1 Parametric equations

Definition

Parametric equations comprise of two equations where the x and y depends on

another parameter.

x = t2
y = t3 .

To convert parametric equations into Cartesian. This is done through substitution.

1.1 Example

Convert the following parametric equations into cartesian form.

3
1. x = , y = 2t + 1
t
2. x = acosθ, y = bsinθ

1
1.2 Sketching parametric curves

1. Sketch the curve with parametric equations x = 2tan t and y = sec t + 2. Find the
corresponding Cartesian equation. Write down the equation of the asymptotes and the
coordinates of the x and y intercepts.

y
10

−10 −5 5 x

−5

−10

2
2. A curve C is given parametrically by the equations
1 1
x=t− 2
, y = 4t2 + , where t ϵ R, 0 < t ≤ 5
t t
dy
(a) Express in terms of t and determine the numbers of stationary points
dx
(b) Sketch the curve, showing clearly the coordinates of all axial intercepts and sta-
tionary points, if any

3
3. Find the cartesian equations and coordinates of the intersections of the following curves
with the x and y− axes and hence sketch their curves and indicating clearly the equa-
tions of any asymptotes
√
(a) x = t2 , y = t4 + 5

(b) x = 2secθ , y = 3tanθ

4
1.3 Intersection of Cartesian and parametric curve

Method

The points of intersection can be found by substituting the PARAMETRIC

EQUATION into the CARTESIAN EQUATION

1.3.1 Example

Find the points of intersection between the curves defined y = x − 1 and x = 2t2 , y = t3

5
1.3.2 Exercise

1. Describe and sketch the following

(a) (x − 6)2 + y 2 = 9
(x − a)2 (y + a)2
(b) + = a2
2 2
(c) (y − 2)2 + x2 + 2x − 3 = 0

(d) 5x2 + 5y 2 − 5px − 5 + p2 = 0

6
1.4 Ellipses

Equation of ellipse

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse is given by

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

a
(h, k)

7
1.5 Exercise

1. State the coordinates of the centre of the ellipses, the horizontal and vertical radius.
x2 (y + 1)2
(a) + =1
42 32
x2
(b) + y2 = 1
4
y2
(c) 4(x + 5)2 + =1
9
(y − 2)2
(d) x2 + =4
4

2. The ellipse has equation 9(x − 3)2 + 4y 2 = 36. Sketch the ellipse

8
2 Rational Functions
f (x)
Functions of the form f (x) = .
g(x)

2.0.1 Asymptotes

Vertical Asymptotes

These occurs when the denominator is g(x) = 0

Horizontal Asymptotes

• Divide the function with the highest power.

• Let x !
− ∞

2.0.2 Example

2x + 3
Determine the Horizontal and Vertical Asymptote of the function f (x) =
4x + 5
y

−3 −2 −1 1 2 x

9
2.1 Quadratic

ax + b
Functions of the form f (x) = .
cx2 + dx + e

2.1.1 Example

Determine the Horizontal and Vertical Asymptote of the function,

2x + 1
f (x) =
x2 − 2x − 3
y

−1 3 x

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2.2 Exercise

Determine the horizontal and/or vertical asymptotes of the following functions.

x
1. y =
x2 −1
x2 + 1
2. y = 2
2x − 3x + 1
3. y = e−x + 2

4. y = ln(x − 1)

11
2.3 Oblique asymptotes

ax2 + bx + c
Functions of the form f (x) =
dx + e

2.3.1 Asymptotes

Diagonal Asymptotes

Where the numerator is one degree HIGHER than the denominator

2.3.2 Example

The polynomial division is performed to obtain the oblique asymptote.

x2 − 2x − 3 1 5 7
f (x) = = x− −
2x + 1 |2 {z 4} |4(2x{z+ 1)}
Quotient Remainder

1 5
y = x−
2 4

−1 3 x

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2.3.3 Exercise

1. Determine the oblique asymptotes of curves defined by the following equations.

x2 + 1
(a) y =
x
x3 + 2x + 1
(b) y =
x2 − 1
(c) y = x + 1 + ex

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 2x2 − 13x + 12
2. Considering the curve y =
x−1
(a) Find the equations of the asymptotes coordinates of the intersection with the axes,
leaving answer in exact form

(b) Sketch the graph

14
 ax2 + bx − 6
3. The curve C has equation y = , where a, b, c are constants.
x−c
The equations of the asymptotes of C are y = 2x + 2 and x = 2

(a) Find the values of a, b and c

(b) Draw a sketch of C. Showing clearly all the asymptotes and the intercepts of the
axes

(c) Given that the line y = k(x − 2) + 6, find the range of values of k for which the line
intersects curve C

15
4. Let f (x) = ln(x3 − 2x2 )

(a) Find the values of x for which f (x) is well defined

(b) Sketch the graph of y = f (x), labeling clearly all asymptotes and the coordinates
of the stationary

16
 ax2 + 2x
5. The curve C has equation y = , where x ≠= 3 and a is a constant.
x−3
2
Show that C does not have any stationary points when − < a < 0
3

17
3 Modifying functions by shifting
3.1 Vertical shift

We can draw the graph of y = f (x) + k from the graph of y = f (x) as the addition of the
constant k produces a vertical shift.

• Up, if k > 0,

• Down, if k < 0

3.1.1 Example

Sketch the function y = x2 − 3

y
3

−2 −1 1 2 x

−3

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3.2 Horizontal shift

We can draw the graph y = f (x−a) if we know the graph of y = f (x) as placing the constant
a inside the brackets produces a horizontal shift.

• Left, if a > 0,

• Right, if a < 0

y
3

−2 −1 1 2 x

−3

1
Note that the function y = is not defined at x = 2.
x−2

19
3.3 Modifying functions by stretching

A function y = bf (x) when (b > 0). Constant b will have the effect of stretching the graph
in the y-direction by a factor of b.

Sketch y = 2x2 from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:

y y

2 2

y = x2 y = 2x2

1 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x

1
We can sketch the graph of y = x2 from our knowledge of y = x2 as follows:
2

y y

2 2

1 2
y = x2 y= x
2

1 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x

20
3.4 Modifying functions by reflection

3.4.1 Reflection in the x-axis

The graph of y = −f (x) has the effect of reflecting the whole graph in the x- axis (Think of
the x - axis as a mirror).

We can sketch y = −|x| from our knowledge of y = |x|

y y
2

y = |x|
−1 1 x

1 y = −|x|

−1

−1 1 x
−2

3.4.2 Reflection in the y - axis

The graph of y = f (−x) is the reflection of y = f (x) in the y- axis.

We can sketch e−x from our knowledge of y = ex

y y

2 2

1 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x

y = ex y = −ex

21
3.5 Transformation involving modulus

y = |f (x)| is to reflect all negative values of f (x) in the x−axis.

Sketch the graph of y = |x2 − 3| from our knowledge of y = x2 − 3

y
y
y = x2

2 y = x2

−1 1 x

−3 −1 1 x

3.6 Combining effects

Sketch the graph of y = (x + 1)2 + 2

• f (x + 1) moves the function 1 unit to the left

• −1 moves the function 1 unit down

y
y

2
2

y = (x + 1)2 − 1
y = x2
1

−2 −1 x

−1 1 x

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3.7 Exercises

1. Sketch the following

√
(a) y = x2 (c) y = (x + 1)2 (e) y = 9 − x2
1 1 √
(b) y = x2 (d) y = (f) y = 9 − x2 − 3
3 x−2

23
2. The equation of the resulting curve is y = 3x2 − 9x − 3. Determine its respective
transformation performed on the function

24
3. A graph with the equation y = f (x) undergoes, in succession the following
transformation:

(a) A translation 1 unit in the positive x - direction

(b) A reflection in the x - axis

(c) A scaling parallel to the y - axis by a factor of 3

(d) Determine the equation y = f (x) in the simplest form

25
4. State precisely how each of the following curves may be obtained by applying the
sequence of geometrical transformation from the given starting curve.
1
(a) y = ex−2 , Starting curve : y = ex
2
√ √
(b) y = 1 − 1 − x, Starting curve : y = x
2x − 3 1
(c) y = , Starting curve : y =
x+1 x

26
5. The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x). The curve passes through the origin
and has a maximum turning point at (1,1). The line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
to the curve.

Sketch on separate diagrams, the graphs of,

(a) y = 2f (x + 3)

(b) y = f (−x) + 3
1 x
(c) y = f
2 3
x 
(d) y = f −1
3
(e) y = f (3 − x)

(f) y = 2f (x) + 3

27
6. The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x). The curve has x - intercept at (-1,0)
and (1,0). The line y = x is an asymptote to the curve.

(a) Determine what the function of the graph f (x)

1
(b) Sketch the graph of y =
f (x)
y

−1 1 x

28
7. The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x). The curve has a maximum point at
C and the lines x = 1 and y = 2 as asymptotes

In a separate diagram sketch the graphs of

(a) y = f (1 − x)
1
(b) y =
f (x)
showing clearly in each case, the asymptotes and coordinates of the points
corresponding to A, B and C

29
 ax
8. The following shows the graph y =
bx − 1

Sketch, on separate diagrams the graphs of

a|x|
(a) y =
b|x| − 1
ax
(b) y =
bx − 1
ax
(c) y =
bx + 1
1
Given that c = d = , write down the values of a and b
2

30