UNIT - 3

Comprehension of Technical Texts

Reading and Comprehending Instructions and Technical Manuals

Interpreting and Summarizing Technical Texts

Note Making

Comprehension of technical materials

Effective ways of reading technical texts:

a) Schedule the time to read and recall session:

Schedule 30 minutes to 1 hour for reading when you have much free time and the highest focus.

b) Set up a special reading area with no distractions:

Find a place where you can get away from your phone, your family, and any other distractions
and just read. The idea is to create a place where you can focus and enjoy what you’re doing so
you can absorb what you’re reading because you need to keep focused, stay productive.

c) No speed-reading, neither quick reading:

In the century of efficiency, we are trying to absorb the information as soon as possible. But
reading demands time. All it benefits are not seen immediately. Usually, after you’ve read the
big part of the book. Speed reading does not work.

d) Read in stages

Start by reading the title of the manual, the preface and then study the table of contents. Then
start reading parts of the sections that you discovered are most relevant to you.

e) Come back to difficult points:

Understand the content of the book. Don’t clarify everything. Make a note and move forward.
SQ3R Technique for comprehending technical manuals

SQ3R is acronym for:

Survey
Question
Read
Recite
Review

The SQ3R technique is a five-step method designed to enhance reading comprehension and improve information
retention. The acronym stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. By following these steps, readers
can actively engage with the text, making the reading process more focused and effective.
Here's a breakdown of each step:
1. Survey:
Before diving into the text, skim it to get an overview of the material. Look at the title, headings, subheadings,
and any visuals like pictures, graphs, tables, charts etc. to see how they support and explain the text. This initial
survey helps you understand the main topics and structure of the reading.
2. Question:
Turn the headings and subheadings into questions. This transforms passive reading into active inquiry, prompting
you to seek answers as you read.
3. Read:
Read the text carefully, focusing on finding the answers to the questions you formulated in the previous step. Pay
close attention to the main ideas and supporting details. Note down essential points and vocabulary. Think,
interpret and analyze the first time you read, to avoid unnecessary re-reading.
4. Recite:
After reading each section, pause and try to recall the main points and answers to your questions without looking
at the text. Summarize the information in your own words, either mentally or by taking brief notes.
5. Review:
Once you've finished reading, review the entire text and your notes. Test your understanding by answering the
questions you created earlier and summarizing the key concepts. This step helps solidify your memory and
identify any areas that need further review.
By systematically working through these five steps, SQ3R helps readers become more active and engaged
learners, leading to better comprehension and retention of information.

Interpreting any technical text

a) Read a lot everyday:

Increasing your daily reading load will greatly help you in interpreting ay text. As it broadens
your textual analysis drills. And when we talk about “reading” we are referring not only to books
but also to other productions, such as news reports, blog posts etc.

b) Read Section by Section:

Try to slow down the text by breaking it down into smaller parts so you do not have to interpret
everything at once in the end. Break down complex paragraphs into smaller, manageable
chunks.
 c) Study grammar:

While reading, always try to have a dictionary around. Each time you notice a word that you do
not know the meaning, note or search. This will help you not miss any important term within the
text.

d) Focus on each important key terms and vocabs.

While reading any reading any technical text focus on the key terms and words so that it can help
you a lot with the learning of the subjects.

Summarization

Summarization is a very important skill for effective communication. A summary is a

restatement of someone else's words in your own words. It is a concise overview of the most
important points of a conversation, document or presentation. A well-written summary makes
communications efficient and ensures that the gist of the communication is captured by all
involved. This skill too can be acquired.

Summarizing any technical text:

a. The very first step for making a summary is to have a reading skill.
b. Underline or mark the main sentence of the passage.
c. After collecting the main points, check for the appropriateness of the ideas for making the
summary.
d. Prepare the first draft of the summary. You can add or edit any piece of information.

Purposes of Summarization
A summary is meant to inform the reader, who has not read the text or seen the presentation,
about what the text is about. It outlines its central idea and briefly describes the supporting
arguments that develop the idea. The reader then comes to know if the text is useful for him/her
and whether it should be read further or not.

Readers need summaries for various reasons:

• To know the essence of the report or article without reading the entire document.
• To establish the relevance of the report or article
• To get an overview before going through the details.
• To help them keep up with current developments in the field.
• To decide whether to read the article or not.
Techniques of summarization:

a) Selection:
For making a summary it is very important to select the main idea, keywords and the special
terms in the source. They help in getting the idea and making the summary.

b) Rejection:
It is a process of removing unwanted and not so important sentences.

c) Substitution:
It is a process in which new sentences get to add up instead of the previous one. Also, several
sentences are combined to form one sentence. It reduces the length of the summary.

Outlining and Paraphrasing

An outline is defined as a general statement without details. An outline of a passage or a text is a
sketch containing only the main ideas.

Paraphrasing refers to the process of rewriting passage or text in different words without
changing or distorting its original meaning.

Note making:
Note making is an organized form of important points which can be used in future.

Advantages/Importance of note making:

a. It helps in recollecting and recalling the past events said or heard.

b. It helps a reader to go through bulky documents quicker.

c. It helps in concentrating, understanding and providing a permanent record.

d. It distinguishes between main points and details.

Procedure of note making:

a. Read the provided passage carefully

b. Underline the important sentences. It helps to make headings and subheadings.
c. Organize them in logical order or sequence for the final note.
d. Use the appropriate note making format.
Different types of note-making Methods:
1. The Outline Method
2. The Cornell Method
3. The Charting Method
4. The Mapping Method

1. The Outline Method

The Outline Method of note-taking is a structured approach that organizes information

hierarchically using main topics, subtopics, and supporting details. This method is characterized
by its clear, logical structure, making it easy to see how different pieces of information relate to
one another and to review and study notes effectively.
Format of Outline note-making Method:
a. Heading
b. Subheading
c. Point
d. Keywords
2. The Cornell note-taking method

The Cornell note-taking method is a structured approach to organizing notes, designed to

enhance understanding and facilitate review. It involves dividing a page into sections for
recording notes, cue questions, and summaries. This method, developed by Walter Pauk, is used
in various settings, including lectures and textbook reading, to improve learning and retention.
Here's a breakdown of the method:
Divide your paper into three sections:
o Note-taking column: This is the largest section, typically on the right side, where
you'll record your main notes during a lecture or while reading.
o Cue column: This narrow column on the left side is used for keywords, questions, and
prompts related to the notes.
o Summary section: A space at the bottom of the page is reserved for summarizing the
key points of the notes.
 3. The Charting Method
The charting method of note-taking, also known as the matrix method, is a structured approach that uses tables or
charts to organize information into categories and compare different ideas or concepts. This method is particularly
useful when dealing with information that can be easily categorized and compared, like comparing different
products, or analyzing data sets.

How the Charting Method Works:

1. Set up the Chart:

Divide your page into columns and rows, creating a grid-like structure.

2. Identify Categories:

Determine the relevant categories or topics that will be the headings for your columns.

3. Fill in the Chart:

As you encounter information, record it in the appropriate column and row, summarizing key points and details.

4. Compare and Analyze:

The structured format allows for easy comparison of information across different categories and topics.
When to Use the Charting Method:

 Comparing and Contrasting:

When you need to analyze similarities and differences between different concepts, products, or ideas.

 Organizing Data:

When dealing with numerical data, statistics, or other information that can be organized into categories.

4. The Mapping Method

The mapping method of note-taking, often referred to as mind mapping, is a visual approach where
information is organized around a central idea or topic, with related concepts branching out like a
tree. This method helps visually represent relationships between ideas, enhances memory retention,
and is particularly useful for visual learners.
Here's a breakdown of the mapping method:
Core Concept:
 The mapping method emphasizes a visual, non-linear way of organizing information, unlike
traditional linear note-taking.
 It involves starting with a central topic and branching out to subtopics, details, and supporting
information, often using lines, arrows, and other visual cues to show connections.

How it works:
1. Central Topic:
Identify the main topic or idea and place it in the center of your page or digital document.

2. Branching Out:
Create branches extending from the central topic for main subtopics or key ideas.

3. Further Subdivisions:
Branch out further from the subtopics to include supporting details, examples, and related concepts.

4. Visual Elements:
Use colors, symbols, images, and different shapes to highlight connections and make the map visually
engaging and easier to understand.

Technical Documents
What Is Technical Documentation?

Technical documentation includes notes, templates, standards, rules, and any other guides with
information about a product’s or process’s features and functions. Often used in the software
development industry, this type of documentation is sometimes known as a technical or instruction
manual, but it can go beyond simple instructions.
Technical documentation serves various purposes. For example, it can take the form of step-by-step or
troubleshooting guides for customers, instructions for installing software for end-users, guidelines for
developers performing technical processes such as debugging, or technical reference documents for
engineers that include specifications, diagrams, and procedures.

There are numerous types of technical documents hence, it becomes imperative to group them into
three main categories:

1. Traditional Technical Documents

2. End-user Documents
3. Technical Marketing Communications
Traditional Technical Documents
Traditional technical documents provide information and instructions. They are developed and written
for an audience already acquainted with a specific technical area. The writer may include language
and content that an audience of experts understands. Examples of traditional technical documents
include programmer guides, repair manuals, medical reports, research papers, reviews, schematic sand
memos. Writers of these types of documents should be technical experts in the field for which they are
creating the document. Although the documents are written for the target audience who are themselves
experts in their specific fields, the language of the document must still be clear and concise so that the
recipients should get the intended information the writer desires to convey.

End-User Documents
End-user documents are used for electronics and other consumer products. The goal of end-user
documents is to help a novice in understanding how to use technical items. User manuals for computer
(hardware and software), televisions, mobile phones, washing machines, air conditioners, and other
consumer electronic items are examples of end-user documentation. Patient information booklets and
product inserts for in-home medical devices, such as pregnancy test or diabetic glucometer, are also
end-user documents. While writing the document, the writer must contemplate about the problems that
the users might face and accordingly explain and give the solutions. The end-user documentation
writer may or may not be the technical expert.

Technical Marketing Communications

Technical marketing communications also called Marcom are used for advertising, product promotion
and marketing. Examples of these documents include promotional brochures, press releases,
advertisements and catalogues. Apart from these three main categories, technical writing is also used
for government grant proposals. It is used by government departments, IT companies, banks, medical
departments, educational institutions and private companies.

Information/Data Collection

Information collection constitutes the first step in a statistical investigation. Utmost care must be taken
in collecting information because it forms the foundation of statistical method. Information collection
methods can be divided into two categories:

• Secondary methods of information collection

• Primary methods of information collection

Secondary Data Collection Methods

The data which have already been collected by some agency and taken over from there and used by
any other agency for their statistical work are termed as secondary data. In other words, it is a type of
data that has already been published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals, etc.
There is an abundance of data available in these sources almost regardless of the nature of the research
area. Therefore, it requires the application of an appropriate set of criteria to select secondary data in
order to increase the level of research validity and reliability. These criteria include the date of
publication, credentials of the author, reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of
analysis, the extent of contribution of the text to the development of the research area, etc.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

The data which are originally collected by an agency for the first time for any statistical investigation
are termed as primary data. Primary data collection methods can essentially be divided into two core
groups: Quantitative and Qualitative.

Quantitative Research Methods

They are based on mathematical calculations in various formats. Methods of quantitative data
collection include questionnaires containing closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and
regression, mean, mode, median, etc. Quantitative methods are cheaper to implement and they can be
applied within a shorter duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high
level of standardization of quantitative methods, it is easy to make a comparison of findings.

Qualitative Research Methods

They do not involve numbers or mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated
with words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.
Qualitative studies ensure comprehensive and detailed understanding. The qualitative data collection
methods comprise of interviews, questionnaires containing open-ended questions, focus groups,
observation, role-playing, case studies, etc. The choice between quantitative or qualitative methods
depends on the type of research, its aims and objectives. Some of the primary data collection methods
are discussed below:
(a) Observation Method
In this method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s owndirect observation without
asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that it does not depend on
respondent’s willingness to answer who may be biased towards certain aspects. It is, however, an
expensive and time-consuming method and the information provided by this method is very limited.
(b) Interview Method
Primary data may be collected through personal interviews or telephonic interviews.

Personal Interview
In this, the interviewer asks questions face to face. Through this methodmore and reliable information
may be obtained. Private and confidential information can be obtained comfortably under this method.
It is, however, a costly and time consuming method especially when a widely spread geographical
sample is surveyed. Some respondents who enjoy high social status such as officials, executives, etc.
may not be easily available. In this method, the respondents may give wrong and imaginary
information. For an effective interview, there should be a good rapport with respondents which is
often very difficult to develop. The interviewer should be friendly, courteous, conversational and
unbiased for which proper training is required.

Telephonic Interview
Contact is made with the respondents through telephone. The merits of telephonic interview are:
(i) It is more flexible and faster than other methods.
(ii) (ii) It is cheaper and less time consuming because no staff is required and a wider
representation of the sample is possible.
(iii) (iii) Answers of the respondents can be recorded for deliberating on them later on.
This method has several disadvantages as well. These surveys are restrictedto respondents who have
telephonic facilities and little time is given to respondents for answers. Hence, it is not suitable for
intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required for various questions.

(c) Questionnaire Method

In this method, a questionnaire is mailed to the person with a request toanswer the questions
and return the questionnaire. This method is extensively applied in various researches of human and
economic geography. The merits of this method are:
1. It incurs low cost even when the area is large and is widespread geographically.
2. It is free from the prejudice of interviewer because the respondent gives the answers in his/her
own words.
3. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently.

The demerits of this method are:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled questionnaires.
 2. It can be used only when the respondents are educated and cooperative.
3. The control on the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. This method is likely to be the
slowest of all.

(d) Schedule Method

This method of data collection is similar to the method of collection of data through questionnaires.
However, there is a small difference that schedules are filled in by the people who are particularly
selected for this purpose. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also
remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a
particular question. It is not a cost effective method and is often employed in investigations carried out
by governmental agencies or by some organizations. Population census all over the world is conducted
through this method.

Document design
Document design concerns about the physical appearance of the document. Readers do not read only
the printed words on a page, but the visual presentation of the text also impresses them and enhances
their understanding. Furthermore, a good document should effectively communicate as well as
translate the main ideas to the audience.

In the documentation, the design phase should decide upon the following:
• What will the document cover?
• What format will the document take?
• How will the document look?
• In what order will information be presented?
The design stage must consider the requirements of the audience, in order to create something suitable
for their task. While designing, technical writers should take care of five goals to be fulfilled by the
document.
1. The document must look professional and create a positive image of the product and the company.
2. The document must be easily navigable and follow a logical and reasonable order.
3. The document must give the readers the information they need. It should be designed in such a way
that finding the information is easy.
4. The document must convey the message clearly and accurately.
5. Well-designed documents must make the information easy to remember. It can be done by using
visual aids.
Factors Affecting Document Design
Effective document design is influenced by several key factors that affect how readers perceive and
interact with the content. There are six important factors that should be considered while designing a
document.

1. White Space
White space can be defined as a clear area on a page which has no text or graphics. White space is an
essential factor in document design as it helps the reader to process and digest the text easily. In case
of complicated data with lots of detail, white space guides your eye to focus on the important
information. Hence, white space should appear in margins, headings, columns, as well as indentations.

2. Written Cues
The importance of written cues is to help the readers to find specific information quickly. These cues
can be provided through the use of headings, headers and footers, jump lines, icons, as well as logos.
They help to provide an overview which makes the reader skim the document quickly and easily.
Additionally, these cues also divide the document into different segments regarding the different sets
of information presented within the document.

3. Graphic Aid
There is a famous quote ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’. The use of graphics in document
design provides a simple visual aid which summarizes complex information such as complicated
numerical data. Graphic aids have many forms like tables, graphs, diagrams and pictures. The graphic
aids offer readers a quick, simplified explanation which also saves up the document space.

4. Balance
The term ‘balance’ in document design refers to having an equal visual appeal on a page. It is
essential to take this factor into account as it influences the overall appearance of the document.
Distributing visual elements evenly across the page helps create a sense of harmony and avoids a
cluttered appearance.
Important aspects which are instrumental in keeping the balance:
 Colour
 Contrast
 Alignment
 5. Proportion
Proportion is about the size and placement of text, graphic aid, as well as format elements within a
document layout. You should avoid using monotonous layout throughout every page of your
document because it would interfere with the reader’s ability to use the document.

6. Consistency
The final factor that is needed to be considered in document design isconsistency. Consistency is
about maintaining similar features in similar styles, page after page. Consistency helps readers to
emphasize on similar types of information and their importance. There are three most important
elements to consider in keeping a well-balanced consistency of the document. They are margins,
typeface and indentations.

Strategies for Organizing Information

Well organized information is an essential prerequisite for a design so that the user understands easily
what is shown. There are many ways of showing the data, but the one which has stood the test of time
and is efficient even today is called the LATCH principle.
LATCH is a mnemonic for five methods of organizing information: Location, Alphabet, Time,
Category, and Hierarchy. Developed by Richard Saul Wurman, LATCH provides a framework for
structuring information to make it more accessible and understandable.
Here's a breakdown of each method:
 Location:
Information is organized based on geographic or physical location. Examples include maps, travel
guides, or architectural plans.
 Alphabet:
Information is arranged alphabetically, which is useful for lists, directories, or glossaries.
 Time:
Information is ordered chronologically, such as in timelines, historical accounts, or itineraries.
 Category:
Information is grouped by shared characteristics or relatedness. Examples include library books,
supermarket aisles, or website navigation.
 Hierarchy:
Information is organized based on levels of importance or relationships, such as organizational charts,
search engine results, or product listings.
Why use LATCH?
 Improved Understanding:
LATCH helps to structure information in a way that makes it easier to grasp and remember.
 Enhanced Navigation:
By organizing information logically, LATCH makes it easier to find and retrieve specific data.
 Effective Communication:
LATCH can be used to present information clearly and concisely, facilitating better communication
and decision-making.
In essence, LATCH provides a versatile framework for organizing information across various
contexts, from personal notes to large datasets.

Information Design for Print and Online Media

Information design for print and online media involves tailoring content presentation to the specific
characteristics of each medium. Print design prioritizes physical layout, visual hierarchy, and
readability on paper, while online design focuses on digital interfaces, interactivity, and
responsiveness across various devices. Both require careful consideration of audience, purpose, and
effective communication strategies.
Print Media Design:
 Focus:
Creating visually appealing and easily understandable physical materials like brochures, magazines, or
posters.
 Key Elements:
 Visual Hierarchy: Using typography, colour, and layout to guide the reader's eye and
emphasize important information.
 Readability: Ensuring text is clear and easy to read with appropriate font choices and
spacing.
 Paper Quality and Finish: Considering the paper stock and finish to enhance the
overall look and feel.
 High Resolution: Ensuring images and graphics are high-resolution for sharp, clear
printing.
Online Media Design:
 Focus:
Creating engaging and interactive digital experiences on websites, apps, and other online platforms.
 Key Elements:
 Responsive Design: Adapting the layout and content to different screen sizes and
devices.
 User Experience (UX): Ensuring ease of navigation, clear calls to action, and a
seamless user journey.
 Interactivity: Incorporating elements like animations, videos, and clickable links to
enhance engagement.
 Web Accessibility: Web accessibility is about making the internet usable and
enjoyable for everyone, regardless of their abilities or the tools they use to access the
web.

Writing for Print and Online Media

Print Media
 Linear Reading Experience: Print content is typically consumed sequentially, from beginning
to end.
 Longer Formats: Articles can be longer, allowing for more complex narratives and analysis.
 Static Content: Once printed, content cannot be easily updated or modified.
 Credibility and Authority: Print publications often have established reputations and rigorous
fact-checking processes.
 Targeted Audience: Print publications often cater to specific demographics and interests.
 Less Interactive: Print offers limited opportunities for direct reader engagement.

Online Media
 Scannable Content: Online readers often scan content, so writing needs to be concise and
easily digestible.
 Short-Form Content: Online articles are typically shorter and more to the point.
 Interactive Features: Online media allows for comments, sharing, and other interactive
elements.
 Instant Updates: Online content can be updated in real-time, providing timely news and
information.
 Global Reach: Online content can reach a global audience with ease.
  More Conversational Tone: Online writing often adopts a more casual and conversational
tone.
 Shorter Paragraphs and Sentences: Online writing uses shorter paragraphs and sentences to
improve readability.

The differences in writing style for print and online media can be summed up in the following
points:
 Print publications contain linear content that is often consumed in a relaxed setting and
manner. The linear narrative in print can be further spiced up with anecdotes and individual
examples that support a story telling approach. However, the web rewards comprehensive
coverage that’s more specific than print content.
 Web content must be brief and to the point because it is more likely that users are looking for a
particular thing. In many cases, they pull up the page through search. Web users want
actionable content; they don’t want to waste their time on stories that are divergent to their
current goals.
 Print is an author-driven narrative, while web content is a user-drivennarrative. Instead of a
predefined narrative, websites condense and combine information into something that
purposely meets the users’ requirements.
 Print writing requires well-crafted, complete sentences. However, writing incase of online
media is replete with fragmented sentences which often let he users pull information-carrying
keywords to the front. Web users read only 18% of the written words hence, cutting down
words is a practical approach to online writing.

 In print media or linear media which includes television as well, peopleexpect the writer to
construct his/her experience for them, while in online media or nonlinear hypertext, the users
want to construct their own experience by collecting content from multiple sources manifesting
their desires at that moment.
It is undeniable that the web is too quick for intensive learning. It is idealfor narrow, last-minute
learning of information fragments but this is subject to the condition that the learner already has the
conceptual framework in place to make sense of the facts

Important Questions
1. Discuss different steps in the reading of a technical text?
2. Explain the definition and purpose of a summary?
 3. What are the different types of summary? Discuss.
4. Explain the different methods of note making?
5. What is information design? How designing for digital and print media depart from each other.
6. What are the differences in writing style for print and online media?
7. What is the importance of organizing information? Explain the different strategies for
organizing information?

Technical Writing
No writing can be done without a specific purpose!
Technical writing involves more than just putting information into a document that can be understood
and applied by the target audience. The process of writing takes shape according to the need/context
of the target audience. As a technical writer, the first thing is to decide the area of your focus. The
writer should possess sufficient working knowledge that enables him/her to transfer his/her ideas in
simple terms that can be understood easily by the prospective readers.
Difference between Technical Writing and Creative Writing:
Creative Writing Technical Writing

It is persuasive, narrative and descriptive in nature. It is direct, objective, precise and clearly
1
Sentence framed are indirect, unclear and complex. defined. Sentence framed is simple and direct.

Figurative language is used that lays an emotional Figurative language is not used in technical
2
impact on the readers. It is often subjective in nature. writing and hence doesn’t lay an emotional
impact on the readers.

Creative writing involves artistic imagination. The tone Visual aids like graphs, charts, diagrams,
3
can be serious, satirical, casual or funny illustrations, tables, etc are used to make the
content easy to understand.

Plays, poetry, story, action, etc. are the examples of Research articles/publications, reports, note-
4
creative writing. sheets, minutes of meeting, etc. are the
examples of technical writing.

Principles of Technical Writing

There are several principles to guide technical writing:
1. Remember your purpose (to inform or persuade).
2. When starting a new project ask questions like who, why, what, how and when.
 3. Make the content specific to its purpose and audience.
4. Use a style guide and adopt appropriate writing style.
5. Follow the rules of grammar.
6. Follow the concept of seven Cs.

Important Aspects of Writing Process

The writing process approach is about planning and revising, rearranging and deleting text, before
producing the final document for publishing. The writing process helps a writer explore his full
potential. The process is simple and requires patience, revision and the readiness to improve your
work.
Five Steps to Understand the Writing Process

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1. Prewriting/Planning
The key to a great writing is in the planning. Before you sit down to write something, you need to
figure out what you are going to write about. Everything needs to be planned, ‘If you fail to plan, you
plan to fail.’
This initial stage involves brainstorming, researching, and planning. Writers explore ideas, gather
information, and outline the structure of their writing. It is the backbone of a document/writing. It also
includes time spent researching as strong research provides the raw materials necessary to "build" an
effective written document. While planning usually occurs early in the writing process, writers return
to these planning strategies many times throughout the writing process.
 2. Draft
Drafting is the writer’s first attempt to capture ideas on paper. The goal is to create a rough version of
the content, building upon the ideas developed during the prewriting stage. During the drafting stage
you should concentrate on organising your information logically, and developing your topic with
enough detail for your audience and purpose.
3. Revising
Revising literally means to “re-see” or “re-look” at your writing. It is at the heart of the writing
process.
If drafting is for the writer, revision is for the reader. During revision writers consider their writing
from your audience’s point of you. Here a writer revisits, reshapes, and re-views the writing many,
many times. Parts are added, moved around, or taken away.
At this stage most writers and find it helpful to have someone else read their writing. A reader who is
unfamiliar with your document can help you identify which parts are working and which parts are still
unclear.

4. Editing
While revising focuses mainly on making your content clear for your readers, editing focuses on
making your documents meet the conventions of standard written English. Editing focuses on
correcting errors in:
a. Grammar
b. Sentence structure
c. Word choice
d. Spellings
e. Punctuation
f. Capitalization
g. Citation and document format
This stage ensures the writing is polished and error-free. Editing enhances the readability and
professionalism of the written piece.

5. Publishing
Writing is communication- if you have written something, you must have intended for someone to
read it, even if that person is only yourself. Sharing writing with real people is what makes it become
real and come alive. It also helps the writer develop a sense of audience and voice.
When you publish a document, you are releasing it to the public for others to read. Not all of your
writing will be taken through the publishing stage, but even turning a paper in to your teacher
constitutes “publishing.”

Ways to publish your writing include:

 Turning in a paper to your teacher.

 Entering an essay contest.

 Sending a letter to the editor.

 Writing for your school newspaper, yearbook, or literary magazine.

 Posting a piece of writing on the Internet.

 Writing a letter to a public official or company

 Submitting your work to a young writer's magazine.

Forms of Technical Discourse

Discourse is an extensive term used in reference to spoken and written language that is used in many different
personal, social and technical contexts. Discourse can vary according to the target audience and purpose of speech
or writing. The writer tries to communicate with the readers using literary devices and compositional techniques
(rhetoric).

The most common modes of rhetoric are narration, description, persuasion, argumentation, exposition and the
purpose for writing.

1. Narration

Narrative writing tells a story by describing events. It often employsdescriptive writing to help fashion a scene.
The purpose of this rhetorical mode is to show the reader what happened and how.

Features involved in narration:

a. Narrative point of view (First person or third person)

b. Characters

c. Setting
 d. Plot

e. Conflict & Resolution

2. Description
It often depicts a person, place or thing with great illustrative detail. Italso features descriptive words/phrases and
sensory images. The five Ws (who, what, when, where and why) must be kept in mind for a lively
and precise description. Descriptive techniques are used in:
a. Journal entries
b. Poems and fiction
c. Biography

3. Persuasion
The purpose of persuasive discourse is to convince the readers/listeners to change their mode of thinking or to
persuade them to take a specific action. Persuasion often appeals to emotion. Persuasive techniques are often used
in:
a. Advertisements
b. Political campaigns

4. Argumentation

Argumentative discourse is similar to persuasive discourse. However, the arguments should be logical and be
supported by facts. Persuasive techniques are often used in an argument.

5. Exposition

This style of writing attempts to explain, inform or analyze an idea or concept so that the reader knows exactly
what the writer means. Its purpose is to convey information about an issue, subject, method or an idea. Exposition
techniques are often used in:
Exposition techniques are often used in:
a. History books
b. Biographies
c. Autobiographies
d. Some novels

To identify discourse types one must pay attention to:

a. The writer’s purpose
 b. The main idea of the speech/passage
c. The type of language used
d. The way the information is organized

Common Errors
Writing and speaking in English as a non-native speaker has its own set of glitches and difficulties.
Grammatical errors can easily confuse and obscure meaning. Generally, we find the common errors
with prepositions, tenses, subject-verb agreement, punctuation or spellings, etc.

Some English grammar mistakes we commonly make:

Incorrect:
Myself I am Suresh babu.
Correct:
I am Suresh babu. While introducing oneself, it is usually observed that the users mix up both the
Possessive pronoun ‘myself’ and the subject pronoun ‘I’.
Incorrect:
I am having four brothers and three sisters.
Correct:
I have four brothers and three sisters. Present continuous tense cannot be used for pragmatic situations like this.
Instead, simple present tense should be used.
Incorrect:
He do not have a laptop.
Correct:
He does not have a laptop. ‘Do not’ should not be used after the subject pronoun (He, She, It).
Incorrect:
His son-in-laws have come home.
Correct:
His sons-in-law have come home. In plural form, it is always mothers-in-law, brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, etc.
Incorrect:
I prefer coffee than tea.
Correct:
I prefer coffee to tea.
‘Prefer’ is always followed by the preposition ‘to’

Exercise: Correct the Mistakes

1. We are only five on our team.
2. I would rather to work from home than come to the office.
3. We’re used to have a lot of work to do, so meeting the deadline won’t be a problem.
4. My client sent me an email but I haven’t replied her yet.
5. May be I’m going to finish this today.
6. Please borrow me you badge so I can get into the storage closet.
 7. I can’t finish this by the end of the day. Even though I spend all day on it, I won’t finish on time.
8. Probably, I’ll go to the beach on Saturday.
9. The Old Man and the Sea was written for Ernest Hemingway.
10. Our office is near to the airport, so it will be easy for you to get here.
11. We have many stuffs to do this week, so I don’t know if I can go to English class.
12. Despite I was tired, came to work today.
13. If we had a gym here, I can work out after work.
14. I always try to do things very careful and make sure I do them correct(two mistakes)
15. We have people from all over the world here: India, United States, Venezuela, Canada, United Kingdom,
Germany, and France (two mistakes)
16. Are we going to have to work over time again this week? I hope no.
17. Yesterday, he told me that he will send the email after lunch, but he didn’t do it.
18. My schedule often changes, but I normally work since 9 a.m. to 6 p.m.

Exercise: Adjective or Adverb Exercise

Choose the correct option:
1. He (correct, correctly) defined the terms. The answer sounded (correctly, correct).
2. She (quickly, quick) adjusted the fees. She adapted (quick, quickly) to any situation.
3. He measured the oor (exact, exactly). They proved to be (perfectly, perfect) (exactly) measurements.
4. The stillness of the tomb was (awfully, awful). The tomb was (awfully, awful) still.
5. It was a (dangerously, dangerous) lake to swim in. The man was (dangerous, dangerously) drunk. The gas
smelled (dangerously, dangerous).
6. She performed (magnificent, magnificently). It was a (magnificent, magnificently) beautiful performance.
7. Her voice sound (beautifully, beautiful). She sang the song (exact, exactly) as it was written. We heard it
(perfectly, perfect).
8. He was a very (sensibly, sensible) person. He acted very (sensible, sensibly).
9. Mike wrote too (slow, slowly) on the exam. He always writes (slow, slowly).
10. Talk (softly, soft) or don’t talk at all. The music played (softly, soft).
11. Andrea knows the material very (good, well). She always treats us (good, well).
12. You must send payment (regular, regularly). We deal on a (strictly, strict) cash basis.
13. The mechanic’s tools were (well, good). The foreman said that his work was (good, well) done.14. She
worked (careful, carefully) with the sick child. She was a very (careful, carefully) worker.15. He did not
pass the course as (easy, easily) as he thought he would.16. I find this novel very (interesting,
interestingly). It was (interesting, interestingly) written.

Comprehension of Technical Materials/Texts and Information Design & development- Reading of technical texts, Reading
and comprehending instructions and technical manuals, Interpreting and summarizing technical texts, Notemaking.
Introduction of different kinds of technical documents, Information collection, factors affecting information and document
design, Strategies for organization, Information design and writing for print and online media