DC MACHINES

A d.c machine is an electromechanical machine which alternates energy-thus converts

electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.

Principles of rotation of machines

The working principle and operation of a DC machine is based on an effect when a current
carrying conductor coils laying in a magnetic field, the magnetic field produces a mechanical
force on it known as torque which rotates the conductor coils in magnetic field. The
direction of this produced torque can be found by the Fleming’s left hand rule (states that if
we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand perpendicular to each other,
then the thumb points towards the direction of the magnetic force, the forefinger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the current.).

The generated force can be calculated as follow.

F = BIL

Where:
 F = Magnitude of the generated force
 B = Flux density
 I = Current
 L = Length of the conductor

The operations of rotating machines (electrical) depends on the following phenomena

1. The electric current always produces a magnetic field in the plane perpendicular to its
direction of flow.
2. The magnetic field which is being cut by or cutting the conductor causes an e.mf to be
induced.
3. The interaction between two magnetic fields generates forces which tend to align
them with one another.
DC Machine Construction:

The machine consists of 2 parts:-

 Stator
- Has poles and the field system

- The poles are excited by DC current to produce magnetic fields

 Rotor consisting of;

- The armature which is a ring-shaped laminated iron-core with slots.

- Coils with several turns are placed in the slots.

- The commutator and brush gear.

The diagram is as shown below.

i. Electromagnet poles and pole shoes – this can be one or more pairs of poles which
are normally fixed to the outer frame (yoke) of the machine. To reduce the eddy
current losses, the pole and pole shoes are laminated.
Poles carry field windings, while pole shoes; - support field coils,
- Spread out the flux in the air gap.
ii. The yoke or frame - provides a mechanical strength to the whole assembly and also
carries a magnetic flux produced by the field winding. It provides a low reluctance
path to the flux. So, flux completes its path through the yoke.

iii. Inter poles

These, at times not fitted, are small poles fitted between main poles .Their function is
to reduce sparking at the commutator brushes by neutralizing the effect of armature
reaction in the brush region. The polarity of inter pole in the dynamo must be the
same as the next main pole in the direction of rotation and vice versa in the case of a
motor. The inter pole winding are always in series with the armature winding.
The commutator and brushes

This is around structure made of copper bars insulated from each other by mica. The
armature coils are connected to the commutators bars and so make contact with carbon
brushes bearing on the commutator.
The alternating emf induced in the armature is converted to direct emf at the brushes.

Functions
 To provide connection for current transfer between a stationary brush and
commutator winding mounted on the on the armature. It collects current
generated from armature conductors (for dc generator) and provides current to
the armature conductors (for dc motor).
 To act as rectifier (ie convertor of an alternating current induced in each conductor
as it moves under the poles alternately).
 Brushes transfer current to the external circuit.

Types of windings
Field winding –

They are usually made of copper placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound
in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles. External DC source
or the output of the machine is used to excite the field winding. When DC current passes through
the coil, it will generate the electromagnetic field (EMF) which magnetizes the pole and
produce the magnetic flux. The flux produced by the pole is directly proportional to the field
current. And flux is more enough to cross the air gap between armature and pole shoes

The armature
This is the revolving part of the machine keyed to shaft and consists of laminated iron
cylinder with slots. The iron laminations are insulated from one another to reduce eddy
current losses and the slots are equally spaced round the circumference of the armature.
Armature winding - is a former wound copper coils fitted in armature lots.

The armature winding is connected to a dc power supply and Current flows through the armature
winding. Since armature is within a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the windings. This force
causes the rotor to rotate. As the rotor rotates, its winding will cut the flux causing emf to be
generated on the armature winding. The induced voltage is called counter emf because its polarity
always acts against the source voltage.

Types of armature winding connections

The armature conductors can wound by two methods;

i) Lap windings
ii) Wave windings

Lap Winding
In this type of winding, two ends of any one coil are taken to adjacent segments. The
conductors are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths equals to the
number of poles. Consider the machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there
will be P parallel paths, and each path will have Z/P conductors in series. The number of
brushes is equivalent to the number of parallel paths. Where p= no of pairs of poles
The applications of lap winding mainly include heavy-current and low voltage machines.
 Wave winding
The one end of the coil is connected to the starting end of the other coil which has the
same polarity as that of the first coil. Or the final end of the first armature coil is linked
with the beginning end of the second armature coil in commutator segment at some
distance. The coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is called the wave
winding. The conductors of the wave winding are split into two parallel paths, and each
path has Z/2 conductors in series. The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e., the number of
parallel paths.

Wave winding is used for high voltage and low current machines.

NB: Power generated by a given m/c is the same irrespective of the type of the armature
winding used ie lap or wave.

Comparison Chart

Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison

Definition The coil is lap back to the The coil of the winding form the
succeeding coil. wave shape.

Connection The end of the armature coil is The end of the armature coil is
 Basis For
Lap Winding Wave Winding
Comparison

connected to an adjacent segment connected to commutator

on the commutators. segments some distance apart.

Parallel Path The numbers of parallel path are The number of parallel paths is
equal to the total of number poles. equal to two.

Other Name Parallel Winding or Mulitiple Two-circuit or Series Winding.

Winding

EMF Less More

Number of Equal to the number of parallel Two

Brushes paths.

Efficiency Less High

Winding Cost High (because more conductor is Low

required)

Uses In low voltage, high current In high voltage, low current

machines. machines.

Armature Reaction in DC Machines

In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present thus armature flux and main flux.
'The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a magnetic field, which is
called as armature flux. This armature flux distorts and weakens the magnetic flux produced
by the main poles. This effect of armature flux on the main flux is known as armature
reaction. EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field lines.

1. Consider a two pole machine on no-load. Thus, the current in the armature
conductors is zero. Under this condition, there is only the main flux (φm) in the
machine which is produced by the main poles. This main flux is distributed
symmetrically with respect to the polar axis (i.e. centre line of field poles)
The magnetic neutral axis (MNA, which is a plane perpendicular to the axis of flux) coincides with
the geometrical neutral axis (GNA) and the brushes are always placed along MNA.

2. Armature flux lines due to the armature current. Field poles are de-energized.

3. when a DC machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to the

armature conductors and flux due to the field winding)

When the field current and armature currents are acting simultaneously there are two fluxes inside
the machine, one is produced by the main field poles and the other by the current in the armature
conductors. These two fluxes combine to give a resultant flux (φR).

It can be seen that the main flux entering the armature is shifted and distorted. The
distortion increases the flux density in the upper pole tip of the N-pole and in the lower pole
tip of the S-pole. Similarly, there is a decrease in the flux density in the lower pole tip of the
N-pole and in the upper pole tip of the S-pole. Therefore, the direction of the resultant flux
has shifted in the direction of rotation of the machine.

Since the MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant flux, hence the MNA is
also shifted. Due to the non-linear behavior and saturation of the core, the increase in the
flux in one pole tip is less than the decrease in the flux in the other pole tip. This results in,
the main flux is decreased. Consequently, the generated emf (Eg ∝ Nφm) is decreased with
the increase in load

The Effects of Armature Reaction:

i. Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening of

the main flux reduces the generated voltage as the total field flux produced by each
pole is slightly reduced.
ii. Armature reaction distorts the main flux hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted
leading to sparking at the surface of brushes. For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be
shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other hand, for a loaded dc motor,
MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the rotation.
iii. The flux in the air gaps is skewed hence increased length of the flux paths in the
gaps.
iv. Due to the armature reaction, a flux is established in the commutating zone or
neutral zone. This flux in the neutral zone induces conductor voltage that causes the
commutation problems.

How to Reduce Armature Reaction

1. Compensating winding: - is connected in series with the armature winding in such a

way that it carries the same current but in opposite direction to that of the armature
current, this will nullify the armature field.

2. Inter-poles: (The armature reaction causes shifting the magnetic neutral axis) -
Inter poles are the small auxiliary poles placed between the main field poles to
reduce on air gap. Winding on the inter poles is connected in series with the
armature but each is wound in such a way that its magnetic polarity is same as that
of the main pole ahead of it so as to nullify the quadrature axis of armature flux.

3. Adjust the Brush Position:- In this method, rotate the brush mechanism to find the
correct neutral zone position. This can be applied only fixed load current.

4. Modify the Ends of the Poles:- In this method, the field pole tip is to be modified so
that high flux cannot exist on the ends because of the high reluctance path.

5. By using special construction in which leading and trialing pole tip portions of laminations
are alternately omitted. If the reluctance of the path of the cross-magnetizing field is
increased (thus reluctance at pole tips is increased) it will reduce distorting effect of
armature reaction since the armature teeth and air gap at pole tips offer reluctance to
armature flux. Thus by increasing length of air gap, the armature reaction effect is reduced.

6. By using eccentric poles: - A dc machine fitted with eccentric pole face has short air-gap
length at the pole center and longer air gap lengths under the pole tips. This increases the
reluctance of the pole tips which reduces the magnitude of armature cross flux and hence
armature reaction is minimized.
 7. Using laminated pole/shoes: - If magnetic pole used is assembled as shown, the laminations
will sandwich air between them and therefore reluctance of armature cross flux is increased
due to low permeability of air.

8. Punching rectangular holes in field pole: - This also increases reluctance in the path
of armature cross-flux with main flux remaining almost unaffected.

The constructional techniques mentioned above reduce the main flux also to some extent and
therefore main field mmf must be raised accordingly. But the effect is more pronounced on
armature flux and therefore the methods are used.

9. Stronger main field flux as compared to armature flux :-

From phasor diagram the distortion θ of main field was given by,
So, greater the ratio of main flux to full load armature flux, lesser is the distortion produced by
armature cross flux.

EMF and Torque Equation in dc machine

When the armature of a DC generator rotates in magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
armature winding, this induced emf is known as generated emf. It is denoted by E g.

Let

φ = Magnetic flux per pole in Wb

Z = Total number of armature conductors

𝑃 = Number of poles in the machine

C = Number of parallel paths

Where, C = P…for LAP Winding and = 2…for Wave Winding

N = Speed of armature in RPM

Eg = Generated emf = emf per parallel path

Therefore, the magnetic flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature being,

Φ = Magnetic flux per pole in Wb, dφ = Pφ Wb

Time taken in completing one revolution is given by, dt = 60/N seconds

Hence, according to law of electromagnetic induction, the emf generated per conductor is,
Eg Per conductor = dφ/dt

= Pφ/60/N

= PφN/60

Since, the number of conductors in series per parallel path is, = Z/C

Therefore,

Total generated emf, Eg = emf Per Parallel Path

⇒ Eg = (Eg/ conductor) × (No. of Conductors / Parallel Path)

⇒ Eg = PφN/60 × Z/C

⇒ Eg = 𝑃φ𝑁/60 × 𝑍/C

Hence, the EMF equation of a DC machine is,

Eg = PφNZ/60C…………………..(1)

It is clear from eqn. (1), that for any dc machine Z, P and C are constant so that E g ∝ Nϕ.
Therefore, for a given DC machine, the induced emf in the armature is directly proportional
to the flux per pole and speed of rotation

Note: the emf between the +ve and -ve brushes is equal to the emf generated in one of the
parallel paths, if Z is the total number of armature conductors and P the number of poles,
then the number of armature conductors in any parallel path = Z/P. Generated Eg= (average
emf /conductor) x Z/P

Torque Equation:

In all D.c and A.c machines, the torque on the rotating elements is due to the resultant flux
in the air gap being skewed. This distorted flux exerts a clock wise pull on the armature. To
overcome the tangential component of this pull, the engine has to exert a torque to drive
the machine in anticlockwise direction and this torque is additional to that required to drive
it on no load (operates as dc generator).
If the current is sent through the armature winding in the reverse direction, the distribution
of the resultant flux due to the field and armature currents is distorted in a clockwise
direction. This flux is now so skewed as to exert a torque driving the armature in
anticlockwise direction. The machine is now operating as a d.c motor. When the flux in the
air gap is radial there is no torque.
Mechanical power input = ωT .....................equation 1
T is the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine running at n r.p.s.
Electrical power developed = E x Ia .................equation 2
Mechanical power input = electrical power developed

On equating equation 1 and 2

Thus T ∞ ϕIa

The above equation is the torque equation for the D.C. machine.

Types of D.C Machine excitation

The simplest d.c machine consists of a minimum of two windings. i.e a concentrated coil
and the other an armature coil. The production of magnetic flux in the device by circulating
current in the field winding is called excitation. The way they are connected to each other
and to supplies produce different types of d.c machines which satisfy different operating
conditions as seen below;

1. Separately excited d.c. machine - the field coils are energized by a separate D.C.
Source.
2. Self-excited d.c machine - the current flowing through the field winding is supplied
by the machine itself and divided into;

i. Shunt wound or shunt machine.

ii. Series wound or series machine.
iii. Compound wound or compound machine.
1. Separately excited D.C. machine:
Figure: (a) Separately excited D.C. Generator, (b) Separately excited D.C. Motor

Emf and Torque, Vf = If Rf

V = E ±Ia Ra or E = V ± Ia Ra
2
V Ia = E Ia – Ia Ra (multiplying thru’ out by Ia)
But EIa = T ω
VIa = T ω – Ia2 Ra,
Where Via = electrical power output in watts.
T ω = mechanical power in put in Watts which is converted into electrical power
Ia2Ra - electrical power lost in armature winding due to its resistance

2. Self- excited d.c machine

i. Shunt wound D.C. Machine:

Shunt wound D.C. Machines is the machine in which field coils are connected in parallel
with the armature. Since the shunt field receives the full output voltage of a generator or
the supply voltage of a motor, it is generally made of a large number of turns of fine wire
carrying a small field current.

a) V = E - IaRa, b) V = E + IaRa,

Ia = Ish + IL, Ia + Ish = IL,

Ish = V/Rsh Ish = V/Rsh

ii. Series wound D.C. Machine:

Series wound D.C. Machines is the machine in which the field coils are connected in series
with the armature. The series field winding carries the armature current, and the armature
current is large, that is why series field winding consists of few turns of wire of large cross-
sectional area.
 Figure: (a) D.C. series generator (b) D.C. series motor.

Equations
If = Ia = IL = I
V = E ± I (Ra+Rf)
VI = T ω ± I2(Ra+Rf)
Where VI- electrical input or output of the machine
T ω - mechanical input or output according to operation mode

iii. Compound wound D.C. machine:

A Compound machine is a machine which has both shunt and series fields. Two windings
are carried out by each pole of the machine. The series winding has few turns of large cross-
sectional area, and the shunt windings have many turns of fine wire.

It can be connected in two ways. If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature
alone, the machine is called the short-shunt compound machine and if the shunt field in
parallel with the armature and series field, the machine is called the long-shunt compound
machine.

Figure: (a) Short-shunt compound D.C. generator (b) Short-shunt compound D.C. motor.
Figure: (a) Long-shunt D.C. generator (b) Long-shunt D.C. motor.

Equations
Exciting winding V=If Rf
Armature V= E ± Ia(Ra + Rse)
Via = EIa + Ia2 (Ra + Rse)
= T ω ± Ia2 (Ra + Rse)
For generator If =Ia- IL
Motor If = IL- Ia

Power Flow Diagram

 Illustrates power flow from input to output represented as a fishbone. The branches
indicate losses
 In general, Pin = Pout + losses and the losses

Losses in DC machine (Rotational losses)

From EIa = Tω, it shows that;

i) In an electrical motor, electrical power EIa watts is converted into mechanical power = Tω.
ii) In generator, mechanical power of Tω is converted to electrical power equal to EIa.
In practice, a motor produce less power for useful work than Tω where as generator provides more
power than Tω in order to obtain EIa from it. The difference in both cases is the rotational loss C(w)
for as soon as rotation occurs, a certain amount of power is necessary to overcome,
A) Iron (mechanical) Losses
i. Friction in the bearings- This loss is due to rubbing of metal surface inside the
bearings and can be minimized by use of lubricant. It forms only small portion of the
losses and is roughly proportional to speed of rotation.
ii. Air friction or windage loss of rotating armature. This is due to power being used in
setting up circulating currents in the air or other cooling gas in which the armature
with its fan revolves. This loss is proportional to square of speed ω2
B) Magnetic Losses
These losses are practically constant for shunt and compound machines because field
current is constant.
a) Eddy current loss- due to current induced in the magnetic core of the d.c machine
as it rotates in the magnetic field. These losses can be minimizes by use of thin
laminations to breaks up the currents path and thus reduce the power lost. –
b) Hysteresis loss - this is caused by alternating magnetization of the armature
C) Copper losses
i. Armature losses = I2aRa,
ii. Field losses = IfV or Ia2Rf
iii. The loss due to brush contact resistance.
D) Stray losses – Losses due to flux leakages.

Efficiency of D.C machines

i) Generator

Efficiency = 1−
( all resistance losses
( V I L +all resistive losses ) +c )
x 100

¿ x 100 =
Output power Load power
Or Efficiency = ¿ x 100
( Input power ) ( Supplied power )
VI
= ¿ x 100
( VI + Losses )
Output power
= ¿ x 100
(VI + I 2a Ra+ I f V + C )
 Resistance losses include copper losses which are armature losses I a2Ra, shunt losses If V or If2Rf (shunt field
winding, Is2 Rs2 (series field winding)
Note: iron, friction, windage losses are constant(c) and VIL- generator out put
Example: the shunt excited d.c M/c is run as an unloaded motor at the normal operating speed of 25 rev/s. it
takes 3A from a 240 V. d.c supply .the resistance of the field circuit is 240Ω and the resistance of the armature
is 1Ω. Calculate;
a) Back emf
b) Rotational losses at this speed
Soln.

IL =Ia +If
V + Ia = 3
Rf
Ia = 3 – 240 = 2A
240
i). back emf Eb =V – IaRa
= 240 – (2 x 1)
= 238 v
For a motor, EIa = Tω + C
238 x 2 = Tω + C, but Tω = 0 since the m/c is not loaded
Hence C = 476 w
Ia2Ra = 4 w and If V = 1 x 240 =240 w
:. Rotational losses = Ia2Ra + If V + C
= 4 + 240 + 476
= 244 + 476 = 720 W

The machine is rated at 5 Kw. When the machine is working at full load and its normal speed of 25rev/s.
calculate the torque and efficiency when the m/c is working as
i) Generator
ii) Motor
Solution.
 Full load current IL = rated power (output power)
Terminal voltage
IL = 5000/ 240 = 20.8 A
From If = V/Rf
If =240 / 240 =1A
Ia = If + IL
=20.8+1
= 21.8A
Generated emf E =V± Ia Ra
= 240+21.8x1
= 261.8V
Also E Ia = Tω - C where ω=2πn
T =(E Ia + C) / 2πn
= 261.8x8+476
2πnx25 =39.4 Nm
Total losses =Ia2R+VIf+C
= 21.82x1) + (1x240) +476
=1191w
Efficiency =(1 – (Ia2R+VIf+C)) x 100 = ( 1-1191) x100) =80.7%
Out put power+C 5000+1191
Or efficiency = VI_________-L x 100
VIL + Ia2 Ra+IfV +C
= 5000 x100 = 80.7%
5000+1191

Types of D.C Machines

There are two types of machines namely the;

1) D.C generator (dynamo principle)

This converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The mechanical energy can be obtained from the
direct sources, steam turbines, hydro turbines and diesel engines. Dynamo effect works on the principle that
whenever a conductor moves through magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of
the induced emf depends on;
 i) the strength of magnetic field,
ii) the speed at which the conductor moves and
iii) the length of conductor that is within the magnetic field.

2) D.C motor:
It converts electrical energy to mechanical energy under magnetic effect: when conductor situated in
magnet field carries current it experience a force on it. The magnitude of the force depends on the
strength of the field and value of current in the conductor. The directions forces can be found by use of
left hand rule.

D.C GENERATORS
They are in two categories.
a) Self-excited generators
b) Separately exited generators.
Self-excited generators
They are named according to the way in which the field winding are connected with the armature winding,
i) Series would generator.

A – Armature and Rse – field winding

V = E - I(Ra + Rse)
Above machine the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. it is capable of carrying a
heavy current. It comprises a few turns of thick wire.
ii) Shunt wound generator.
In this type of generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding. The field coil
has a large number of turns of thin wire. It will excite only if the poles have some residual magnetism and
resistance less than the actual value.
 IL = I, Ia = Ish + IL and Ish= Vsh/Rsh and Vsh = V
From above
Generated emf E=V + Ia Ra
Terminal voltage V=E-IaRa
And Ia =IL + Ish
And If = V/ Rsh
where Ia = armature current
V = terminal voltage
IL = load current
Ish = field current
Example 1
A shunt generator supplies a 20 Kw load at 200v through cable of resistance R= 100 mΩ. If the field winding
resistance Rf =50Ω and the armature resistance Ra = 40Ω, determine
a) The terminal voltage
b) Emf generated in the armature
Solution

Load current IL= power / voltage across the load

= 20000 = 100A
200
v.d. in a cable to the load =ILR
= 100 x 100 x 10-3
=10v.
Hence terminal voltage V = 200 + 10= 210v.
b) Ia = If + Ia
If = V/Rf = 210/50 =4.2A
Ia = 4.2 +100 =104.2A
 E =V + IaRa
= 210 + 104.2 (40x10-3)
= 214.168v
2) Calculate the terminal voltage if the load current is 100A. When an armature of 0.085 is used, the
generated emf is 235v.
Solution
Data:
I = 100A
Ra =0.008Ω
E =235v
E =V + IaRa,
V = E – IaRa =235 - (0.08 x100) =227v
3) A d.c machine has armature resistance of 8Ω. Calculate the emf generated when the m/c is running as a
generator and delivers 2A at terminal voltage of 110v. Neglect the field resistance.
Solution
Data
Ra=8Ω, Ia = 2A, V = 110v
E = V + Ia Ra
= 110 + (2x8)
= 110 + 16 =126v
4) A d.c shunt generator delivers a current of 96A at 240V. The armature resistance is 0.153 and the field
winding has resistance of 60Ω. Assuming a brush contact drop of 2v
Calculate
a) The current in the armature
b) Generated emf
Solution
Data : IL=96A, V=240V, Ra=0.152Ω, Rf = 60Ω
a) Ia =If + IL
But If =V/ Rf =240 /60 = 4A
Ia =4 +96 = 100A

b) Generated emf E = V + Ia Ra + Vb

= 240 + (100 x 0.15) + 2

=257v

Example 5
A d.c shunt generator with terminal voltage of 240Vsupplies a load of 18.84 kw. The armature resistance is
0.15Ω and there is total brush contact drop of 2v. The resistance of the field winding is 108Ω. Calculate the
i) Armature current
ii) Generated emf
iii) Total copper losses in the winding
Solution
Data: V=240v, Ra=0.15A, Ra =18.84 kw , Vb=2v, Rf=108A

IL = P/v = 18.84x100 = 18840

240 240
=78.5A
i) Ia = IL + If
=V/ Rf =240/108 = 2.22A
Ia =78.5+2.22
= 80.72A
Generated emf E = V + Ia Ra + Vb
=240 + (80.72 x 0.15) + 2
=240+12.108
= 252.108v
iii) total copper losses
=loss in the armature (Ia2Ra)+Shunt losses (If2Rf or IfVf)+Series wdgs losses(IsVs)
i.e Ia2Ra = (80.72 2x0.15) = 977.357
If2Rf or If vf = (2.222x240) =533.28
Total losses = 977.357 + 533.25 =1510.67w.
Or Ia2Ra = IfV +C
Losses include
i) copper losses
ii) iron , friction, windage losses
Copper losses = armature losses (Ia2Ra) + shunt losses IfVf and iron, frication, windage
losses are constant (C)
Total losses = (Ia2Ra)+ (If2Rf or IfVf) +C
Example
A 10 kw shunt generator having an armature resistance of 0.75Ω and field resistance of 125Ω generators
terminals voltages of 250 v at full load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load determine the
efficiency of the generator at full load assume the iron frictions and winding losses are armature to 600w.
Solution
 Out the power =1000w
I = power =1000= 40A
V 250
Field current If =V/Rf = 250 =2A
125

Ia =If +Ia
=2 +40 = 42A
Efficiency = IV x100
2
IV + Ia Ra +IfV +C
= 10000 x100
1000+(422x 0.75) + (2 x250)+600
= 80.50%

iii) Compound wound generator.

A compound generator has two sets of field windings, one set connected in series and the other in
parallel with the armature.

Short shunt wound d.c generator long-shunt wound d.c generator

Separately excited generator

This has its field coils energized by separate d.c supply. The method of a field connection used in d.c
machine is the main factor which determines the operating characteristics i.e way the m/c behaves.
 Generator voltage
The generator emf E supplies a current to the external load of the armature. The armature current causes a
v.d in the armature conductors due to their resistance ie Ia Ra volts.
This drop of voltage causes reduction in terminal voltage. Generally, in generators there are two main
sources of v.d;
a) The v.d due to current flowing through armature conductors (Ia Ra)
b) The v.d due to contact resistance of brushes Vb normally =2v.

V = E - Ia Ra
Or E = V + Ia Ra Also Ia =( E – V)/Ra
General characteristics of D.C generators
i) The generated emf is directly proportional to the speed.
ii) The generated emf is directly proportional to the magnetic flux per pole.
iii) The magnetic flux per pole is approximately proportional to the current in the field winding for
practical valves of field current.
iv) The terminal voltage is given by V = E – Ia (Ra + Rs) - Vb. Where E is the generated emf, Ia is armature
current, Ra is armature resistance and Rs is resistance in series field and vb is brush contact drop.

Characteristics of series wound generator.

In a DC series generator only one current flows through the whole machine, Therefore, the armature current,
load current and excitation all are same.
Open Circuit Characteristics (O.C.C)

The curve (1) in the plot shows the O.C.C of a series DC generator. It is the graph plotted between the
generated EMF at no-load and field current. The O.C.C can be obtained by disconnecting the field winding
from the machine and is excited separately.

Internal Characteristics

The internal characteristic of a DC series generator is the graph plotted between generated EMF (E) on-load
and the armature current. Because of the effect of armature reaction, the magnetic flux on-load will be less
than the flux at no-load. Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under loaded condition will be less than the EMF
generated (E0) at no-load. As a result of this, the internal characteristics curve lies just below the open circuit
characteristics [ curve (2)]

External Characteristics or Load Characteristics

The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot between the terminal voltage (V) and load
current (IL}). Since, the terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage due to armature and series field
copper losses, which is given by,

Therefore, the external characteristics curve will lie below the internal characteristics curve by an equal
amount to voltage drop due to copper losses in the machine [see the curve (3)].

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

In a shunt generator, the armature current splits up into two parts: one is Ish flowing through the field winding
and the other is IL which goes to the external load.
Open Circuit Characteristics

The curve (1) in the figure shows the open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator which is same as that
of the series generator.

Internal Characteristics

When the load is connected to the generator, the generated EMF (E) is reduced due the reduced flux per pole
because of the effect of armature reaction. Therefore, the generated EMF under loaded condition is less than
the generated EMF at no-load. As a result of this, the internal characteristics drops down slightly [see the
curve (2)].

External Characteristics

It gives the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and the load current (IL). It is also known as load
characteristics or terminal characteristics.

V = E – IaRa

Therefore, the external characteristics lies below the internal characteristics by an amount equal to voltage
drop due to armature resistance.

External or Load Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

In compound DC generators, both the series and shunt fields are combined. Depending upon the connection
of field winding with the armature, the compound generators are of either short shunt or long-shunt type.

The cumulative compound generators are mostly used

In a cumulatively-compound DC generator, the series field aids the shunt field. The degree of compounding
depends upon the series field excitation with the increase in the load current.

Over-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that with the increase in the load current, the full-load terminal voltage
is greater than the no-load terminal voltage, then the generator is known as over-compounded generator
(curve (1)].

Flat-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the full load terminal voltage is equal to the no load terminal
voltage, the generator is known as flat-compounded generator or level compounded generator (curve (2)].

Under-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the terminal voltage at full load is less than the terminal voltage at
no-load, the generator is known as under-compounded generator [curve (3)].

X- tics of Separately excited generator

Suppose armature is driven constantly on no load when s is open and the magnetizing current to be
increased from zero up to maximum permissible value and then reduced to Zero, the generated emf being
noted for these two quantities is found to be represented by curve P and Q in the diagram. It is known as
open characteristics or the emf generated by residence magnetism.
The terminal voltage is fairly constant but varies due to IR loss in the armature V=E-Ia Ra. Variation of load
current can be achieved by varying load resistance load or extended x-tics of the generator.
The main disadvantage with separately excited generation is that it requires an external source (separates)
of d.c, so this makes it expensive. And so its emf is employed in special cases if a wide range of terminal
voltage is required.

D.C MOTORS

Principle operation
Motor converts electrical into mechanical energy and the action is based on the principle that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force whose direction is given by Fleming’s
left hand rule and its magnitude given by F= BIL (N).

In construction d.c motor and d.c generator are the same but only differ in such a way that for a generator
e.mf is greater than the terminal voltage V where as in motor the generated emf is less than the terminal
voltage. When its field magnets are excited and armature conductors are supplied with from supply mains,
each experiences a force tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. These forces collectively
produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating.

Back E mf generated (Eb )

When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux. Due to electromagnetic
induction, e.m.f is induced in them whose direction is in opposite to the applied voltage hence is known as
back e.m.f.

The relationship between the current, emf and armature resistance for a machine may be expressed as
follows

If E = generated emf or back emf in the armature

V = terminal voltage in the armature

Ra= armature resistance

Ia = armature current.

A machine operating as motor

V = Eb + Ia Ra or Eb = V- Ia Ra-----(i)

Also E= pφZN

60 c

The voltage V applied across the motor armature has to;

 Overcome the back emf

 Supply the armature drop (IaRa)

V = Eb+ Ia Ra

By multiplying both sides by Ia, VIa = Eb Ia +Ia2 Ra

VIa = electrical input to the armature

Eb Ia = electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature

Ia2 Ra = Cu loss in the armature

Hence , some input energy is wasted, and the rest converted into mechanical power.

Speed of a D.C motor

 As earlier seen, that the relationship between generated emf , speed, flux, number of conductors in series
path and number of pole pairs is given by

E = pφZN volts ---(i) or V = Eb+ Ia Ra

60 c Eb = V - Ia Ra

pφZN/60c = V - Ia Ra

N = ((V - Ia Ra) x (60C))/PZ ϕ r.p.m

N =( Eb /ϕ) x 60C/ZP or N = K (Eb /ϕ)

This shows that speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to the flux.

Or For a given machine, Z ,C and p are fixed

So E = KNφ where K= Z x P

60C

Substituting for value of E in (i)

kNφ = V - IaRa

N = V – IaRa

kφ The value of IaRa is always so

small ie less than 5% of terminal
voltage, so that

N≈ V/KQ

This expression means that the speed of electric motor is ≈ proportional to the voltage applied to the
armature and inversely proportional to the flux /pole.
Torque developed by D.C motor

Torque is a unit of turning moment.

Mechanically: torque =force x radius

Electrically: the combined effect of the field and armature currents in a d.c m/c is to distort the
magnetic flux in the air gap in such away to exert toque in the armature. In a motor, initially at stand still, the
torque is responsible for accelerating the m/c and its load. After the motor has attained its steady speed, the
torque is available at the shaft for driving the load.

From: V = E + IaRa, multiplying both sides by Ia

VIa =EIa +Ia2 Ra Where Ia2Ra= loss due to armature resistance

VIa =total electrical power supplied by the armature

EIa = total mechanical power developed in armature

Note: all the mechanical power is not available externally as some of it is absorbed as friction loss at the
bearing and at brushes and some is wasted as hysteresis and also in circulating eddy currents in the iron core.

Hence if T is the torque exerted on the armature to develop that mechanical power,

then mechanical power developed = work done

Time (sec)

If N- speed of armature in rev/min =Tx2π N/60

EIa = 2πTN, but E= 2PNZQ

60 60 C
 2PNZφIa = 2πTN

60c 60

PZφIa = π T, T = PZφIa

C πC for a given m/c, Z, C, & P are fixed

Hence T =kφIa , where K=ZP/πC

i.e T α (φ and Ia)- the torque for a given motor is proportional to the of armature current and flux per pole.

Example

A armature of a d.c machine operating as motor has a resistance of 0.1 Ω and is connected to a 230v
supply .calculate the generated emf if the motor takes 60A.

Soln.

V= 230v, Ra= 0.1Ω, Ia= 60A

E= V-IaRa

= 230 – (60x0.1)

= 224 V.

Example 2

A 4 pole motor is fed at 440V and takes an armature current of 50A. The resistance of the armature circuit is
0.28Ω. The armature is wave – connected with 888 conductors and the useful flux per pole is 0.023wb.
Calculate the speed.

Solution

V=440V, P=2 Ia=50A, Ra=O.28Ω, Z=888 conductors, φ/pole = 0.023Wb

From E = V- IaRa

=440 - (50x0.28)

=440 -14

=426V

Also E = ϕPNZ

60x2

426 = 0.023x2 xN x888

60 x 2
 N = 1251.5 rev/min

Example

A six lap wound motor is connected to 250v d.v supply. The armature has 500 conductors and a resistance of
1Ω. The flux per pole is 20mWb.

Calculate

a) speed

b) Torque developed when the armature current is 40A.

Data: v=250, Z= 500, Ra= 1 Ω, φ=20x10-3 Wb, Ia = 40A, C = 2p

a. Speed N=?

N = Ec/2pφZ but E=V- IaRa

E = 250 – (40x1)

= 210V

N = 210x2x3

3 x 20x10 – 3 x500

= 42rev/min

b. Torque T = E Ia

2 πN

= 210 x 40 = 63.66Nm

2π

Or T = ZpφIa = 500x3x0.02x40 = 63.66 Nm

πc πx6

2) a d.c motor takes an armature current 110 A at 480V. The resistance of armature circuit is 0.2Ω, the m/c
has pole 6 poles and the armature is lap connected with 864 conductors. the flux per pole 0.05 wb.

Calculate the

a) speed

b) Torque developed by the armature.

From a) E = ZpφN also E=V-IaRa =480 – 110 X 0.2 = 458v

60c

N = 60x2x3x458
 864x3x0.05 = 1272.2 rev/min

b). Mechanical power = EIa

= 458x110

= 50380w

T = zpφIa = 864x3x0.05x110

πC 3.1x2x3

50380 = 2πTN

60

T = 50380x60

2x3142x1272.2

= 378.11nm

Efficiency of a motor
Efficiency = output power x 100

Input power

For motor, input power =VI and out power = VI – losses

Efficiency = VI-losses x 100

VI

Efficiency of motor = VI-(Ia2+LfV+C) x 100

VI

Maximum efficiency of a motor

Maximum efficiency of motor occurs when the load is such that

Ia2 Ra = If V +C for shunt
Ia2 Ra = C (series).
TYPES OF D.C MOTORS

1. Separately excited D.C motor

2. Self exciting d.c motors which include

a) Series wound d.c motors

b) Shunt wound motors

 c) Compound wound motors

Separately excited d.c motor

For exciting winding circuit Vf = IfRf

and for armature V = Eb + IaRa where Eb =back emf

V Ia = Eb Ia +Ia2 Ra

but EbIa =Tω

therefore VIa = Tω+ Ia2Ra

VIa = electrical power supplies

Tω = mechanical power output in watts which is converted into electrical power and

Ia2Ra = electrical power lost in the armature resistance.

Self excited wound d.c motor

a) Series wound connection

E =V – I (Ra + Rf)

Example

A series runs at 600rev/min when taking 110A from a 230V supply .the resistance of the armature circuit is
0.12 and that of the series winding is 0.03. Calculate the speed when current has fallen to 50A. Assuming the
useful flux per pole for 110A to be 0.024 wb and that for 50 A be 0.0155 wb.

Data: N=600rev/min, V=230v, Ra=0.12Ω,

For I=110A, φ =0.02wb

E =V – I (Ra + Rf)
 =230 – 110 (0.12+ 0.03)

= 213.5v

When I=50A

E = 230 – 110(0.12+0.03)

=222.5 V

From E = kNφ

But k =213.5

600x0.024

=14.83

:. N = 222.5

14.82 x 0.0155

= 969 rev/min

Example

A series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2Ω and series field resistance of 0.3Ω. it is connected to 240 v
supply and particular load runs at 24rev/sec. when drawing 15A from supply determine .

a) Generated e mf at this load

b) Calculate the speed of the motor when load changed such that the current is increased to 30A. Assuming that
this caused doubling of flux.

Solution

Ra=0.2Ω, Rf=0.3Ω, V=240 v, N=24rev/sec, Ia=15A

E1 = V- Ia (R + Rf)

= 240 – 15(0.2 + 0.3)

= 232.5v

When I is increased to 30A

E2 = 240 – 30(0.2 + 0.3)

=225v

now emf E =kNφ, E1= knφ1 and E2 =KNφ2 but φ2=2φ1

Thus E1 = φ1N1 = φ 1N1

E2 φ2N2 2φ1 N2
 232.5 = 24 , N2 = 11.6 rev/min

225 2 N2

A shunt wound DC motor

Is = Ia + If, and Eb = V – Ia Ra

Example

A 240v shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field wdg resistance Rf =150Ω and the armature
resistance Ra= 0.4Ω

Determine

a) the current in the armature

b) back emf

Solution

a) If = V/ Rf

=240/150 =1.6A

Supply current Is= Ia + If, so Ia = Is-If = 30 – 1.6 =28.4A

b) back emf E = V - IaRa

= 240-(28.4x 0.4)

=228.64v

Example 2

A 250v series motor draws a current of 40A. the armature resistance is 0.15Ω and field resistance is 0.05Ω.
determine the maximum efficiency of the motor.
From efficiency = VI – ( Ia2Ra + If V + C) x 100, for series If = Ia = I = 40 A

VI

Armature losses = I2( Ra + Rf) = 402 ( 0.15 + 0.05) = 320 W

But for effmax, I2( Ra + Rf) =C, total losses = 320 x 2 = 640W

Efficiency = (250 x40) – 640 x 100 = 93.6%

(250 x 40)

Compound wound motor

This connection combines the features of shunt and series excited types.

It has two ways of connections ie

I) across armature wdg only (position 1) short shunt

II) Across both series and armature wdg ( switch on position 2 and is known as long
shunt connection.

The flux due to the two field coils are in the same direction ie series wdg flux strengthening the main flux
produced by shunt winding hence the arrangement is cumulative connection. If the connections to terminal 1
& 2 are reversed so that Ia flows through series field coils from 2 towards 1 then series flux is reversed and it
now weakens the main field. This is called differential connection.

The equation for compound machines can be deduced from the circuit diagram by applying kirchhoff’s laws.

Example.

a) A short compound wound d.c machine is connected to 400v. and runs a motor taking current 40A. the
armature resistance is 0.21Ω, series field coil resistance is 0.3Ω and shunt coil resistance is 194Ω. Calculate

i) Shunt field current

ii) Armature current

iii) back e.m.f

b) If the speed of rotation is 20rev/s, calculate the mechanical torque developed by the motor. All losses other
than resistance losses are to be neglected.

Solution:

VL = IL x Rseries

= 40 x 0.3 = 12v ii) Va = Ia Ra or iii) Eb = 388 - Va

i) Vf = If R f IL = If + Ia = 388 - 7.98

= 400 – VL Ia = 40 – 2 = 380.02v

= 388v = 38A

so If = 388 / 194 = 2A

b) mechanical Torque T = Eb x Ia = 380.02 x 38 =114.8 Nm

2nπ 2π x 20

SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C MOTORS

The speed x-tic a motor usually represents the variation of speed with input current or in put power, and its
shape can easily be derived from

N = V-IaRa

kφ

In shunt motors, the flux φ is only slightly affected by the armature a current and the value of IaRa at full load
rarely exceeds 5% of the terminal voltage, so that the variation of speed with input current is almost straight
time as shown by curve A. hence shunt motors are more suitable where the speed is fairly constant per wide
range of load.

In series motors, the flux increases at first in proportion to current and then less rapidly when magnetic
saturation is reached and at this time, Ra & Rf are in series.
Hence the speed is roughly inversely proportional to the current as shown by curve B. if the load falls to a very
small value the speed become dangerously high.

Precautions

 Series motor should not be employed when there is rise or fall in load.

 It should not be belt coupled to its load except in very small machines like vacuum cleaners.

 In compound motors, both shunt & series winding exist and so its characteristic is intermediate
between shunt and series as indicated by curve C the exact shape depending up on the shunt and
series ampere – turns.

Torque characteristics of D.C motors

For a given motor T α φ per pole α Ia hence (T α Iaφ)

Since the flux in a shunt motor is practically independent of armature current therefore torque of shunt motor
armature current as represented by curve A.

In series motor, the flux is proportional to current up to full load so that torque of series motor and α Ia2.
Above full load magnetic saturation becomes more marked and the torque does not increase rapidly (curve B)

For compound motor its curve shape depends relatively on the value of the shunt and series armature at full
load. From the figure above its seen that for a given current below the full load value , shunt motors exert the
largest torque but for the given current above that value the series motor exerts the largest toque .The max
permissible starting current is usually about 1.5 x the full – load current.

Assignment

Reversal of d.c motor direction is achieved by reversing the connections of either the field or armature
windings but not both. Draw Diagrams

Applications of shunt, series and compound motors

1. Shunt motors are used

- when the speed has to be maintained ≈ constant between no load and full – load eg for driving
line of shafting (conveyors) vacuum cleaners, lifts.

- When driving the load at various speeds, any one speed maintained constant for relatively long
period e.g lathers, fans, blowers.

2. Series used
 - where high starting torque is required eg hois,ts cranes , trains etc.

- Where direct coupling to the load required(e.g fan, traction, car crashers) whose torque increase
with speed.

3. Compound used in;

- large torque starting machines

- load fluctuating machines eg stamping presses

- Voltage fluctuating machines eg traction system

Control of D.c motors

The control of d.c motor involves starting it from rest and the ability to alter its speed of rotation according to
the requirements of the load.

Starting a motor
At an instant of switching the supply on, the emf of rotation is zero and

the equation V = E + IaRa reduces to V = IaRa

Assuming that V- constant, the initial starting current is given by Ia at starting =V/Ra (A)

But Ra is usually very small and therefore the starting current would be very large ≈10x its normal value, It is
therefore recommended that initial current must be limited in most machines except the smallest M/C. such
large current.

i) Subjects the armature to a severe mechanical shock

ii) Blows the fuses there by disconnecting the supply from the motor

To limit the starting current a variable resister known as a starter is connected in series with the armature. its
resistance being reduced as armature accelerates

Thus starter functions are

i) To limit the starting toque

ii) To improve means of motor disconnection from the supply

iii) Protect motor from excess starting current

iv) Protect motor from overload

Starter
 Manual starter for shunt motor

Automatic starter connected to a shunt motor

In fig above, 1,2,3,4 are contact – studs of resister R in series with the armature. When arm A is moved from
off position to study 1instantly, armature current grows to a value I1

Where I1 = supply voltage

Resistance of armature + starter

Since T α φ Ia, it follows that the maximum torque is immediately available to accelerate the armature. As the
armature accelerate, its emf grows and Ia decreases, an so A is moved to study 2 there by cutting out sufficient
resistance to allow current to rise once again to I1.

The operation is repeated until A is on stud 4 and the whole starting resistance is cut out of the armature
circuit. The motor continues to accelerate and current to decrease until it settles down at some value I such
that the torque due to the current is just sufficient to enable the motors to cope with its load.
The starter has the following features

o NVR – No voltage release

o iron plate on start arm

o OLR- overload release coil connected in series the motor

o Regulator

When A is in on position, NVR is magnetized by field current and holds B against the tendency of a spiral spring
G to return A to off. When supply fails , the motor stops NV is denergized and the residual magnetism in it is
not sufficient to hold A against center clockwise torque of G. when the current taken by the motors exceeds a
certain valve , the magnetic pull on L is sufficient to left it there by short circuiting NVR and releasing A.

Speed control of D.C motors

The speed of d.c motor is given by N= V/kφ.

In general there are three methods of controlling the speed of d.c motors namely

1). by varying supply voltage V,(or voltage supplied to the armature)

2). Varying the strength of magnetic field ie the flux /pole which is produced by if

1. Armature resistance control

- Adding a resistor in series with the armature effectively increases the armature circuit resistance.
- This results in a reduction of the steady-state speed.
- The method is relatively simple and inexpensive.
- However, there are some drawbacks. By adding a resistance means increase losses;
I2R and reduce the motor’s speed. Therefore, the speed of the motor that has resistance in the armature
circuit is always lower comparing to the motors that do not have resistance in the armature circuit.
2. Field control
-This method of speed control is by changing the flux.
- To do so we connect a resistance in series with the field winding. The field current is decreased and the
speed increases with a reduction in flux.
- This method also has some disadvantages. One of that is; we can only raise the speed at which the
motor normally runs at a particular load. Another disadvantage is that the speed is increased without a
corresponding reduction in shaft load, so we will be overloading the motor.
Circuit diagram of variable resistor methods

a. Series wound motors

A rheostat connected in series with the armature will reduces the voltage applied to the armature there by
reducing the speed. This method suffers the following disadvantages

- The rheostat must be capable of carrying full armature current and so tends to be expensive.

- The effectiveness of rheostat varies with the load current

- The power loss in the rheostat lowers the overall efficiency because of much energy dissipated in
form of heat.

Shunt compound motors

Widely used method of controlling the speed of a shunt and compound motors is to connect rheostat in series
with shunt field as shown above (the rheostat will reduce the voltage applied to the armature there by
reducing the speed. From N=V/k1φ if φ is kept constant, then N= k2V where k2=1/φ, thus N α V.

When the resistance is increased, the field current, the flux and back emf are reduced. Consequently more
current flows through the armature and the increased torque enables the armature to accelerate until the
back emf is again equal to the applied voltage.

Example

A shunt motor runs at 626 rev/min when taking an armature current of 50A from a 440V supply. The armature
circuit has a resistance of 0.28Ω. If the flux is suddenly reduced by 5%, find

a) Maximum value to which the current increases momentarily and the ratio of corresponding toque to
the initial torque.

b) the ultimate steady value armature current assuming the torque due to the load to remain un
altered
 Solution.

Given V=44oV, Ia=50A, Ra=028Ω, N=626 rev/min =n/60 rev/sec

Initial generated emf

Eb1 =V-IaRa

=440-50x0.28

=426V.

Immediately after flux is reduced 5% i.e before the has begun to increase

New generated emf Eb = 5% of Eb1

=426x0.95

= 404.7V

The corresponding voltage drop due armature resistance =440- 404.7 =35.3V

And corresponding Ia=35.3/0.28 =126A

From T α φIa

New torque = new current x new flux

Initial toque = initials current initial flux

= 126 x 95 =2.39A

50 1

After the speed and current have attained steady values , the torque will have decreased to the original value
so that new current x new flux = intial current x initial flux

New armature 50 x 1/0.95 =52.6A

b. Diverter method for series motors

A resistor termed a diverter in parallel with the filed winding.

r- Prevents the series winding from being short circuited. The minimum speed for a given input current is
obtained by moving the slider on the off- stud S thereby breaking the circuit through the diverter. The smaller
the value of R the greater is the current diverted from the series winding and in consequence the higher is the
speed of the motor. Armature diverter increases current in series wdg thereby reducing the speed of the
motor.

c. Use of controller in series with the armature.

The connections are expertly the same as for a starter except that in a controller, the resistance elements are
designed to carry armature current indefinitely where as in a starter they can only do so for compactly short
time without getting excessively hot. For a given armature current, the larger the controller resistance in the
circuit, the small is the p.d across the armature and lower is the speed.

Advantages

- Speed from zero up wards is easily obtained. This method is used in cranes, hoists trains etc.
where motors are frequently started and stopped and efficiency is not first importance.

Disadvantages

i) Relatively high cost the controller

ii) Much of the input energy may be dissipated in the controller and overall efficiency of motor
reduced

iii) Great variation of speed with load due to change in controller p.d causing change in change
motor p.d.

3. Terminal voltage control

- This method of speed control is by changing the terminal voltage of the motor.
- The most frequent method at least for shunt motors where the field winding is separately
excited.
- The voltage control method lowers the speed in a similar fashion as the armature circuit
resistance speed control method. However it does not have its drawbacks. The no-load
speed and full-load speed can be reduced all the way down to zero if desired.
- There are various ways to obtain a variable DC voltage:

a) Solid-state Speed Control

- In recent years, solid-state converters have been used as a replacement for Ward-Leonard
system.
- The converters used are controlled rectifier or choppers.

b) Ward-Leonard System (constant field current controlled armature voltage)

- In this system, the armature voltage is controlled by varying the field current of DC
generator. By using this system, the speed of DC motor can be smoothly varied. Other
advantage of the system is it allows the DC motor to run in either direction by reversing the
field current. This method is commonly used when manual or automatic control of speed is required
a wide range in both directions rotation.
 M- Motor whose speed is to be controlled

M1G- motor- generator set consisting of a shunt motor coupled to separated excited generator. The
generator is assumed to be driven at constant speed ωg.

The applied voltage to the armature of M can be varied between zero and maximum by means of R
and is used for controlling motor speed of rolling mills.

I n alternative diagram, Eg is controlled by adjusting the field voltage Vfg or Ifg. Reversal of proclivity of Vfg will
cause reversal of the motor rotation.

Advantages

i) Starting and speed control are easily affected with a single regulator.

ii) No power dissipated since there no resistor in series with armature

iii) Higher efficiency at low speeds than that obtained with the controller system.

iv) For a given value of R( given emf in G) the speed of M is almost independent of its load.

v) Retardation of M may be affected by increasing R so that emf generated in G is < that of M.

Disadvantage

- Motor generator set initial costs are high