastic fibre in which light signals are
f = 1/2l x sqrt(T/μ) carried across long distances and around corners by applying TIR. The
where μ is the mass per unit length, T is the tension in the string and l is the fibres are surrounded by a cladding with a high refractive index and a core
length of the vibrating string. of a lower refractive index. The light is refracted where the mediums meet
Second Twice the frequency of the 1st harmonic. With 2 loops, 2 antinodes and 3 and travels along the fibre.
Harmonic nodes (one in the center) Signal When some of the signals energy is absorbed by the material of the fibre.
Amount of When a wave is passed through a narrow gap. Absorbtion The final amplitude is reduced.
Diffraction Gap > Wavelength  No diffraction Signal When the final pulse is broader than expected, which can cause information
Gap = n x Wavelength  Minimal Diffraction Dispersion loss as it may overlap with another signal.
Gap = Wavelength  Maximum Diffraction Modal Light entering at different angles and taking different paths, resulting in
Monoch- Light of a signal wavelength/frequency and therefore a single colour. Best Dispersion signals arriving in the wrong order Single-mode fibre is used to prevent
romatic Light for producing clear diffraction patterns. this - light is only allowed to folllow a very narrow path.
White Light When white light is diffracted, the different wavelengths of light diffract by Material Different amounts of dispersion depending on wavelength.  Monoch-
Diffraction different amounts. The result is a diffraction pattern of spectra instead of Dispersion romatic light prevents this.
single coloured fringes Nuclear
Two-Souce When waves from 2 sources interfere to produce a pattern. In order to get a
Interference clear pattern, the sources must be monochromatic and coherant Rutherford An experiment that proved the current model of the atom  that it is
Coherancy If the waves produce have the same wavelength/frequency and have a fixed Scattering mostly empty space.
phase difference.
Double-Slit Young's double-slit formula relate a waves fringe spacing (w/m), its Rutherford set up an experiment, with an alpha emitter pointed at gold foil.
Formula wavelength(λ/m), the slit separation(s/m) and the distance from the screen- He observed the deflection of the particles and it showed that atoms have a
(D/m) into a single formula concentrated mass at the centre and are mostly empty space, which
w = λD/s disproved the plum-pudding model which was accepted previously.
Diffraction Lots of equally spaced slits very close together, produces a sharp interf-
Grating erence pattern, therefore allowing more accurate measurements. The It showed that:
formula relates the distance between slits (d/m), the angle to the normal • Atoms = mostly empty space
(θ/°), the wavelength (λ/m) and the order of maximum(n) • Nucleus has a large positive charge, as some of the +ve charged alpha
dSin(θ) = nλ particles are repelled and deflected
The order of maximum is the number of bright spots away from the central • Nucleus must be tiny due to few particles being deflected by an angle >
spot (which has order 0) 90°
Refractive A measure of how optically dense a material is - the more optically dense, • Mass must be concentrated in the nucleus
Index the higher refractive index.
n = c/cs
Distance of Ek = Eelec = Qnucleusqalpha/4πε0r Intensity I = k/x2
Closest where r is the distance of closest approach Intensity (Wm-2) = constant of proportionality (W)/distance from source
Approach (m)
Electron λ≈hc/E where the first minimum occurs at: Radioactive It both spontaneous and random.
Diffraction sinθ ≈ 1.22λ/2R Decay
Nuclear R = R0A1/3 Spontaneous: Decay is not affected by external factors
Radius Random: It cannot be predicted when the next decay occurs
Alpha Decay Charge(rel): +2 Decay The probability of a specific nucleus decaying per unit time. It is a measure
(α) Mass(u): 4 Constant of how quickly a isotope will decay.
Penetration: low Activity (Bq) The number of nuclei that will decay each second.
Ionising: high
Speed: slow A = λN
Affected by mag. field: y where λ is the decay constant, and N is the number of unstable nuclei in
Stopped by: paper/~10cm air the sample

Used for: Smoke alarms  if the particles cant reach the detector, the It can also be written as:
smoke must be stopping them
Beta Charge(rel): ±1 ΔN/Δt = -λN
Decay(β^±) Mass(u): n/a (ΔN is always a decreasing number hence the neg sign)
Penetration: mid
Ionising: weak A = A0e-λt
Speed: fast A0 is the activity at t=0
Affected by mag. field: y Number of N = N0e-λt
Stopped by: ~3mm of aluminium unstable where N0 is the original number of the unstable nuclei
Nuclei (N)
Used for: PET Scanners, In production of metals  the levels penetrating N = nNA
through the metal can be used to control the thickness. where n is the number of moles and NA is Avogadro's constant
Gamma Charge(rel): 0 Half-Life The average time the isotope takes for the number of nuclei to halve.
Decay(γ) Mass(u): 0 (T1/2) T1/2 = ln2/λ
Penetration: low (Derived from N = N0e-λt)
Ionising: very weak Uses of • Carbon Dating  Using the amount of C-14 left in the organic material.
Speed: c (speed of light) Radiation Problems are that the material may have been contaminated, high
Affected by mag. field: n background count, uncertainty in c-14 in the past and sample size may be
Stopped by: several cm of lead. too small
• Medical Diagnosis  Tracers that emit radiation to track things in the
Used for: PET Scanners  produced through annihilation, cancer body
treatment. Instability Nuclei are unstable when:
Background The low level of radiation that always exists. Must be taken into account • Too many/not enough neutrons
Radiation when measuring radiation. • Too many nucleons
Sources of • The Air  Radioactive radon gas released from rocks • Too much energy
Background • Ground/Buildings  Nearly all rock contains radioactive materials
Rad. • Cosmic Radiation  nuclear radiation from particle collisions due to
cosmic rays If they nuclei lies on the N=Z line they are generally stable. If they lie
• Living things  living things are made of carbon, some of which is above, they undergo β- decay, if they lie below, the undergo β+ decay. If
radioactive carbon-14 they have a Z number of over ~82 (Protons) they undergo α decay.
Mass Defect The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of its constituents. This energy
• Man-Made  Radiation from industrial/medical sources
difference is the mass defect and is lost to energy as E = mc2, energy and
mass are equivalent.
Binding If you were to pull a nucleus apart, this binding energy would be the
Energy energy required to do so, equal to the energy released when the nucleus
formed.
Average Average Binding energy per nucleon = Binding Energy/Nucleon number
Binding
Energy
Nuclear When large unstable nuclei randomly split into smaller more stable nuclei.
Fission Energy is released as the smaller nuclei have a higher avg. binding
energy per nucleon
Nuclear FusionWhen 2 smaller nuclei combine to form a larger nuclei. A lot of energy is
released because the new heavier nucleus has a higher avg. binding energy
(if the 2 original nuclei are light enough). This is the energy that keeps
stars burning
Nuclear • Control Rods  Usually made of carbon, they are lowered and raised to
Fission control the rate of fission. The amount of fuel required to produce one
Reactors fission per fission is the critical mass. Any less (sub-critical) then the
reaction will eventually fizzle out. Any more, and the reactor could go into
meltdown, which is why control rods are used.
• Moderator  Fuel rods are placed in the moderator, this slows down/a-
bsorbs neutrons to control the rate. The choice of moderator needs to slow
down the neutrons enough to slow down neutrons enough to keep the rate
of fission steady. It slows down neutrons through elastic collisions, a
moderator with a similar nucleon-mass to the neutrons.
• Coolant  is sent around the reactor to remove heat produced by the
fissio. The material is either liquid or gas at room temp. Often it is the
same water (heavy-water) as the moderator and can be used to make steam
and turn turbines.
• Shielding  Reactors are surrounded by thick concrete, which shields
and protects from radiation escaping and anyone working there.
• Emergency Shut-down  All reactors have an emergency shutdown
where the control rods are completely lowered into the reactor, thus
absorbing all the neutrons produced and slowing the reaction down as
quickly as possible.
• Waste  Unused uranium only produces α so can be easily contained.
Spent uranium however emit β & γ radiation. Once removed from the
reactor they are cooled and ten stored in sealed containers until the activity
is at a low enough level.
Further Mechanics