First Reporter earth cast on the moon provides Earth based on his observations

HOW GREEKS KNEW THAT evidence that the world is of the stars. He noted that as
THE EARTH IS SPHERICAL round. The famous Greek one
philosopher Aristotle (384-322 moves north or south, different
The Sphere of the world BC) stars become visible, and the
In the fifth century B.C., the supported this claim. He position of Polaris changes
Pythagoreans proposed a concluded that Earth is spherical accordingly. At the North Pole,
spherical model of the Earth because it always projects a Polaris is directly overhead,
and the heavens, challenging curved shadow when it eclipses while it appears lower in the sky
the prevailing belief in a flat the moon. as one travels toward the
Earth. Greek geographers and equator. At the equator, Polaris
astronomers based their work Aristarchus of Samos (3rd B.C.) is at the horizon, and it cannot
on this theory, which was used the information during a be seen in the Southern
supported by visible evidence lunar eclipse in figuring out Hemisphere. These observations
that indicated the Earth's Earth's size. The large circle provided early evidence for the
roundness. This understanding represents the sun, the medium Earth's round shape.
was a significant achievement of circle represents the Earth, and For almost 13 centuries after
ancient astronomy. the smallest circle represents Ptolemy's tie, very few
the moon. Measuring the Earth's astronomical advances were
Experiencing the sphere of shadow on the moon during the made in Europe - some were
earth lunar Eclipse is very important in even lost, including the notion of
calculating the Earth's size. a spherical Earth. It's Columbus'
Socrates and Plato argued that voyage made them understood
the Earth is spherical, Eratosthenes (240 B.C) that they traveled in a spherical
supported by observations from estimated the Earth's world. The Earth is round has
sailors who noticed that a ship's circumference. He measured been a fact for centuries.
sails appeared before its hull the shadows cast in Alexandria
due to the Earth's curvature. and Syene in calculating their ASTRONOMICAL
This phenomenon, along with angle to the Sun. Since there PHENOMENA KNOWN TO
various astronomical was no standard unit of ASTRONOMERS BEFORE
observations, reinforced the idea measurement, yet his THE ADVENT OF
of a spherical Earth, contrasting calculations accuracy was TELESCOPES
with the expectations of a flat questioned in his time. However, Astronomy - Astronomy is the
Earth, where the entire ship the measurement was very close science of the universe outside
would be visible at once. to the actual Earth's size. Greeks of our planet. This is the branch
used mathematics in theorizing of physical science dealing with
Measuring the size of the earth the nature of their world. Even heavenly bodies.
Empedocles and Anaxagoras they held a range of beliefs
(5th Century B.C.) offered a about nature and the world; Astronomical Terms
discussion for the Earth's they underwent empirical Moon: A natural object that
spherical nature using the lunar exploration to find shreds of orbits a larger object.
eclipse. The earth is casting a evidence to support those
shadow on the moon during the beliefs. Eclipse: when one celestial body
lunar eclipse. This shadow of the such as a moon or planet moves
into the shadow of another
Aristotle argued for a spherical
celestial body.
Solar eclipse: a type of eclipse The moon undergoes a 29-day
that occurs when the Moon 1.Rising and setting of the sun cycle of phases:
passes between the Babylonian and Egyptian
Sun and Earth, and the Moon civilizations used a primitive 1.New Moon: Not visible,
fully or partially blocks the light version of a sundial, called aligned with the sun.
from the Sun. gnomon, in systematically 2. Waxing Crescent: A thin
Lunar Phase: one of the observing the motion of the sun. crescent visible after sunset.
cyclically recurring apparent By looking at the shadows that 3. First Quarter: Half the moon is
forms of the moon the gnomon casts, they were illuminated, rising at noon.
Gibbous: the figure of the moon able to observe that the sun 4. Full Moon: Fully illuminated,
that is more than half full, rises in the eastern part of the rises at sunset and sets at
looking sky, reaches its highest point in sunrise.
swollen on one side midday, and sets in the western 5. Waning Gibbous: Gradually
Crescent: the figure of the moon part of the sky. losing light after full moon.
that appears as a curve with 6. Last Quarter: Half illuminated
pointy ends Waxing: growing; The complex interactions again, rising at midnight.
describes the moon when the between Earth's rotation, its 7. Waning Crescent: Thin
illuminated portion is increasing elliptical orbit around the Sun, crescent leading back to the new
Waning: shrinking: describes the and the tilt of its axis, which all moon.
moon when the illuminated contribute to the variations in
portion is decreasing sunrise and sunset times There are two types of eclipse,
Planet: In the solar system, a throughout the year. Lunar and solar eclipse
planet is a large round object
that orbits the Sun and has  Seasonal Changes 3.SOLAR ECLIPSE
cleared out most of the other  Elliptical Orbit A solar eclipse occurs when the
objects in its orbit.  Daily and Annual Motion moon blocks the sun, casting a
Solar System: The Sun and all of  Solstices And Equinox shadow on Earth. This can create
the planets, comets, etc. that  Perception of the total darkness for those in the
revolve around it. movement umbra for 2 to 3 minutes, with a
maximum of 7.5 minutes.
Even before the advent of the 2. Phases of the Moon Ancient people often feared
telescopes, ancient astronomers The lunar cycle consists of eight eclipses, interpreting them as
were able to observe the phases over about 29.53 days, signs of impending disasters.
following: starting with the new moon
1. rising and setting of the Sun in when the moon is dark. Each 4.LUNAR ECLIPSE
the east and the west, month in lunar calendars begins A lunar eclipse happens when
respectively, with this phase, leading to a full the Earth aligns between the
2. point where the Sun rises and moon around the 14th or 15th sun and the moon, casting a
sets in the horizon varies in a day. The visible changes in the shadow on the moon during a
year, moon's shape result from its full moon. It can be partial or
3. phases of the moon, rotation and orbit around Earth, total, visible to everyone on the
4. lunar eclipse, with phases including waxing night side of the Earth. During a
5. solar eclipse, crescent, first quarter, waxing total lunar eclipse, the moon
6. daily and annual motion of gibbous, full moon, waning appears reddish due to
the stars, and gibbous, last quarter, and atmospheric filtering of sunlight.
7. planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, waning crescent. These eclipses typically occur
Jupiter, and Saturn. two weeks before or after solar
eclipses, which happen during a
new moon. occurs over about 26,000 years. Mars, known as the "Red
Currently, the North Pole points Planet,"
5. Daily and Annual Motion of to Polaris, but it will eventually may have conditions suitable for
Stars shift to point toward the star life, with a day/night cycle and
It was also observed that the Vega. seasons similar to Earth. Its
stars appear to be attached to a landscape features craters, lava
celestial sphere. that rotates 6. Planets Discovered Before flows, and signs of ancient water
around an axis in one day. This the Invention of Telescope activity. The polar ice caps
axis intersects the celestial expand and contract with the
sphere at a point in the northern MERCURY seasons, indicating climatic
sky and is presently close to the Mercury is the smallest and changes over time. Unlike
northern star, Polaris. Also, the fastest planet in our solar Earth's tectonics, which are
constellations positions in the system, slightly larger than the horizontal, Mars has vertical
night sky vary depending on the Moon and closest to the Sun. It tectonics, characterized by
time of the year. has little to no atmosphere, upward-moving lava. The planet
leading to extreme temperatures also experiences significant dust
Diurnal Motion that can reach 430°C (800°F) on storms that alter its surface.
Diurnal motion is the daily the sunlit side and drop to - With temperatures manageable
apparent movement of stars and 170°C (-280°F) on the dark side. for human habitation, Mars is
the sun across the sky, caused by Mercury orbits the Sun in just 88 orbited by two small moons,
the Earth's rotation. It makes Earth days but rotates slowly, Phobos and Deimos, adding to
celestial bodies seem to move resulting in long, hot days. It’s its interest as a potential habitat
from east to west, with the sun hard to observe from Earth, for life.
rising in the east and setting in except during twilight or during
the west. rare transits, which happen JUPITER
about 13 times a century. Its Jupiter is the largest planet in
Annual Motion elliptical orbit the solar system, primarily made
Annual motion refers to the brings it as close as 47 million of hydrogen and helium. Its
Earth's journey around the Sun, kilometers (29 million miles) and volume is about 1,300 times that
which takes about a year to as far as 70 million kilometers of Earth, while its mass is around
complete. This motion causes (43 million miles) from the Sun. 300 times greater. With a
the changing seasons and the diameter approximately 11
apparent movement of the Sun VENUS times that of Earth, Jupiter also
and stars against the backdrop Venus is the second planet from has four major moons and many
of the sky over the course of the the Sun and the brightest object smaller ones, creating a
year. in the night sky after the Moon, miniature solar system. If it were
known as the "evening star" or about eighty times more
Procession of Equinoxes "morning star." It resembles massive, it might have become a
The Sun intersects the celestial Earth in size and composition star instead of a planet.
equator at two points called but has no oceans and a dense
equinoxes: the vernal equinox in atmosphere that traps heat, SATURN
March and the autumnal leading to extreme temperatures Saturn is famous for its stunning
equinox in September, when day and high pressure. Venus rotates rings, including two bright ones
and night are nearly equal. slowly and in the opposite and a fainter inner ring, all
Earth's axis experiences a direction of most planets, with a aligned with its equator. It is the
"wobbling" effect due to the day lasting 243 Earth days. second largest planet, nearly ten
gravitational pull of the Sun and times the diameter of Earth, and
Moon, causing precession, MARS has a mass about 100 times
which greater. Saturn has around 23
moons, with Titan being the he established an observatory understanding of the solar
largest. Composed mostly of on an island in Denmark, where system by defining elliptical
hydrogen and helium, it has a he made detailed astronomical orbits and varying planetary
volume 755 times that of Earth observations for nearly 20 years speeds, laying the foundation for
and extreme winds in its and trained many young modern astronomy.
atmosphere, which create its astronomers. After losing his
yellow and gold bands. Saturn is position following the king's KEPLER'S THREE LAWS
also one of the brightest objects death, he moved to Prague,
visible in the night sky. where he worked with Johannes JOHANNES KEPLER THREE LAWS
Kepler, who used Brahe's OF PLANETARY MOTION:
BRAHE'S INNOVATION extensive data to develop his Kepler's three laws of planetary
own groundbreaking theories on motion can be summarized as
Claudios Ptolemy planetary motion. follows:
Before Tycho Brahe was born, Tycho Brahe
majority of the astronomers As a result of these Kepler's first law. Each planet
agreed that the earth was the observations, Brahe put forward moves around the Sun in an
center of the universe a new model for the cosmos. In arbit that is an ellipse, with the
(geocentrism). This idea was Brahe's model, all of the planets Sun at one focus of the ellipse
common during ancient times orbited the sun, and the sun and Kepler's second law: The
and was popularized by the moon orbited the Earth. straight line joining a planet and
Ptolemy. Astronomer and Keeping with his observation of the Sun aweeps out equal areas
mathematician from Alexandria the new star and the comet, his in space in equal intervals of t
in 150 CE model allowed the path of the equal time
planet Mars to cross through the Kepler's third law: The square of
Nicholas Copernicus path of the sun. a planet's orbital period is
Nicholas Copernicus orgued that directly proportional to the cube
the sun, not the earth was the Although Tycho Brahe published of the semi major axis of its
center of the universe an "earth-centered model of the orbit.
(heliocentrism). In 1543, universe, hir observations of the
Copernicus published his book universe and collection of data, Kepler believed that a force from
"On the Revolutions of the was considered a huge the Sun was necessary to explain
Heavenly Spheres" with a brief contribution to our planetary motion, visualizing it
argument for the heliocentric understanding of the universe. as a rotating spoke
universe and follows with an pushing planets in their orbits.
extensive technical set of Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) He accurately attributed tides to
mathematical proofs and Sun Centered Model the Moon's gravity, but Galileo
astronomical tables, Johannes Kepler, born into mocked this idea, preferring a
poverty in Württemberg, mechanical explanation. Their
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Earth- Germany, studied theology and differing perspectives reflect the
Centered Model embraced Copernicus's evolving understanding of forces
Tycho Brahe, is a DANISH heliocentric model. At 27, he and motion in the early scientific
ASTRONOMER born in 1546 into became Tycho Brahe's assistant revolution.
a wealthy Danish noble family, and inherited his extensive
became a prominent astronomical data after Brahe's Second Reporter
astronomer after observing a death. Kepler formulated three ARISTOTELIAN VS
nova in Cassiopeia in 1572 and a laws of planetary motion, GALILEAN VIEWS OF
comet in 1577, challenging the published between 1609 and MOTION
idea of fixed celestial bodies. 1618, which revolutionized our
Supported by King Frederick II, What is Motion?
Motion is the change in position constant speed requires no force required only to change the
of an object with respect to its to keep them moving. It will state of motion (start, stop, or
surroundings in a given interval continue in motion due to alter
of time. inertia unless an external force direction or speed), not to
acts on them. maintain it.
Who is Aristotle?
Aristotle (c. 384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) Vertical Motion Third Reporter
was an Ancient Greek Aristotelian Concept: Heavy Propagation of Light,
philosopher and scientist who is object fall faster than light ones. Reflection and
still considered one of the An increase in speed is Refraction are
greatest thinkers in politics, proportional to the weight of the explained by the wave
psychology and ethics. object model and the particle
model of light
Who is Gelileo Galilei? Galelian Concept: The rate of fall
was an Italian natural or acceleration of an object is OBJECTIVES
philosopher, astronomer, and independent to their mass. * Explain the wave and particle
mathematician who made models of light
fundamental contributions to Projectile Motion * Describe reflection and
the sciences of motion, Aristotelian Concept: The refraction in terms of the wave
astronomy, and strength of motion of a projectile is parallel and particle models of light
materials. Galileo has been to the ground until it is the
called the father of object’s time to fall back in to Who Proposed the Wave
observational astronomy, the ground Theory?
modern-era classical physics, the
scientific method, and modern Galelian Concept: Projectile In his Traité de la Lumière (1690;
science. moves to dimensional motion in "Treatise on Light"), the Dutch
a parabolic path mathematician- astronomer
Aristotle Concept of Motion Christian Huygens formulated
Subtle distinction between the first detailed wave theory of
1.Natural Motion Newton’s law of inertia and light, in the context of which he
Natural motion is the motion Galileo’s assertion on Horizontal was also able to derive the laws
arising from the nature of an Motion
object. This motion does not of reflection and refraction.
require an external cause in Galileo’s assertion - Galileo
order to occur. proposed that once an object is Wave Theory of light
set in motion in horizontal plane describes how light propagates
2. Violent Motion with no friction or resistance, it in the same way as we model
Violent motion occurs in an would continue moving at a ocean waves moving through
object which moves when an constant velocity without the the water.
external force such as pushing or need for any external force
pulling is applied to it. WAVE THREORY OF LIGHT
Newton’s First law: Inertia - Light coming from a source
Horizontal Motion Newton Formalized and sends out waves in a medium
Aristotelian Concept: Force is expanded Galileo’s idea. It states called ether. A medium is not
required to maintain horizontal that an object will remain at rest necessary for the propagation of
motion. All moving bodies or continue in motion unless waves
naturally have to rest. acted upon by an external force. - Light is a form of energy and
Galelian Concept: Objects Newton says that force is has wave characteristics
moving in the straight lines at a
 not show diffraction A Particle Nature of light
characteristics like sound. The concept of light as a
quantized form of energy
EXAMPLE emerged during 1900s when
1. CD/DVD reflection: Light Max Planck postulated the
waves reflect off microscopic Particle Model of Light Theory blackbody radiation. This marks
grooves. The light consisted of particles the beginning of quantum
2. Camera lenses: Refraction that travelled in straight lines theory, which believes that
focuses light onto sensors. when light beams crossed, the energy comes in discrete units
3. Binoculars/Telescopes: Lenses particles would collide and called quanta. Later on Albert
refract and magnify light. cancel each other. Einstein supported this idea of
4. Glass windows: Refraction Planck and suggested that light
bends light, allowing visibility. What is Propagation of Light? is composed of tiny particles
Propagation of Light in the called photon and each photon
What is Propagation of Light? Particle Model Theory refers to possesses energy.
Propagation of Light refers to the spread of light through
the spread of light through space as particles or photons. 1. BLACKBODY RADIATION
space. According to Wave Model A blackbody is a surface or
Theory, light is a wave that Reflection object that is capable of
spreads through a medium like -is the bouncing of light as it hits absorbing all incoming radiation
air, water, or vacuum. a surface. Newton demonstrated falling on it and reflects no
that particles collide with the radiation, thus appears black at
Reflection surface and surface and bounce room temperature. However,
happens when light bounces off back. when exposed to certain
an object. Upon hitting a smooth amount of temperature, the
surface as illustrated in figure b, Refraction blackbody radiates certain
light would be reflected. The -is the bending of light. it is an amount of energy with
waves would bounce back, attraction between the associated wavelength.
producing a reversed image of molecules of the medium and
the wave the particles of light which This means that, as the
contribute to the chance of temperature increases, the
Refraction speed as the particles of the average wavelength emitted
is the bending of wave when it light travels inside the medium. decreases, and the radiation
enters a medium where its becomes invisible. When the
speed changes. in figure b, the Fourth Reporter temperature decreases, the
wave front approaches the two PHOTON CONCEPT AND wavelength increases, and the
media with different densities. IT’S PRACTICAL radiation becomes visible, from
APPLICATION red to glowing white.
Who Proposed the Particle
Theory? PHOTON We can say that the spectrum
The term "photon" comes from emitted by the blackbody
Newton's model of light the Greek word "phos," which depends on the temperature,
proposes that propagation of means "light." not on the material the object is
light is caused by the rectilinear • It is the smallest discrete made of.
motion of light particles which amount or quantum of
he termed light corpuscles. electromagnetic radiation. To explain the blackbody
Newton thought light cannot be • It is the basic unit of light. radiation, Planck came up with
a wave primarily because it did an equation to explain the
distribution of wavelengths that
are emitted from a heated would become excited and jump c. Practical Application of
blackbody. out of the metal. Photon
a. Why is red light commonly
used in dark room?
As you can see in figure below,
It is given as E=hf red light is the region of the
E-energy of radiation; ATOMIC SPECTRUM visible light with the longest
h = Planck’s constant (6.626 X The set of frequencies of wavelength (620-780 nm) and
10-34Js) electromagnetic spectrum with lowest frequency; hence
f = frequency (in Hertz) One emitted by excited atom is has the lowest energy. Because
hertz is equal to one cycle per referred to as the atomic of its low energy, red light is
second emission spectra. Every element considered as “safe light” and
emits a specific energy and ideally used in photographic
2. Photoelectric effect wavelength producing a unique dark rooms.
The photoelectric effect is a set of banding pattern, thus we This is because photosensitive
phenomenon in which electrons can say that atomic spectra materials used in printing are
are emitted from a metal surface serves as fingerprints of every not photosensitive to red and
when it is exposed to light. element. does not cause “fogging” in
These emitted electrons are prints which can be seen as blur
called photoelectrons. Albert The figure below shows the or dark veil across the print.
Einstein used the quantized emission spectrum of an
energy idea of Planck to come electrically excited hydrogen b. Why do people get easily
up with the Photon Theory atom. The fine lines corresponds sunburned by ultraviolet (UV)
which proposes that light is to the emitted light with a but not by visible light?
composed of photons. specific wavelength, while the
dark bands in between Ultraviolet (UV) light has shorter
According to this theory, photon corresponds to the absorbed wavelength and higher
has the following characteristics: frequencies. frequency and shorter
wavelength than visible light as
a. It has a velocity of light in free Relationship of Wavelength and shown in the figure 3. Since it
space. The velocity of light (c) is Energy has high frequency, we can
equal to 3X10 m/s. Previously, we learned that E- hf. expect that it also has high
b. It has rest energy. Combining the two equations, energy. Therefore, exposure to
c. It has zero mass we will arrive at the formula. UV light can cause sunburn or
d. It can carry energy and even skin cancer faster than
momentum. exposure to visible light.
c. When radiation is emitted or
absorbed, it can be created or c. How do human eyes perceive
destroyed. colors?
f. It can interact with other The human eye can perceive
particles like electrons. Using the equation above we colors because of its cones cells.
can say the wavelength is There are three different cone
PHOTON THEORY inversely proportional to energy. cells present in the retina of our
Using this photon theory, This means that the shorter the eyes, each contains
Einstein explained the wavelength (the higher the photosensitive pigment to
phenomenon called frequency), the greater the certain wavelength.
photoelectric effect. In this energy.
phenomenon, when light strikes The L cone is photosensitive to
a metal surface, the electrons red (long wavelength), the M
cone is photosensitive to green white, but it is actually made up and spread across the sky until it
(middle wavelength) and the S of different colors of light. And reaches your eyes. Meanwhile,
cone is photosensitive to blue these colors, are what make up colors with long wavelengths
(short wavelength). the color of the rainbow. simply bypass the molecules and
However, the sensitivity ranges reach your eyes directly.
of the three cones sometimes
overlap specially when the light The colored lights that make up This is the reason why the color
that stimulates them are near visible light, have their own we see in the sky is blue and the
the middle of the visible light. corresponding wavelengths. Red color of the sun is yellowish
Suppose a 550 nm wavelength light has the longest wavelength when we look at it.
of light enters your eye, what while violet light has the
color of the of light will you shortest wavelength. But wait, isn't violet light more
perceive? scattered because its wavelength
When light reaches the earth it is short? Why isn't the sky
If your answer is Green, you’re passes through our atmosphere. violet?
correct. The earth's atmosphere is made
If you will try to look at the of extremely small molecules, The answer is that the human
figure 4, the light with 550 nm smaller than the wavelength of eye is sensitive to blue light and
wavelength will stimulate the light. Most of these molecules our eyes cannot see much, violet
green receptor more strongly are nitrogen and oxygen light. That's why when we look
than the red receptor and molecules. at the sky we see the color blue.
therefore, the your eyes will
perceive green light. Now, if light has no obstacles to Fifth Reporter
meet, it will just travel in a CITE EXPERIMENTAL
However, when a light with a straight line. But because it will EVIDENCE SHOWING
580 nm wavelength enters your meet the molecules in the THAT ELECTRONS CAN
atmosphere, the direction of the BEHAVE LIKE WAVES
eyes, both red and green
receptors will be strongly light will be different and will be
scattered. Objectives:
stimulated hence your eyes will
• The experiment
perceive yellow color based on
This phenomenon is called • De Broglie Hypothesis
the additive color mixing.
Rayleigh Scattering. Since the • ELECTRON ACT LIKE WAVES
WHY IS THE SKY BLUE? colors that make up visible light • Value of wavelength obtained
have different wavelengths, they in Davisson and Germer
Have you ever looked at the sky also scatter in different ways. In Experiment
and wondered why it is blue. Is it the 1900s, John William Strutt • Conlusion of the Davisson and
because the color of the oceans (A.K.A Lord Rayleigh) proved Germer experiment on the
reflects it? that short wavelengths like blue nature of electron
light, scatter more than long
What you may not know, is the The experiment was as follows:
wavelengths. This is because,
interaction of the atmosphere • When electrons pass through a
short wavelengths are close to
with the earth and the light from double slit and strike a screen
the size of small molecules.
the sun that gives the blue color behind the slits, an interference
to our sky. pattern of bright and dark bands
This means that the blue light is
is formed on the Screen.
have high possibility to hit the
LIGHT • This proves that electrons act
molecules and scatter.
The light that comes from the like waves, at least while they
sun is called visible light. We see are propagating (traveling)
When it hits the molecule, it will
the visible light in the color bounce in different directions
through the slits and to the • In Davisson-Germer Interference
screen. experiment, the wavelength of •Overlapping of waves resulting
matter waves was found to be in patterns of constructive and
De Broglie Hypothesis: 0.165 nm. destructive interference
• In 1924 the scientist named De • De Broglie relations show that • Caused by wave interactions
Broglie introduced the wavelength is inversely •Example: Water wave
electromagnetic waves behaves proportional to the momentum interference patterns
like particles, and the particles of a particle. The davidson-
like electron behave like waves germer experiment Diffraction
called matter waves. demonstrated the wave-nature • Bending of waves around
• He derived an expression for of matter and completed the obstacles or edges
the wavelength of matter waves thoery of wave-particle duality. • Caused by wave interaction
on the anology of radiation. Experiments demonstrated that with sharp edges or apertures
• The De Broglie hypothesis de broglie hypothesis is • Example: Light diffraction
proposes that all matter exhibits applicable to atoms and around a Corner
wave-like properties and relates macromolecules
the observed wavelength of LIGHT PHENOMENA
matter to its momentum. After CONCLUSION OF THE DAVIDSON Learning Objectives:
Albert Einstein’s photon theory AND GERMER EXPERIMENT ON At the end of this lesson, the
became whether this was true THE NATURE OF ELECTRON student should be able to:
only for light or whether d) Explain why clothing of
material object also exhibited •Therefore, the Davisson- certain colors appear different in
wave-like behavior. Germer experiment concludes artificial light and in sunlight.
that the electrons are behave e) Identify and understand the
ELECTRON ACT LIKE WAVES like waves. Also the experiment characteristics of haloes,
• Davisson-Germer experiment results proves the de broglie sundogs, primary rainbows,
was conducted by two american hypothesis as well secondary rainbows, and
scientist Clinton Davisson and supernumerary bow
Lester Germer, in 1927, to verify DIFFERENTIATE DISPERSION,
the de Broglie hypothesis that a SCATTERING, INTERFERENCE, Reflection on the
material particle posses wave AND DIFFRACTION Concave and Convex
nature. They experimentally Part of Spoon
proved the wave nature of Dispersion
electron through diffraction of •Separation of waves into LIGHT PHENOMENA
electron beam by a nickel different directions and speeds With light, we can see the
crystal. •Caused by differences n wave exquisiteness of our
• Davisson and Germer showed frequency or wavelength surroundings through the colors
in 1927 that a beam of electrons •Example: Prism separating it gives. Some are usual bat
hitting a crystal scatter just as an white light into colors others need a perfect state for
x-ray beam does, providing that us to see. Light Phenomena are
particles of matter can act like Scattering governed by behavior and
waves. A broken apparatus • Deflection of waves in various properties of light
serendipitously lead to all directions Some of the example are the
discovery • Caused by obstacles or formation of images, mirages,
particles interacting with waves haloes, sundogs, rainbows, color
VALUE OF WAVELENGTH of the sky and how we perceived
OBTAINED IN DAVIDSON AND • Example: Light scattering off the color of the objects.
GERMER EXPERIMMENT air molecules
For Mirrors, the image formed is reversed image. A more illusion of water. The cause of
upright virtual, same size as the interesting reflection in the having mirage is refraction of
object and same distance of thė Concave Mirror. When you look light through a nonuniform
object from the mirror. For at yourself in it, your image medium.Jt is weather when the
Concave Mirrors, the image appears as upside down because air has steep thermal gradient.
formed is real, inverted and light is bent inward and cross We can observe this along a
beyond the center of curvature. Over itself. straight highway when the sun
heats up the road to high
For Convex Mirrors, image Curved mirrors can reflect the temperatures. The heated road
formed in virtual and upright. light due to their curved surface makes the air above it to
Real image is formed where the while the plane mirrors cannot. become less dence, thus,
convergence of actual light The flat mirror makes virtual nonuniform medium is created.
happens. It is formed outside image while the curved mirror Light traveling in this medium
the lođal length f the converging forms real images. The curved will be retracted and at the
mirror or lence. Virtual is mirrors are classified in two certain point will undergo total
formetwhere the outgoind rays types that are concave and internal refraction. That is, when
of light apparently diverge convex. The convex reflects at an an object is viewed from a very
angle at edges and also forms a low angle. Light fron the object
Concave Mirror Smaller distorted image than will follow a curved path toward
Concave Mirror For actual size while the concave are an observer’s eye.
understanding the concept of converging mirror which are
the mirror, we should know similar to spoon shape. These FILTRATION Of Laser On
about the law of reflection types of mirrors form image Cellphone
which states that when a beam when light is bounced by their Materials such as plastics
of light is passed through a curve up to a specific area. Here cellophane, and glass are all
surface then it is deflected at we are discussing about the transparent materials that allow
some angle. This angle is the concave mirror, its equation and the passage of light through
angle of reflection while the properties, mirror images at them. However, color
incoming angle is the angle of various points, mirror ray transparent materials see to
incidence. Both are equal. A diagram, and its uses. alter the color of the object
beam of light which passes behind them. If we look through
through the space is invisible. It Concave Mirror Equation the blue glass or plastics, everything
can be seen only when it hits Gaussian Mirror Equation, for appears to be in shades blue.
something through which it is mirrors and lenses applies to This is because blue transparent
scattered. Light is not scattered concave mirrors too. The materials will only allow the blue
by mirrors. equation is given by, ldo+ldi color to pass through and any
1do+1di = 1f1f Where, d 、 is the other color will be absorbed.
The front side of the Spoon distance of the object from the These transparent materials also
reppresents the Concave Mirror mirror, d is the distance of the called filters for the reason for
while the back side of it image form the mirror and ‘f’ is allowing selected color to pass
reppresents the Convex Mirror. the focal length of the mirror. through them. In general, the
When you look at yourself in a This is the Concave Mirror colored filter will only permit
Convex Mirror, light is bent out Equation when the values light beams of its own color to
as it is reflected back. If the pertaining to concave mirrors pass through. Red laser pass
Convex Mirror is deeply curved, are plugged in. through more easily in red
light will cellophane. Red laser light will
be more bend out. This is the MIRAGE be absorbed in green
reason why you see yourself as A Mirage is an optical cellophane.
phenomenon that produces the
WHY LIGHT FROM THE RED because their refractive in dex is glass, everything appears to be
LASER PASSING EASILY higher, i.e. they travel slower. red
THROUGH RED CELLOPHANE This is what gives us the
THAN GREEN “Spectrum” Green cellophane will only allow
The “red” light travels slowest, green light to pass through it,
Our world is filled with color, the and “violet” travels fastest, so the cellophane absorbs other
green of lush grass, the gray of are bent differently. All the other colours of light.
heavy mist, the brilliant golds colours lie in between. As a general rule each colour
and yellow of sunset but filter will only allow light of its
own colour to pass through.
what is →COLOR? This most easily seem with a
prism where the light is bent Why clothing of certain colors
You can think of light as being a twice in the same direction. appears different in artificial
kind of wave, similar to waves in light and in sunlight?
the sea. The distance between The easiest way to produce a
one wave crest and the next is spectrum is with a block of glass White light is a blend of all the
known as the WAVELENG H. called a PRISM. This has three colors, and each color has a
flat faces running in one different wavelength. Although
DIFFERENT colors of light have direction and triangular shaped sunlight and fluorescent light
different wavelengths ends, However, if conditions are both appear as “white light,
right, white light can also be split ‘they each contain slightly
The wavelength of RED LIGHT is apart by other arrangements of different mixtures of these
just under one 5000 of an inch, glass and by water varying wavelengths. When
while violet light is just over on sunlight and fluorescent light
10,000 of an inch. All the other • The colors refected by an (white light) are absorbed by a
colors fall Somewhere between object are those which give it its piece of clothing, only some of
these two extremes. color. Something that appears the wavelengths (composing
white reflects all colors of light. white light) reflect off the
Sunlight or the light an electric An object that looks red reflects clothing. When the retina of the
light bulb seems colorless. We only red light and absorbs all the eye perceives the “color” of the
call it “white light’. But, in fact it other colors. Something that clothing, it is really perceiving
contains the full range or appears black absorbs every these reflected wavelengths. The
SPECTRUM, of colors from RED, color and reflects none mixture of wavelengths
through orange, yellow, green, determines the color perceived.
blue and indigo to violet. When A FILTER is a material, such as
these colors pass from air into colored cellophanes or glass, Haloes, sundogs, primary
water or glass, they are slowed that only lets light of a particular rainbows, secondar rainbows
down and refracted by different color pass through. This means and supernumerary bows
amounts. RED LIGHT is bent the that a red object appears bright
least, violet light the most when seen through a red filter, Haloes, sundogs, rainbows, and
but an object of another Color supernumerary bows are optical
Bending Light Through a Prism seems dark phenomena that occur when the
Each wavelength (colour) of light sun’s light interacts with ice
travels through a material at its If you look through green crystals in the atmosphere. The
own particular speed. cellophane, everything on the ice crystals bend or refract the
other side appears to be shades light waves, causing these
For example, when white light of green. If you look through red colorful displays. Haloes are
passes through a prism some circular rings around the sun or
wavelengths of light bend more moon, sundogs are bright spots
on either side of the sun, and Cirro: means wisp of hair violent tornadoes often Occur
rainbows are colorful arcs seen (highest clouds) with this cloud.
in the sky. Supernumerary bows Alto: means high (name given to Cirrostratus
are faint additional rainbows mid- level clouds). Cirrostratus are sheet- like, high-
that appear inside the primary level clouds made of ice crystals.
bow Nimbo/nimbus: means rain. The • Though cirrostratus can Cover
cloud can make precipitation the entire sky and be up to
What are CLOUDS? Cumulo: means heap. (piled-up several thousand feet thick, they
clouds) are relatively transparent, as the
Clouds are water droplets or ice Strato: means layer There is no sun or the moon can often be
crystals that are in the Earths prefix for low-altitude clouds seen through them.
troposphere (the bottom part of
the Earth’s atmosphere)
Cirrus
Cirrus is Latin for curl
Dew Point and Condensation Cirrus clouds look like curls of Cirrocumulus
Condensation - when water white hair. Appear as small, rounded white
vapor becomes a liquid Very high, made of ice crystals puffs.
Dew point - temperature where • The small ripples in these
water vapor condenses into a Can indicate a change in the clouds resemble the scales of a
liquid. Clouds form when water weather. fish.
vapor sticks to dust particles and • This sky is sometimes referred
condenses in the air Stratus to as a “mackerel sky.”
Stratus: Latin for sheet or layer
How do clouds form? Stratus clouds look like a gray, Altostratus
• Clouds form when the air rises. flat blanket that covers the Gray or blue-gray middle level
entire sky. clouds composed of ice crystals
• As air rises it cools. Look like fog that does not reach and water droplets.
• Cooler air cannot hold as much the ground. Often cover the entire sky.
water vapor as warmer air. Usually no precipitation, but In the thinner areas of the cloud,
• As the temperature reaches sometimes they may drizzle. the sun may be dimly visible as a
the dew point, the water vapor round disk.
will condense on dust particles. Cumulus Altostratus clouds often form
• A cloud is formed! In Latin cumulus means heap ahead of storms that will
Cumulus clouds look like a heap produce continuous
What are the different types of of whipped cream or cotton balls precipitation.
clouds? Forms on sunny days Signal good
weather If it gets higher it can Stratocumulus
• Clouds are classified by their cause bad weather Usually dark, heavy looking
altitude and appearance clouds. Rain is likely.
Each type of cloud forms in a Cumulonimbus
different way and brings its own Thunderheads thunderstorm Nimbostratus
type of weather • There are 3 clouds that can grow very high Uniform dark flat low featureless
main forms of clouds – (over 40,000 feet) Tremendous clouds that make precipitation.
The main forms are, cirrus, amounts of energy are released
stratus, Cumulus by the condensation of water Fog
vapor inside this cloud. Very low stratus cloud in contact
Cloud Prefixes Lightning, thunder, and even with ground
Why the sky blue? reaches you directly, the sun
By; Maria and Marlene appears less bright. The color of
the sun itself appears to change,
The Sky is blue Because… first to orange and then to red.
The sun has red and blue lights
that are scattered by molecules Radio Waves
in the air. This process is called Radio Waves (What are Radio
Rayleigh Scatter. Light moves in Waves)
wave lengths, some long and D Radio waves are part of a
some short. Red, orange, and larger group of waves classified
yellow light waves are short so all together as electromagnetic
they do not show through as radiation. This large group of
much as blue. The molecules waves is broken down into
scatter the blue light rays in smaller groups based upon their
different directions
frequencies and wavelengths. D
Why is the ocean Green/Blue? They are a type of
Since the Blue light has a longer electromagnetic radiation with
wavelength than the red, orange wavelengths in the
or yellow light, it is the first one electromagnetic spectrum
to hit the surface of the ocean longer than infrared light. In fact,
and Scatters throughout. they are the longest of all
Although large bodies of water electromagnetic waves.
are mainly blue, sometimes they
appear to be green because Radio Waves in Cellular Phone
there is algae that is growing on Phones convert your voice into
the inner surface of the water. an electrical signal, which is then
Then the sunlight hits the algae transmitted as radio waves and
and a green undertone is converted back into sound by
reflected back, which is what we your friend’s phone. A basic
see. An additional theory is that mobile phone is therefore little
the ocean is blue because it is more than a combined radio
reflecting the color of the sky. transmitter and a radio receiver,
This is partially true because the quite similar to a walkie-talkie or
same wavelengths are hitting CB radio.
the ocean that are also
responsible for the sky being In order to remain portable,
blue. mobile phones need to have
relatively compact antennas and
Why are the sunsets are Red? use a small amount of power.
The sun is not directly overhead This means that mobile phones
and its rays must cross through can send a signal over only a
much more atmosphere than very short range, just like a
the midday sun. • As the sun walkie- talkie.
begins to set, the light must
travel farther through the
atmosphere before it gets to
you. More of the light is
reflected and scattered •As less