Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Physics
Electromagnetic Effects
Contents
Electromagnetic Induction
Demonstrating Induction
The A.C. Generator
Magnetic Effect of a Current
Investigating the Field Around a Wire
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
Electric Motors
Transformers
Transformer Calculations

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 Electromagnetic Induction
Your notes
Induced e.m.f.
An electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in a conductor whenever there is relative
movement between the conductor and a magnetic field
This could be when
the conductor moves in a stationary magnetic field
the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic field

Induced e.m.f. due to a moving conductor

For an electrical conductor moving in a fixed magnetic field:
the conductor (e.g. a wire) cuts the field lines
an e.m.f. is induced in the wire

When an electrical conductor moves in a magnetic field an e.m.f. is induced

Induced e.m.f. due to a moving field

For a fixed conductor in a changing magnetic field:
as the magnet moves through the conductor (e.g. a coil), the field lines cut through
the turns on the conductor (each individual wire)
an e.m.f. is induced in the coil

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 Your notes

When a magnet is moved towards a wire, the changing magnetic field induces a current in
the coil of wire
A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced e.m.f.
If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the conductor
This can be detected by an ammeter

Worked Example
A coil of wire is connected to a sensitive voltmeter.
When a magnet is pushed into the coil the needle on the voltmeter will deflect to the
right as shown in the diagram below.

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 Your notes

What will happen to the pointer on the voltmeter when the magnet is stationary in the
centre of the coil?
A The needle will deflect to the left
B The needle will deflect to the right
C There will be no deflection of the needle
D The needle will deflect to the left and then to the right
ANSWER: C
There is no relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field when both
the magnet and coil are stationary
Since no magnetic field lines are being cut, no e.m.f. will be induced
Therefore, the needle will not deflect
A, B & D are incorrect because a deflection on the voltmeter would indicate that
an e.m.f. has been induced
This would only happen if there was relative movement between the coil and the
magnetic field

Lenz's law
Extended tier only
Lenz law states:
The direction of an induced emf always opposes the change causing it
This means that any magnetic field created by an induced emf will act so that it tries to
stop the wire or magnet from moving

Demonstrating Lenz's law

Lenz's law can be demonstrated when a magnet is pushed into, or out of, a coil of wire
If the magnet is pushed north end first into the coil, the end of the coil closest to the
magnet will become a north pole
This happens because:

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 the changing magnetic field induces an emf in the coil
the induced emf causes a current to flow and generates a magnetic field in the coil Your notes
the magnetic field due to the current opposes the magnet being pushed into the
coil
therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet acts as a north pole
this means it repels the north pole of the magnet

When a magnet is pushed into a coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will
become a north pole and oppose its motion
If a magnet is now pulled away from the coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the
magnet will become a south pole
This happens because:
the changing magnetic field induces an emf in the coil
the induced emf causes a current to flow and generates a magnetic field in the coil
the magnetic field due to the current opposes the magnet being pulled away from
the coil
therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet becomes a south pole
this means it attracts the north pole of the magnet

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When a magnet is pulled away from a coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the magnet
will become a south pole and oppose its motion
Your notes
Right-hand dynamo rule
Extended tier only
When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced emf can be
determined using the right-hand dynamo rule
First Finger = Field:
Start by pointing the first finger (on the right hand) in the direction of the field
ThuMb = Motion:
Next, point the thumb in the direction that the wire is moving in
SeCond = Current:
The Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or, strictly
speaking, the emf)

The right-hand dynamo rule can be used to deduce the direction of the induced emf

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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Remember that current is always in the direction of positive charge carriers.
Therefore, current flows from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery.
Your notes

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 Demonstrating Induction
Your notes
Demonstrating induction
Electromagnetic induction is used in:
electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction can be demonstrated using
a magnet and a coil
a wire and a U-shaped magnet

Experiment 1: moving a magnet through a coil

When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and out
of the coil to induce an e.m.f.

An e.m.f. is induced in a coil when a bar magnet is moved through it. This can be seen by
connecting the coil to a voltmeter
The expected results are...
1. When the bar magnet is stationary, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, there is no cutting of
magnetic field lines
As a result, no e.m.f. is induced in the coil
2. When the bar magnet is moved inside the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter
As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines are cut by the coil

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 This induces an e.m.f. within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter
3. When the bar magnet is moved back out of the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter Your notes
with the opposite sign
As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes
An e.m.f. is induced in the opposite direction, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter with the opposite sign

An e.m.f. is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil
Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f. are:
moving the magnet faster through the coil
adding more turns to the coil
increasing the strength of the bar magnet

Experiment 2: moving a wire through a magnet

When a long wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets, an
e.m.f. is induced

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 The pattern of a magnetic field in a wire can be investigated using this setup
Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with Your notes

An e.m.f. is induced in a wire when it is moved between magnetic poles. This can be seen
by connecting the wire to a voltmeter
The expected results are...
1. When the wire is stationary, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
When there is no relative motion between the wire and the magnetic field, no field lines
are cut
As a result, no e.m.f. is induced in the wire
2. As the wire is moved between the magnetic poles, there is a reading on the voltmeter
As the wire moves, it cuts the magnetic field lines of the magnet
This induces an e.m.f. in the wire, shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter
3. When the wire is moved back out of the magnet, there is a reading on the voltmeter
with the opposite sign
As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current changes
An e.m.f. is induced in the opposite direction, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter with the opposite sign
Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f. are:
increasing the length of the wire
moving the wire between the magnets faster
increasing the strength of the magnets

Factors affecting electromagnetic induction

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Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved: Your notes
Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut
This will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.
2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:
Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the same length of wire will increase the
size of the induced emf
Reducing the length of the wire but maintaining the same number of coils will also
increase the size of the induced emf
This is because each turn (loop) of wire in the coil cuts the magnetic field lines
Therefore, the total induced e.m.f. increases with each additional turn (loop)
3. The size of the coils:
Increasing the area of the coils will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.
This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines
4. The strength of the magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.
This is because there will be more magnetic field lines in a given area

Factors affecting the direction of the induced e.m.f.

1. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:
Switching the poles of the magnet induces an e.m.f. in the opposite direction
2. The direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:
Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved induces an e.m.f. in the
opposite direction

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When discussing factors affecting the size of an induced e.m.f., make sure to use the
correct terminology:
say "add more turns to the coil" instead of “add more coils”. This is because these
statements do not mean the same thing
say "a stronger magnet" instead of "a bigger magnet". This is because larger
magnets are not necessarily stronger

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 The A.C. Generator
Your notes
Simple a.c. generators
Extended tier only
An a.c. generator is a device which converts energy from motion into an electrical
output
An alternating e.m.f. is generated which causes an alternating current to flow
A simple a.c. generator consists of
a rotating coil of wire between the poles of a permanent magnet
slip rings and brushes connected to an external circuit

Structure of a simple a.c. generator

A simple a.c. generator consists of a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to an

external circuit via slip rings and carbon brushes
The functions of each component are shown in the table:

Table of components of a simple a.c. generator

Component Function

permanent to provide a uniform magnetic field

magnet

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 rotating coil to cut the magnetic field as it rotates and allow an induced current to
flow
Your notes
slip rings to allow the alternating current to flow between the coil and the
external circuit

carbon brushes to provide a good electrical connection between the coil and the
external circuit

Operation of an a.c. generator

A rectangular coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field
The coil is connected to an external circuit via slip rings and brushes
The induced emf in the coil can be measured by adding a galvanometer (centre-
zero meter) to the external circuit
An e.m.f. is induced in the coil as it cuts the magnetic field
The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
This indicates the size and direction of the emf is constantly changing
As a result of the alternating e.m.f., an alternating current is also produced as the coil
rotates
This continues as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction

Motion of an a.c. generator

The size and direction of the induced e.m.f. (and current) depend on the orientation of the
coil with the field
A maximum e.m.f. is induced when
the position of the coil is horizontal

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 the motion of the coil is perpendicular to the field
This is because the greatest number of lines are cut when the coil is moving
perpendicular to the field Your notes
No e.m.f. is induced when
the position of the coil is vertical
the motion of the coil is parallel to the field
This is because no lines are cut when the coil is moving parallel to the field

Graphs for a.c. generators

Extended tier only
The output of an a.c. generator can be seen on a graph of e.m.f. against time, or angle of
rotation
The shape of the graph is a sine or cosine curve, depending on the starting position of
the coil
When it starts from a horizontal position (e.m.f. is at a maximum), the graph is a
cosine curve
When it starts from a vertical position (e.m.f. is zero), the graph is a sine curve

Graph of induced e.m.f. with angle for an a.c. generator

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 Your notes

Alternating e.m.f. with corresponding positions of the coil relative to the field
When the coil is vertical at 0°
it is moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero
When the coil has rotated by 90°
it is now horizontal and moving perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
the size of the induced e.m.f. is at a maximum
When the coil has rotated by 180°
it is vertical again and moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero
When the coil has rotated by 270°
it is horizontal again and moving perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field

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 the size of the induced e.m.f. is at a maximum and in the opposite direction to its
position at 90°
When the coil has completed a full 360° rotation Your notes
it is back at its starting point where it is moving parallel to the direction of the
magnetic field
the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero

Factor affecting a.c. generators

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. can be increased by:
increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil
increasing the number of turns on the coil
increasing the strength of the magnet
inserting a soft iron core into the coil

Examiner Tips and Tricks

For your exam, you need to be aware that an alternating current can be produced by:
a coil rotating in a magnetic field
a magnet rotating within a coil
Both will induce an e.m.f. in the coil as they both ensure the coil will experience a
changing magnetic field.
Take a look at these notes on trigonometric graphs if you need to brush up on your
knowledge of sine and cosine graphs.

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 Magnetic Effect of a Current
Your notes
Magnetic fields around wires & solenoids
Magnetic fields are formed wherever a current flows, such as in:
straight wires
solenoids
circular coils

Magnetic field due to a straight wire

The magnetic field lines around a straight wire are
made up of concentric circles
centred on the wire
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
has no poles
The right-hand grip rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field

The direction of the field around a current-carrying wire can be determined using the
right-hand grip rule
The field lines are clockwise or anticlockwise around the wire, depending on the
direction of the current

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 Reversing the current reverses the direction of the field
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the right-hand grip rule
Your notes
This is determined by pointing the right-hand thumb in the direction of the current in
the wire and curling the fingers onto the palm
The direction of the curled fingers represents the direction of the magnetic field
lines around the wire
For example, if the current is travelling vertically upwards, the magnetic field lines will
be directed anticlockwise, as seen from directly above the wire
Note: the direction of the current is taken to be the conventional current i.e. from
positive to negative, not the direction of electron flow

Magnetic field due to a solenoid

As seen from a current-carrying wire, an electric current produces a magnetic field
An electromagnet utilises this by using a coil of wire called a solenoid
This increases the strength of the magnetic field by adding more turns of wire into a
smaller region of space
One end of the solenoid becomes a north pole and the other becomes the south pole

The magnetic field lines around a solenoid are similar to a bar magnet
As a result, the field lines around a solenoid are similar to a bar magnet
The field lines emerge from the north pole
The field lines return to the south pole

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 The poles of the solenoid can be determined using the right-hand grip rule
The curled fingers represent the direction of the current flow around the coil Your notes
The thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil, towards the north pole

In a solenoid, the north pole forms at the end where the current flows anti-clockwise, and
the south pole at the end where the current flows clockwise

Magnetic field due to a circular coil

A circular coil is equivalent to one of the coils of a solenoid
The field lines emerge through one side of the circle (north pole) and enter through the
other (south pole)
As with a solenoid, the direction of the magnetic field lines depends on the direction of
the current
This can also be determined using the right-hand grip rule

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 Your notes

Magnetic field lines of many individual circular coils can be combined to make a solenoid

Worked Example
The current in a long, straight vertical wire is in the direction XY, as shown in the
diagram.

Sketch the magnetic field lines in the horizontal plane ABCD due to the current-
carrying wire. Draw at least four field lines.
Answer:

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 Your notes

Concentric circles
Increasing separation between each circle
Arrows drawn in an anticlockwise direction

Magnetic effects of changing current

Extended tier only

Magnetic field strength around a straight wire

The strength of the magnetic field around a wire depends on:
the size of the current
the distance from the wire
The strength of a magnetic field increases as the amount of current flowing through the
wire increases
This means the field lines will become closer together
The strength of a magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire
The magnetic field is strongest near the wire and becomes weaker further away
from the wire
This is shown by the magnetic field lines becoming further apart
When the direction of the current changes, the magnetic field acts in the opposite
direction

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 Your notes

The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more
concentrated field lines

Magnetic field strength around a solenoid

The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
increasing the amount of current flowing through the coil
increasing the number of turns on the coil
inserting an iron core into the coil
When a soft iron core is inserted into a solenoid, it can be used as an electromagnet
The iron core becomes an induced magnet when a current flows through the coils
The magnetic field produced by the solenoid and the iron core will create a much
stronger magnet overall

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 Your notes

An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic field
produced by the iron core

Applications of the magnetic effect of a current

Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including:
relay circuits (utilised in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes etc)
loudspeakers

Relay circuits
Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits
Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
A relay circuit consists of:
an electrical circuit containing an electromagnet
a second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the first circuit

Operation of a relay circuit

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 Your notes

When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2, and
closing it enables a current to flow in Circuit 2
When a current flows through Circuit 1:
a magnetic field is induced around the coil
the magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the contacts in
Circuit 2
this allows a current to flow in Circuit 2
When no current flows through Circuit 1:
the magnetic force stops
the electromagnet stops attracting the switch
the current in Circuit 2 stops flowing
Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:
When the electromagnet is switched on, it will attract magnetic materials
When the electromagnet is switched off, it will drop the magnetic materials
Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:

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 Your notes

Animation: Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm
strikes the bell and drops repeatedly to produce the ringing effect
When the button K is pressed:
a current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field
this attracted the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
the movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
this stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature returns to
its previous position
this re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again

Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers convert electrical signals into sound waves
They work due to the motor effect
A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a
permanent magnet

Structure of a loudspeaker

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 Your notes

A loudspeaker converts the a.c. of an electrical signal into sound waves

An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker
This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be
constantly changing
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent
magnet
The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will
constantly change direction
This makes the coil oscillate
The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

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 Investigating the Field Around a Wire
Your notes
Investigating the magnetic field around a wire
The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids can be
investigated using:
a thick wire
a solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire to fit through)
clamp stand
iron filings or a compass
Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic needle on the
board
Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings
When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite direction
showing that the direction of the field reverses when the current reverses

Experiment 1: plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and secure it to the
clamp stand
Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and
ammeter on either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

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 1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the needle once it
settles
Your notes
Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the field at different points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process
above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the card
4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this
will be the magnetic field line
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines

Using iron filings:

1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake the card until
the filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire

Experiment 2: plotting the magnetic field around a

solenoid
1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop it through a
hole on the other side of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp stand
Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard

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 2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and
ammeter on either side of the cell
Using plotting compasses: Your notes

1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1

Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid is essentially
many circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop can be extended to give the
pattern around a solenoid

Using iron filings:

1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through pre-made holes
in a piece of card
2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings settle in the
pattern of the magnetic field around the solenoid

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 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
Your notes
Force on a current-carrying conductor
A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will experience a force
A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current through it is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic field
When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which makes
it move

A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it
Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper rod) are by:
reversing the direction of the current
reversing the direction of the magnetic field

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'the motor effect'. The direction of the
force is determined by Fleming's left-hand rule.

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Flemings left-hand rule
The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current-carrying wire depends on the Your notes
direction of
the current
the magnetic field
The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand
rule:
the thumb points in the direction of the force, or thrust, on the conductor
the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field
the second finger points in the direction of current flow (from positive to negative)

Fleming’s left-hand rule can be used to determine the directions of the force, magnetic
field and current
All three will be perpendicular to each other in Fleming's left-hand rule questions
This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in 3D)

Worked Example
A current-carrying wire is placed into the magnetic field between the poles of the
magnet, as shown in the diagram.

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 Your notes

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that there will be a downward force acting on the
wire.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Step 2: Determine the direction of the current
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in
the direction of the Current
Step 3: Determine the direction of the force
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and
current is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.

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 Feel free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just don't make it too distracting
for other students!
Your notes
Charged particles in a magnetic field
Extended tier only
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if the
wire is perpendicular
This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron flowing
through the wire
Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a
force on the particle, causing it to deflect
The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic
field lines
The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
In the case of an electron in a magnetic field
the second finger (current) points in the opposite direction to the direction of
motion
this is because conventional current flows in the opposite direction to electron flow

When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by

the field
If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:
it will experience the maximum force
If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:

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 it will experience no force
If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
Your notes
it will experience a small force

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that the direction of current is the direction of positive charged.
Therefore, if a particle has a negative charge (such as an electron), then the second
finger (current) must point in the opposite direction to its direction of travel.
The left-hand rule can be applied to any charged particles, but in the IGCSE exam
questions are likely to stick to electrons.

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 Electric Motors
Your notes
The d.c. motor
The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c. electric motor
The force on a current-carrying coil causes it to rotate in a single direction
A simple d.c. motor consists of
a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) between the poles of a permanent magnet
a split-ring commutator and brushes connected to a source of d.c.
The brushes and commutator are designed to reverse current every half turn:
the brushes ensure current is maintained without tangling wires
the coil rotates continuously in the same direction

Structure of a simple d.c. motor

In a simple d.c. motor, a coil placed in a magnetic field may experience a turning effect
As current flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field which interacts with the
external magnetic field
Forces act in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing a turning effect
The greater the force on the coil, the greater the turning effect and the faster it will
turn
The turning effect is increased by increasing:

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 the number of turns on the coil
the current in the coil Your notes
the strength of the magnetic field

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Motors and generators look very similar, but they do very different things.
When tackling a question on either of them, make sure you are writing about the right
one! A motor takes in electricity and turns it into motion. A generator takes in motion
and generates electricity.
You might be expected to give explanations of how these two things happen - make
sure that you understand their subtle differences!

Operation of a d.c. motor

Extended tier only
In a d.c. motor, when the coil of wire is horizontal, it forms a complete circuit with a cell
The coil is attached to a split ring (a circular tube of metal split in two)
This split ring is connected in a circuit with the cell via contact with conducting
carbon brushes

Forces on the horizontal coil in a d.c. motor

Forces acting in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate. The split
ring connects the coil to the flow of current

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 Current flowing through the coil produces a magnetic field
This magnetic field interacts with the uniform external field, so a force is exerted on Your notes
the wire
Forces act in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate:
On the blue side of the coil, current travels towards the cell so the force acts
upwards (using Fleming's left-hand rule)
On the black side, current flows away from the cell so the force acts downwards
Once the coil has rotated 90°, the split ring is no longer in contact with the brushes
No current flows through the coil so no forces act

Coil in the vertical position in a d.c. motor

No force acts on the coil when vertical, as the split ring is not in contact with the brushes
Even though no force acts, the momentum of the coil causes the coil to continue to
rotate slightly
The split ring reconnects with the carbon brushes and current flows through the coil
again
Now the blue side is on the right and the black side is on the left
Current still flows toward the cell on the left and away from the cell on the right, even
though the coil has flipped
The black side of the coil experiences an upward force on the left and the blue side
experiences a downward force on the right

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 The coil continues to rotate in the same direction, forming a continuously spinning
motor
Forces on the coil when rotated 180° Your notes

Even though the coil has flipped, the current still flows anticlockwise and the forces still
cause rotation in the same direction

Factors affecting the d.c. motor

The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
increasing the current
using a stronger magnet
The direction of rotation of the coil in the d.c. motor can be changed by:
reversing the direction of the current supply
reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
increasing the current in the coil
increasing the strength of the magnetic field
adding more turns to the coil

Worked Example
A d.c. motor is set up as shown below.

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 Your notes

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Answer:
Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines
These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils
Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal

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Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each Your notes
side of the coil
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in
the direction of the Current
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

The coil will be turning clockwise

Examiner Tips and Tricks

It is important to remember all the steps that cause the rotation of the coil in a d.c.
motor. Use Fleming's Left Hand rule to convince yourself of the direction of the force
on each side of the coil, these should be in opposite directions because the
directions of the current through each side are opposite.
Additionally, don't be confused if you see the phrase 'split-ring commutator'. This is
another way of referring to the split ring in the circuit and they mean the same thing.

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 Transformers
Your notes
Structure of a transformer
A transformer is a device used to change the size of an alternating voltage or current
This is achieved using the generator effect
A basic transformer consists of:
a primary coil
a secondary coil
a soft iron core
Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Construction of a simple transformer

A simple transformer is made up of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on a soft
iron core

Step-up & step-down transformers

A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil
The primary coil is the first coil
The secondary coil is the second coil

Step-up transformer
A step-up transformer:

increases the voltage of a power source Vs

(
> Vp )

has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil Ns
(
> Np )

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 Your notes

A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil which increases the size of
the voltage

Step-down transformer
A step-down transformer:

decreases the voltage of a power source (

Vs < Vp )

has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil Ns
(
< Np )

A step-up transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil which decreases the size of
the voltage

Operation of a transformer
Extended tier only
An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

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The current is continually changing direction
This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil Your notes
The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces an emf (voltage)
As the magnetic field is continually changing, the induced emf will be alternating
The alternating emf will have the same frequency as the alternating current supplied
to the primary coil
If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to
flow

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 Transformer Calculations
Your notes
Transformer calculations
The voltages across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer can be calculated
using the transformer equation, which states
The ratio of the voltages across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer is equal
to the ratio of the number of turns on each coil
It can be expressed by the equation:

primary voltage number of turns on primary

secondary voltage
= number of turns on secondary
It can be expressed in symbols as follows:

Vp Np
Vs
= Ns
Where

V p = voltage across the primary coil, in volts (V)

V s = voltage across the secondary coil, in volts (V)

N p = number of turns on the primary coil

N s = number of turns on the secondary coil

The transformer equation can be flipped upside down to give:

Vs Ns
Vp
= Np
Rearranging for the secondary voltage:

Ns
Vs = Vp × Np
This equation shows that the output (secondary) voltage of a transformer depends on:
the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
the input (primary) voltage

In a step-up transformer, V
s
> V p and N s > N p

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In a step-down transformer, V
s
< V p and N s < N p
Your notes

Worked Example
A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil.
The voltage across the primary coil is 500 V.
a) Calculate the output voltage of the secondary coil.
b) State whether this is a step-up or step-down transformer.

Answer
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Number of turns on the primary coil, N = 20

p
Number of turns on the secondary coil, N = 800
s
Voltage across the primary coil, V = 500 V
P
Step 2: Write down the transformer equation

There will be less rearranging to do if V is on the top of the fraction

S
Vs Ns
Vp
= Np

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make V S the subject

Ns
Vs = Vp × N
p

Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

800
VS = 500 × 20
= 20 000 V
Part (b)

The secondary voltage is larger than the primary, V

s
> Vp
There are more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary, N
s
> Np
Therefore, this is a step-up transformer

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 Examiner Tips and Tricks
When carrying out transformer calculations, make sure you have used the same letter Your notes
(p or s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s) in the
denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.
There will be less rearranging to do in a calculation if the variable which you are trying
to find is on the numerator (top line) of the fraction.
The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer should be
referred to as turns and not coils.

Ideal transformer equation

Extended tier only
A transformer which is 100% efficient is called an ideal transformer
Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of
conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output
If a transformer is 100% efficient, then the input power in the primary coil is equal to the
output power of the secondary coil:

power in primary = power in secondary

The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P =V×I
Where:
P = power, in watts (W)
V = voltage, in volts (V)
I = current, in amps (A)
Therefore, the equation for an ideal transformer is:

Ip V p = Is V s
Where:

I p = primary current, in amps (A)

V p = primary voltage, in volts (V)

Is = secondary current, in amps (A)

V s = secondary voltage, in volts (V)

The equation above could also be written as a ratio:

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 Is Vp
Ip
= Vs Your notes

Worked Example
A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V a.c. mains electricity supply to the
230 V needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.
Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the
mains supply.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities

Voltage in primary coil, V = 115 V

p
Voltage in secondary coil, V = 230 V
s
Current in secondary coil, I = 5 A
s
Step 2: Write down the equation for an ideal transformer

Vp × I p = V s × Is
Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 × Ip = 230 × 5
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find the primary current

230 × 5
Ip = 115
Ip = 10 A
High-voltage transmission
Electricity is transmitted through power cables at a low current to prevent dissipation of
energy
When current flows in a wire, there is heating in the wire due to resistance
Therefore, energy is dissipated to the surroundings, this energy is wasted
The lower the current, the more efficient the energy transfer

Electrical power is equal to voltage × current, or P = VI

This means that a low current can be achieved by increasing the voltage, so electricity
must be transmitted at a high voltage

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 A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being
produced in the wire
Your notes
This reduces the energy loss in the power lines
The key advantages of high-voltage transmission of electricity are:
the reduced power loss in transmission cables increases the efficiency of energy
transfer
lower currents in cables mean thinner, and therefore, cheaper cables can be used

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the
cables using transformers

Calculating power losses

Extended tier only
The power dissipated in the wire due to resistance is given by:

P = I2R
Where:
P = power, in watts (W)
I = current, in amps (A)
R = resistance, in ohms (Ω)
A step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage and decrease the current of
electricity before transmission
A high-voltage transmission ensures the same power transfer with a smaller current
A smaller current means less thermal energy will be lost due to the resistance in the
wire
A step-down transformer is used to decrease the voltage and increase the current of
electricity after transmission

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 High-voltage electricity is dangerous for use in homes, so it must be lowered before
the current reaches consumers
Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you forget the equation P = I2R just remember 'Twinkle twinkle little star, power
equals I squared R''.

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