Electrical Machines- II

Topic: Synchronous Machines

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• The mechanical power or energy is converted into electrical power or energy

with the help of an AC machine called alternator or synchronous generator.

• However, when the same machine can be used to convert electrical power or

energy into mechanical power or energy, then it is known as a

synchronous motor.

• Thus, the same machine can be operated as a generator or as a motor and in

general, it is called as a synchronous machine.

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• Synchronous Generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electro

Magnetic Induction.

• In generator action, an E M F is induced in the armature conductors when

they cut across the magnetic field.

• On closing the circuit, current flows through the armature conductors

which produces another field.

• By the interaction of this field and main field a force is exerted on the

conductor which acts is opposite direction to that of rotation.

• It is this force against which the relative motion of conductors has to be

maintained by the mechanical power supplied by the prime-mover, thus

the mechanical power is converted into electrical power.

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 Constructional Features of Synchronous
Machines
The important parts of a synchronous machine are given below:
1. Stator
2. Rotor
3. Miscellaneous

Stator:
The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator; it has the following important
parts:
(i) Stator frame: It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it protects
the inner parts of the machine. It can be also made of any other strong material since it
is not to carry the magnetic field. Cast iron is used only because of its high mechanical
strength.
(ii) Stator Core: The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from
number of stamping which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an
easy path for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator winding.
(iii) Stator Winding: Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which
three-phase or one-phase winding is placed. Enamelled copper is used as winding
material. 5
Rotor:
The rotating part of the machine is called rotor. From construction point of
view, there are two types of rotors named as
(i) Salient pole type rotor
(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor

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 Salient pole type rotor:

 In this case, projected poles are provided on the rotor.

 The cost of construction of salient pole type rotors is low,

moreover sufficient space is available to accommodate field
winding but these cannot bear high mechanical stresses at
high speeds.

 Therefore, salient pole type construction is suited for

medium and low speeds and are usually employed at hydro-
electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators.

 Since the speed of these machines (generators) is quite low,

to obtain the required frequency, the machines have large
number of poles.

Non-salient pole type rotor:

 In this case, there are no projected poles but the poles are
formed by the current flowing through the rotor (exciting)
winding.

 Non-salient pole type construction is suited for the high

speeds. The steam turbines rotate at a high speed (3000
rpm).

 When these turbines are used as prime-mover for this

machine working as a generator, a small number of poles
are required for given frequency.

 Hence, these machines have smaller diameter and larger 7

length.
Production of Sinusoidal Alternating E M F
 When a conductor or coil cuts across the magnetic field an E M F is induced
in it by the phenomenon called electromagnetic induction.
 This can be achieved either by rotating a coil in the stationary magnetic
field or by keeping the coil stationary and rotating the magnetic field.

 The magnetic field can be rotated by placing the field winding on the
rotating part of the machine.

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E M F Equation

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Coil Span Factor:
 In a full pitch winding the coil span or coil pitch is always equal to the pole
pitch which is equal to 180 electrical degrees.
 When the coil span is less than 180 electrical degrees, the winding is called
short pitched or fractional pitch or chorded winding as shown in Fig.

 Let ‘e’ be the induced emf in each of the two sides of the same coil. For a
full pitch winding the emf induced in two sides of the coil i.e., OA and AB
are 180 electrical degrees apart.
 However, when the winding is short pitched by an angle β electrical
degrees, the emf induced in the two sides of the coil are OA and A C , i.e.,

(180 –β) electrical degrees apart. 10

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Distribution Factor:
 In a concentrated winding, all the conductors of any one phase, which lie
under a single pole, are placed in a single slot.
 When the conductors of one phase, which lie under a single pole, are
placed in several slots, the winding is called distributed winding.
 A distributed winding is shown in Fig. in which there are 12 slots per pole
for a three-phase winding or four slots per pole per phase.
 In a distributed winding, the number of coils representing each phase are
connected in series and is called a coil group.

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Distribution Factor (Contd…..)

 The emfs induced in the conductors lying in two adjacent slots is similar in
wave shape and magnitude but there is a phase difference between them.
This phase difference is equal to the angular displacement between two
adjacent slots, i.e., slot pitch.

 Let there be m coils connected in series in a coil group placed in adjacent

slots and α(alpha) be the angle between two adjacent slots in electrical
degrees

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Winding Factor:
 The combined effect of coil span factor and distribution factor is known as
winding factor. In fact, winding factor is the product of coil span factor and
distribution factor.

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Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance

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Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram

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The phasor diagram for non-inductive, inductive and capacitive load are shown
in Fig. (a), (b) and (c) respectively. While drawing phasor diagram, following
steps are followed:

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Voltage Regulation

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Determination of Voltage Regulation

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 Sy n ch ron ous Impedance Method (or) E M F Method
 This method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature
reaction by a fictitious reactance. For a synchronous generator

Determination of Synchronous Impedance

 To determine the value of synchronous impedance of an alternator experimentally,
the following two tests are performed on the machine:

(i) Open circuit test

(ii) Short circuit test
Open circuit test: The field current I f (excitation) is gradually varied (increased
in steps) and the voltage across the terminals of the alternator E is recorded for
every change in the field current. A graph is plotted taking I f along abscissa and
E along the ordinate called open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.).

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Short circuit test:
 The field current I f is gradually increased and the short circuit current I sc is
recorded for every change in the field current with the help of ammeter
connected across the alternator terminals. A graph is plotted taking I f along
abscissa and I sc along with ordinate called short circuit characteristics (S.C.C.).

Determination of Synchronous Reactance

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 Ampere-Turn (or) MMF Method
 The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing
the effect of armature reaction by a fictitious reactance. Accordingly,
some assumptions were made. But due to those assumptions, the voltage
regulation obtained by that method was higher than the actual value.

In ampere-turn or MM F method, the effect of armature leakage reactance is

to be replaced by an equivalent additional armature reaction MMF . This
additional MMF is combined with the armature reaction MMF.

To determine the regulation of an alternator by MMF method, the following

information is required.

(i)The resistance of the stator winding per phase.

(ii)Open-circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
(iii)Short-circuit characteristics.

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 The open circuit and short circuit characteristics are shown in Fig. , where field
current I f1 ; is determined to give rated voltage V on no-load, neglecting armature
resistance drop, the field current I f2 is determined to cause short-circuit current, equal
to full load current, on short circuit.

 On short circuit, the field excitation I f2 , balances the impedance drop in addition to
armature reaction on full load. But, as we know that R is usually very small and X L is
also small for low voltage on short circuit, so impedance drop can be neglected. Hence
pf on short circuit is almost zero lagging and the field amp-turns are used entirely to
over come the armature reaction. Therefore, I f2 , gives demagnetising amp-turns at full
load.

This method of determining synchronous

impedance is known as optimistic method
since it gives values lower than actual
values. It is because the excitation to
overcome armature reaction is
determined on unsaturated part of the
magnetising curve.

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 The regulation obtained by synchronous impedance (or) E MF method and
ampere-turn (or) MMF method is based on the total synchronous reactance
i.e., (the sum of reactance due to armature leakage flux and due to armature
reaction effect).

 This introduces error due to vectorial addition of magnetic fluxes.

 Whereas, the zero power factor method is based on the separation of
reactances due to leakage flux and that due to armature reaction flux,
therefore, it gives more accurate results.

 For determining voltage regulation by this method, the following data is

required:
(i)Effective resistance of armature winding.
(ii) Open-circuit characteristic.
(iii)Field current to circulate full-load current in the stator.
(iv) Zero-power factor full-load voltage characteristic—a curve plotted
between terminal voltage and field current while the machine is being
running on synchronous speed and delivering full-load current at zero
power factor.
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Steps to obtain zero power factor characteristic
1. The machine is rotated at rated synchronous speed by a
prime-mover.
2. A pure inductive load (variable load reactors or an under-
excited synchronous motor) is connected across the
armature terminals and the excitation or field current of the
alternator is raised so as to cause flow of full-load armature
current. Usually, the alternator is loaded by an under-
excited synchronous motor while plotting zero pf full-load
curve.
3. The value of the reactance is then increased step by step in
such a way that the excitation current is adjusted to a value
that causes full-load rated armature current to flow. In the
process, the armature terminal-voltages are varied from 125
% to 25 % of the rated voltage in steps, maintaining the
speed and rated armature current constant throughout the

test.
4. Note down the armature terminal voltages and excitation
currents at each step.

5. Draw a curve between terminal voltage and excitation

current, as shown in Fig .. It gives the zero power factor
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(lagging) characteristic
 For lagging p.f. load :
Alternate:

A (cylindrical rotor) synchronous generator

(with ra = 0) has always positive voltage

For all lagging power factor loads: EA > VA regulation for lagging p.f. loads i.e. E A > VA.

For unity p.f. load: Whereas it has positive, zero and negative

regulation for leading loads i.e. all cases EA

> VA, E A = VA and E A < VA are possible

Still we can see : EA > VA

For ‘slightly’ leading load, phasor diagram will

be quite similar to that of unity p.f. load, thus
E A will be greater than VA. Thus P is false.

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