UNIT-3----- hand off

Why hand off is necessary? In an analog system, once a call is established, the set-up channel is
not used again during the call period. Therefore, handoff is always implemented on the voice
channel. In the digital systems, the handoff is carried out through paging or common control
channel. The value of implementing handoffs is dependent on the size of the cell.

For example, The handoffs are very essential. Handoff is needed in two situations where the cell
site receives weak signals from the mobile unit: (1) at the cell boundary, say, −100 dBm, which
is the level for requesting a handoff in a noise-limited environment; and (2) when the mobile unit
is reaching the signal-strength holes (gaps) within the cell site as shown in Fig.1.

types of handoffs:

(1)based on signal strength and

(2) based on carrierto-interference ratio.

The handoff criteria are different for these two types. In type 1, the signal-strength threshold
level for handoff is −100 dBm in noise-limited systems and −95 dBm in interference limited
systems. In type 2, the value of C/I at the cell boundary for handoff should be at a level, 18 dB
for AMPS(AMPS stands for Advanced Mobile Phone System. It was the first generation of
analog cellular technology) in order to have toll quality voice. Sometimes, a low value of C/I
may be used for capacity reasons.

Type 1: It is easy to implement. The location receiver at each cell site measures all the signal
strengths of all receivers at the cell site. However, the received signal strength (RSS) itself
includes interference.

RSS = C + I where C is the carrier signal power and I is the interference.

Suppose that we set up a threshold level for RSS; then, because of the I , which is sometimes
very strong, the RSS level is higher and far above the handoff threshold level. In this situation
handoff should theoretically take place but does not.

Another situation is when I is very low but RSS is also low. In this situation, the voice quality
usually is good even though the RSS level is low, but since RSS is low, unnecessary handoff
takes place. Therefore, it is an easy but not very accurate method of determining handoffs. Some
analog systems use SAT information together with the received signal level to determine
handoffs. Some CDMA systems use pilot channel information.

Type 2: Handoffs can be controlled by using the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I C+I/I = C/I

we can set a level based on C/I ,so C drops as a function of distance but I is dependent on the
location. If the handoff is dependent on C/I , and if the C/I drops, it does so in response to
increase in (1) propagation distance or (2) interference. In both cases, handoff should take place.
In today’s cellular systems, it is hard to measure C/I during a call because of analog modulation.
Sometimes we measure the level I before the call is connected, and the level C + I during the
call. Thus (C + I )/I can be obtained.
HANDOFF INITIATION

(a) Improper Handoff Situation:

 Graph Overview:
o The received signal level from the original base station (BS 1) drops over time as
the mobile user moves away.
o A point labeled "Level at point A" shows the signal has crossed the handoff
threshold, but no handoff was initiated.
 o The signal continues to drop below the minimum acceptable signal to maintain
the call.
o At point B, the call is terminated due to signal degradation.
o The handoff wasn't made early enough — it should have occurred around point A.
o This results in a dropped call — which is undesirable in mobile networks.

(b) Proper Handoff Situation:

 Graph Overview:
o As the signal level from BS 1 starts to decrease, a handoff is properly initiated
before the signal reaches the unacceptable threshold.
o At point B, the handoff is executed successfully, and the call is transferred to BS
2.
o The call continues without interruption.
o This is a successful and timely handoff.

 Handoff Threshold: The point where the signal is still strong enough for communication
but weak enough to warrant a handoff.
 Minimum Acceptable Signal: The lowest signal level at which a call can be maintained.
Below this, the call drops.
 A handoff should occur before the signal drops below this level to ensure call continuity.
 Improper handoff leads to call drops, while a proper handoff ensures a seamless
communication experience.

CONCEPT OF DELAYING A HANDOFF:

In many cases, a two-handoff-level algorithm is used. The purpose of creating two request
handoff levels is to provide more opportunity for a successful handoff. A handoff could be
delayed if no available cell could take the call. A plot of signal strength with two request handoff
levels and a threshold level is shown in Fig.3. The plot of average signal strength is recorded on
the channel received.
Signal strength indicator (RSSI), which is installed at each channel receiver at the cell site. When
the signal strength drops below the first handoff level, a handoff request is initiated. If for some
reason the mobile unit is in a hole (a weak spot in a cell) or a neighboring cell is busy, the
handoff will be requested periodically every 5s. At the first handoff level, the handoff takes place
if the new signal is stronger.

However, when the second handoff level is reached, the call will be handed off with no
condition. The MSO always handles the handoff call first and the originating calls second. If no
neighboring calls are available after the second handoff level is reached, the call continues until
the signal strength drops below the threshold level; then the call is dropped.

In AMPS systems if the supervisory audio tone (SAT) is not sent back to the cell site by the
mobile unit within 5 s, the cell site turns off the transmitter.

The other advantage of having a two-handoff-level algorithm is that it makes the handoff occur
at the proper location and eliminates possible interference in the system. Figure 3, case I, shows
the area where the first-level handoff occurs between cell A and cell B. If we only use the
second-level handoff boundary of cell A, the area of handoff is too close to cell B. Figure 3, case
II, also shows where the second-level handoff occurs between cell A and cell C. This is because
the first-level handoff cannot be implemented.
Advantages of Delayed Handoff

 Help in handling the call more adequately.

Disadvantages of Delayed Handoff

 The quality of the call could go for a loss.

 Chances of calls being dropped are very high.

Where is Delayed Handoff Used?

Delayed handoffs are generally used when users are somewhere where dead spots (areas where
there is no network coverage) are quite common.

Intersystem handoff
The diagram labeled "Figure 2: Intersystem Handoff" illustrates how a mobile communication
system handles handoffs between two different states or service areas, managed by separate
Mobile Telephone Switching Offices (MTSOs).

1. CGSA-A and CGSA-B:

o These are Cellular Geographic Service Areas, each managed by a separate
cellular provider or system.
o CGSA-A and CGSA-B are operated by different states, which may have different
infrastructures.
2. MTSO A and MTSO B:
o MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office) is the central controller for a
group of base stations (cells).
o MTSO A controls CGSA-A and MTSO B controls CGSA-B.
o Responsible for call setup, routing, handoff coordination, and mobility
management.
3. Mobile Phone (Car icon):
o Represents a moving mobile user.
o Initially connected to a cell within CGSA-A.
o Moves toward the boundary and into CGSA-B’s coverage area.
4. CO (Central Office):
o The traditional landline switching office.
o Connects cellular calls to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
🔄 What Is an Intersystem Handoff?

An intersystem handoff (also known as inter-MTSO handoff) occurs when:

 A mobile user moves from one service provider’s area to another’s (e.g., from CGSA-
A to CGSA-B).
 The call must be handed off from MTSO A to MTSO B.
 This process involves coordination between two separate systems—often with
different databases, network configurations, and perhaps even different technologies
(e.g., GSM to CDMA in earlier systems).

⚙️Steps in Intersystem Handoff:

1. Signal Weakening:
o The signal from CGSA-A weakens as the mobile moves out of range.
2. Handoff Decision:
o MTSO A detects the weakening signal and queries MTSO B (or vice versa) to
check signal strength from its nearby towers.
o If MTSO B confirms availability, it allocates channels/resources to accept the
handoff.
o MTSO A hands off control of the call to MTSO B.
o The call routing might change (dashed line) and continue through the CO to the
PSTN.

✅ Why Is Intersystem Handoff Important?

 Ensures seamless call continuity when moving across coverage areas managed by
different networks.
 Critical for roaming services and nationwide/international mobility.
 Requires more complex coordination than intrasystem handoffs due to differences in
infrastructure, databases (like HLR/VLR), and possibly communication protocols.
Advantages of Hard Handoff

 Hard Handovers are cheaper as they require only one channel to be active at a time.
 Hard Handoffs are generally implemented more than Soft Handoffs thanks to their
efficiency.
 More efficient in LTE, 5G, and Wi-Fi networks.

Disadvantages of Hard Handoff

 A delay is often experienced while switching, but it generally is quite small such that the
user does not experience it. 5G beamforming minimizes this issue.
Advantages of Soft Handoff

 It provides better Quality Assurance as a channel is always on stand by in case of power

loss in any other channel.
 More than one repeater can send and receive signals to transmit signals to and from
mobiles, increasing transfer speed.
 Delay is very low
 Soft Handoffs lead to an increase in the signal to interference ratio, without performance
loss. This is known as the Soft Handover Gain.

Disadvantages of Soft Handoff

  Only supported for phones that employ CDMA/ WCDMA, and cannot be implemented in
LTE, 5G, or GSM.
 Costlier to implement than Hard Handoff as a channel is always wasted by being the
backup.

Forced Handoff in Mobile Communication

A Forced Handoff can occur in two ways, either by forcing a handoff to occur or forcibly
preventing a handoff that was supposed to happen from not happening. This could be done when
the number of users exceeds the capacity of the network.
Where is Forced Handoff Used?

Forced Handoffs are generally used for security and surveillance purposes, and also to manage
network traffic better.
Advantages of Forced Handoff

 Helps in mobility management by controlling which devices are to remain connected.

 Prevents the network from the threat of being down due to congestion.

Disadvantages of Forced Handoff

  Increased chances of high latency and dropped calls.

Mobile Assisted Handover (MAHO)

In MAHO, mobile devices actively measure signal strengths and quality from nearby base
stations and assist the network in deciding the optimal moment and target cell for handover. how
it enhances network performance and user experience in cellular systems like GSM, 4G, and 5G.

As shown, the mobile is currently using TS0 and TS4 time slots for conversations with BTS-A.
In order to perform handover, the mobile continuously performs RSSI measurements.(RSSI
stands for Received Signal Strength Indication).

From the neighbor cell measurements, the mobile decides on which cell or BTS to handoff to. It
does this based on higher signal strength among the ones collected.

Normally, the mobile uses either dedicated idle time slots in the TDMA frame or any unused
time slots for the RSSI measurements. As shown, the Mobile is connected with BTS-A, i.e., the
serving base station, while BTS-B and BTS-C are the target BTSs.

From BTS-B and BTS-C, whichever has a higher RSSI at the mobile station, the mobile will use
that BTS for handover
Fig. Cell site handoff only scheme
 1. No queuing on either the originating calls or the handoff calls. The blocking for either
an originating call or a handoff call is

Where

Queuing the originating calls but not the handoff calls. The blocking probability for
originating calls is

Where

The blocking probability for handoff calls is

2. Queuing the handoff calls but not the originating calls. The blocking probability
for handoff calls is

The blocking probability for originating calls is

We have seen (Fig..) with queuing of originating calls only, the probability of blocking is
reduced. However, queuing of originating calls results in increased blocking probability on
handoff calls, and this is a drawback. With queuing of handoff calls only, blocking probability is
reduced from 5.9 to 0.1 percent by using one queue space. Therefore it is very worthwhile to
implement a simple queue (one space) for handoff calls.
 Fig.. Originating queue size

Adding queues in handoff calls does not affect the blocking probability of originating calls.
However, we should always be aware that queuing for the handoff is more important than
queuing for those initiating calls on assigned voice channels because call drops upset
customers more than call blockings.

Power difference handoff

A better algorithm is based on the power difference (Δ) of a mobile signal received by two
cell sites, home and handoff. Δ can be positive or negative. The handoff occurs depending on
a preset value of Δ.

Δ = the mobile signal measured at the candidate handoff site − the mobile signal measured at
the home site

For example, the following cases can occur.

Δ> 3 dB request a handoff

1dB <Δ< 3 dB prepare a handoff

−3dB <Δ< 0 dB monitoring the signal strength

Δ< −3 dB no handoff

Those numbers can be changed to fit the switch processor capacity. This algorithm is not
based on the received signal strength level, but on a relative (power difference)
measurement. Therefore, when this algorithm is used, all the call handoffs for different
vehicles can occur at the same general location in spite of different mobile antenna gains or
heights.
Definition of dropped call rate and consideration of dropped call rates
The definition of a dropped call is after the call is established but before it is properly
terminated. The definition of “the call is established” means that the call is setup completely
by the setup channel.

If there is a possibility of a call drop due to no available voice channels, this is counted as a
blocked call not a dropped call.

If there is a possibility that a call will drop due to the poor signal of the assigned voice
channel, this is considered a dropped call.

This case can happen when the mobile or portable units are at a standstill and the radio
carrier is changed from a strong setup channel to a weak voice channel due to the selective
frequency fading phenomenon.

The perception of dropped call rate by the subscribers can be higher due to:

1. The subscriber unit not functioning properly (needs repair).

2. The user operating the portable unit in a vehicle (misused).

3. The user not knowing how to get the best reception from a portable unit (needs education).

In principle, dropped call rate can be set very low if we do not need to maintain the voice
quality. The dropped call rate and the specified voice quality level are inversely
proportional. In designing a commercial system, the specified voice quality level is given
relating to how much C/I (or C/N) the speech coder can tolerate. By maintaining a certain
voice quality level, the dropped call rate can be calculated by taking the following factors into
consideration:

1. Provide signal coverage based on the percentage (say 90 percent) that the entire
received signal will be above a given signal level.

2. Maintain the specified co-channel and adjacent channel interference levels in each cell
during a busy hour (i.e., the worst interference case).

3. Because the performance of the call dropped rate is calculated as possible call dropping in
every stage from the radio link to the PSTN connection, the response time of the handoff in
the network will be a factor when the cell becomes small, the response time for a handoff
request has to be shorter in order to reduce the call dropped rate.

General formula of dropped call rate

The general formula of dropped call rate P in a whole system can be expressed as:
Where

is the probability of a dropped call when the call has gone through n handoffs and