COURSE MANUAL

Introduction to
Programming
CSC 103

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2016 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN: 978-021-592-1

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (80775935727)
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
Vice-Chancellor’s Message
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Nigeria and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are committed is providing
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contributing in no small measure to providing places for teeming Nigerian youths who for one
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Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for Nigerians
and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has
recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which aimed at embracing a holistic
and all encompassing approach to the delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL)
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It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to source and read
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The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop
requisite distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study, seeking
available administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic information
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yourself the opportunity of training that the Centre’s provide and put these into use.
In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the regular
students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality
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We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high quality of
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Best wishes.

Professor Bayo Okunade

Director
Course Development Team

Content Authoring Yetunde Folajimi

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Ogundele Olumuyiwa Caleb
Learning Design/Assessment Authoring Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
 Table of Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1

Course Overview 3
Welcome to Introduction to Programming CIS104........................................................................................... 3
Course outcomes .............................................................................................................................................................. 3

Getting around this course manual 6

Margin icons ....................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Study Session 1 7
Overview of Programming ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Terminology .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Definition of Programming ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.1 Application Versus System Programming ....................................................................... 8
1.2 The Computer Program ............................................................................................................................ 9
1.2.1 Writing a Computer Program............................................................................................. 10
1.3 Characteristics of Computer Program ............................................................................................. 11
1.3.1 Portability ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.2 Readability.................................................................................................................................. 11
1.3.3 Efficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.4 Structural .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.5 Flexibility .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.6 Generality.................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.7 Documentation ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 The Computer Programmer................................................................................................................. 14
1.4.1 The Work of a Computer Programmer .......................................................................... 14
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Study Session 2 17
History of Programming Languages ..................................................................................................................... 17
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 The Evolution of Programming Languages ................................................................................... 17
2.1.1 The First Computer Language............................................................................................ 19
2.1.2 The Birth of Assembly Language ...................................................................................... 19
2.1.3 The First Modern Computer Languages ........................................................................ 20
2.1.4 More Recent Modern Languages ...................................................................................... 21
2.2 Categorizing Computer Languages by Epochs............................................................................. 24
2.2.1 Summary of Important Programming Languages by Year .................................... 26
 Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 28
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Study Session 3 29
The Programming Process ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.1 Problem Definition and Analysis ....................................................................................................... 30
3.1.1 Planning and Outlining the Solution ............................................................................... 30
3.2 Coding the Program................................................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Compilation................................................................................................................................................. 32
3.4 Debugging .................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4.1 Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4.2 Semantics .................................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Programming Errors .............................................................................................................. 35
3.5 Testing and Validation ........................................................................................................................... 37
3.5.1 Types of Programming Tests.............................................................................................. 38
3.6 Program Documentation ....................................................................................................................... 42
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 43
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Study Session 4 44
Types of Programming Languages ........................................................................................................................ 45
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Characteristics of Programming Languages ................................................................................. 45
4.2 Comparing Low-level and High-level Programming Languages.......................................... 46
4.3 Compiled code and interpreted code ......................................................................................... 47
4.4 Classification of Programming Languages .................................................................................... 47
4.4.1 Modular Programming Languages................................................................................... 48
4.4.2 Structured Programming Language ................................................................................ 48
4.4.3 Business Oriented Language .............................................................................................. 49
4.4.4 Object oriented programming (OOP) language .......................................................... 50
4.4.5 Visual Programming Languages........................................................................................ 51
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 52
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Credits................................................................................................................................................................................ 52

Study Session 5 54
Algorithms and Problem-Solving ........................................................................................................................... 54
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 54
Terminology .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1 The Problem Solving Process .............................................................................................................. 54
5.2 The Concept of Algorithm ..................................................................................................................... 55
5.2.1 Properties of Algorithm ........................................................................................................ 56
5.2.2 Algorithmic Problem Solving ............................................................................................. 56
5.3 Pseudo-Codes ............................................................................................................................................. 58
5.3.1 Rules for Writing Pseudocode ........................................................................................... 58
5.3.2 Advantages of Pseudocode .................................................................................................. 60
 5.3.3 Disadvantages of Pseudocode ............................................................................................ 60
5.4 Flowchart ..................................................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.1 Advantages of Flowcharts.................................................................................................... 61
5.4.2 Disadvantages of Flowcharts.............................................................................................. 62
5.4.3 Flowchart Symbols ................................................................................................................. 62
5.4.4 General Guidelines in Flowcharting ................................................................................ 63
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 66
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Credits................................................................................................................................................................................ 66

Study Session 6 67
Basics of Computer Program ................................................................................................................................... 67
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Programming Environment ................................................................................................................. 67
6.1.1 Text Editor .................................................................................................................................. 68
6.1.2 Compiler ...................................................................................................................................... 69
6.1.3 Interpreter .................................................................................................................................. 70
6.2 Basic Syntax of Programming ............................................................................................................. 71
6.2.1 Program Entry Point .............................................................................................................. 71
6.2.2 Functions..................................................................................................................................... 71
6.2.3 Comments ................................................................................................................................... 72
6.2.4 Whitespaces ............................................................................................................................... 72
6.2.5 Semicolons.................................................................................................................................. 74
6.2.6 Syntax Error ............................................................................................................................... 75
6.2.7Hello World Program in Java ............................................................................................... 76
6.2.8 Hello World Program in Python ........................................................................................ 76
6.3 Variables....................................................................................................................................................... 76
6.3.1 Creating Variables ................................................................................................................... 77
6.3.2 Storing Values in Variables.................................................................................................. 78
6.3.3 Accessing Stored Values in Variables ............................................................................. 79
6.3.4 Variables in Java ....................................................................................................................... 80
6.3.5 Variables in Python................................................................................................................. 80
6.4 Reserved Words ........................................................................................................................................ 81
6.4.1 C Programming Reserved Keywords .............................................................................. 82
6.4.2 Java Programming Reserved Keywords ........................................................................ 82
6.4.3 Python Programming Reserved Keywords .................................................................. 83
6.5 Operators ..................................................................................................................................................... 84
6.5.1 Arithmetic Operators ............................................................................................................. 84
6.5.2 Relational Operators .............................................................................................................. 86
6.5.3 Logical Operators .................................................................................................................... 88
6.5.4 Operators in Java ..................................................................................................................... 89
6.5.5 Operators in Python ............................................................................................................... 90
6.6 Functions ..................................................................................................................................................... 91
6.6.1 Defining a Function................................................................................................................. 93
6.6.2 Calling a Function .................................................................................................................... 93
 Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 94
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Credits................................................................................................................................................................................ 95

Study Session 7 96
Data Types ....................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 96
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 96
7.1 Understanding Data Types ................................................................................................................... 96
7.1.1 C and Java Data Types............................................................................................................ 98
7.1.2 Python Data Types .................................................................................................................. 98
7.2 Data Type and Numbers Manipulation ........................................................................................... 99
7.2.1 Math Operations on Numbers ......................................................................................... 100
7.2.2 Numbers in Java .................................................................................................................... 102
7.2.3 Numbers in Python .............................................................................................................. 103
7.3 Data Type and character manipulation ....................................................................................... 104
7.3.1 Escape Sequences ................................................................................................................. 105
7.3.2 Characters in Java ................................................................................................................. 107
7.3.3 Characters in Python........................................................................................................... 108
7.4 Data Types and String Manipulation............................................................................................. 109
7.4.1 Basic String Concepts.......................................................................................................... 111
7.4.2 Strings in Java......................................................................................................................... 112
7.4.3 Strings in Python................................................................................................................... 112
Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 113
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Credits............................................................................................................................................................................. 114

Study Session 8 114

Decision-Making and Loops .................................................................................................................................. 115
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 115
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................... 115
8.1 Conditional Statements....................................................................................................................... 115
8.1.1 The if Statement .................................................................................................................... 115
8.1.2 if...else statement .................................................................................................................. 117
8.1.3 if...else if...else statement ................................................................................................... 118
8.1.4 The Switch Statement ......................................................................................................... 119
8.1.5 Decisions in Java ................................................................................................................... 121
8.1.6 Decisions in Python ............................................................................................................. 122
8.2 Loops .......................................................................................................................................................... 122
8.2.1 The while Loop ...................................................................................................................... 124
8.2.2 The do...while Loop .............................................................................................................. 126
8.2.3 The break statement ........................................................................................................... 127
8.2.4 The continue statement ..................................................................................................... 129
8.2.5 Loops in Java........................................................................................................................... 130
8.2.6 Loops in Python..................................................................................................................... 130
 Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 131
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Credit ............................................................................................................................................................................... 132

Study Session 9 133

Arrays.............................................................................................................................................................................. 133
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 133
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................... 133
9.1 Understanding Arrays ......................................................................................................................... 133
9.1.1 Creating Arrays...................................................................................................................... 134
9.1.2 Initializing Arrays ................................................................................................................. 135
9.1.3 Accessing Array Elements ................................................................................................ 135
9.2 Arrays in Java .......................................................................................................................................... 137
9.3 Arrays (Lists) in Python ..................................................................................................................... 138
Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 139
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Credit ............................................................................................................................................................................... 139

Study Session 10 140

Computer Files ............................................................................................................................................................ 140
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 140
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................... 140
10.1 File Input/output ................................................................................................................................ 140
10.2 File Operation Modes ........................................................................................................................ 141
10.2.1 Opening Files ....................................................................................................................... 142
10.2.2 Closing a File ........................................................................................................................ 143
10.2.3 Writing a File ....................................................................................................................... 143
10.2.4 Reading a File ...................................................................................................................... 144
10.3 File I/O in Java...................................................................................................................................... 145
10.4 File I/O in Python ............................................................................................................................... 146
Study Session Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 147
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Credit ............................................................................................................................................................................... 147

Notes on Self Assessment Questions 148

 About this course manual

About this course manual

Introduction to Programming CSC 1033 has been produced by University
of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All course manuals produced by
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centreare structured in the same
way, as outlined below.

How this course manual is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Margin icons.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Study Session outcomes.
 Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
 A Study Session summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Bibliography

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 About this course manual

Your comments
After completing Introduction to Programming we would appreciate it if
you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of
this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.

2
 Course Overview

Course Overview

Welcome to Introduction to
Programming CSC103
Welcome to the Introduction to programming course! This course
introduces the fundamental concepts, principles and techniques involved
in modern computer programming. In addition, the course offers an
introduction to the historical context of programming. A systematic
approach is used to teach students various methods of algorithm
development, program development, and program design in order to write
programs that solve well-specified problems. Emphasis is placed on the
mastery of basic programming skills, with a considerable attention to the
fundamental building blocks of computer programs, and the associated
concepts and principles. The course also provides the core knowledge to
begin programming in any language. What we are exploring here are the
core ideas and skills you will always need when programming on any
platform with any language. Now there are dozens of programming
languages you could choose from and we will see many of them in this
course, languages like JavaScript, C, Ruby and Python. We will see what
these different languages are good at and why you might pick one over
another, but I won't be trying to make you an expert on any one of them.
Instead in this course we will go through what's common across all of
these languages. We will work with things like loops, conditionals,
variables, and memory; see how to control the structure and the flow of a
program; and what you need to know about what that program is doing
under the hood.
Finally, the course compares how code is written in several different
languages, the libraries and frameworks that have grown around them,
and the reasons to choose each one. Topics include Algorithms and
problem-solving, Fundamental programming constructs: Fundamental
data structures: Primitive types; arrays; records; strings and string
processing, Software development methodology: Fundamental design
concepts and principles, data types, control structures, functions, arrays,
files, and the mechanics of running, testing, and debugging.

Course outcomes
Upon completion of Introduction to Programming CIS104, you will be
able to:

 Understand the historical and modern perspectives of computer

programming
 Develop comprehensive knowledge about the fundamental
principles, characteristics, concepts and constructs of modern

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 Course Overview

Outcomes computer programming.

 Develop competencies for the design, coding and debugging of
computer programs.
 Describe the fundamental programming constructs and articulate
how they are used to develop a program with a desired runtime
execution flow.
 Define the necessary program structure in terms of the basic
building blocks
 Articulate the advantages and limitations resulting from the use
of different language constructs that embody similar
programming concepts.

4
 Getting around this course manual

Getting around this course manual

Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

Study Session 1

Overview of Programming
Introduction
In this study session, you will be discussing programming. You will
begin by defining programming. You will also differentiate between
application and system programming. Thereafter, you will examine
computer programming and how to write a computer program. Lastly,
you will describe who a computer programmer is.

Learning Outcomes
When we have studied this session, we should be able to:
1.1 define programming
1.2 describe a computer program
Outcomes 1.3 highlight the characteristics of a computer program
1.4 identify a computer programmer.

Terminology
Algorithm A precise step by step plan for a computational procedure
that possibly begins with an input value and yields an
output value I a finite number of steps

Programmer One who writes computer programs, a software developer

Database A collection of organized information in a regular

structure, usually but not necessarily in a machine-
readable format

Debug To search for and eliminate malfunctioning elements or

errors in a computer program

Firmware Computer hardware with non-volatile embedded

computer applications

1.1 Definition of Programming

Programming is a creative process by which programmers to instruct a
computer on how to do a task. This is usually done by converting the
steps involved in solving a specific problem into a format that is

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

understandable by the computer through the use of a programming

language, so that it can be executed by a computer. Although many
programming languages and many different types of computers exist, the
important first step is the need to have the solution in a format that is
acceptable and understandable by the computer. Without an algorithm
there can be no program. An algorithm is therefore, a process or set of
rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations,
especially by a computer.

ITQ

Question
What is the first step and important step in programming?
Feedback
The important first step is the need to have the solution in a format that
is acceptable and understandable by the computer.

Armed with the understanding of the creative process of turning an

algorithm into a computer program and equipped with a specific language
of communication, it is possible for a programmer to instruct a computer
to do many interesting things, ranging from creating self-driving cars to
performing medical diagnosis and treatment. As an example, a system
has been running in the UK for several years that reads car number plates.
The car is seen by a camera and the image captured then instantly
processed so that the number plate details are extracted, run through a
national car registration database of number plates and any stolen vehicle
etc. alerts for that vehicle flagged up within few seconds.
The set of instructions normally used to perform these tasks is referred to
as a computer program, and is normally written in a specific computer
programming language. The essence of programming languages is to
allow a programmer to manipulate numbers and texts (called variables)
in different ways, share them over a network or store them on disks for
future retrieval. In order to be able to write computer programs, it has to
exist on an operating system such as Windows, Linux or Mac. While
most older generation programming languages are built for specific
operating system platforms, many modern programming languages such
as Java now allow writing programs for multi platform operating systems

ITQ

Question
What makes program work?
Feedback
Algorithm

1.1.1 Application Versus System Programming

Computer programming often are grouped into two broad categories:
application programming and systems programming. Application

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

programming involves writing programs to handle a specific job, such as

a program to track inventory within an organization. It also involves
revising existing packaged software or customize generic applications
which are frequently purchased from independent software vendors.
Systems programming, in contrast, has to do with writing programs to
maintain and control computer systems software, such as operating
systems and database management systems. These programs are able to
determine how the network, workstations, and CPU of the system handle
the various jobs they have been given and how they communicate with
peripheral equipment such as printers and disk drives.

ITQ

Question
What are the two groups of computer programming?
Feedback
As described above, the two groups of computer programming could be
Application programming or Systems programming.

1.2 The Computer Program

A computer program is a set of instructions, consisting of sequence of
separate commands or instructions, one after the other. Each step tells the
computer to perform a specific action. The idea of programming is to
break the program apart into these individual steps that can be executed
one after the other.
In programming languages we write these instructions by writing what
are called statements. Statements in programming languages are kind of
like sentences in English. They use words, numbers, and punctuation to
express one thought, one individual piece. Most programming statements
are pretty short, just a few words. Now, exactly what words, numbers,
and punctuation you use depends on the programming language. Some
languages want each of your statements to end with a semicolon, like
ending a sentence in English with a period, and others don't. You just go
to the next line and start writing the next statement.
Every language has its own characteristics. Some languages are all
uppercase, some languages are all lowercase, some languages just don't
care. Now, understanding the rules of each language is understanding the
syntax of a programming language. So programming is the ability to take
this idea in your head, break it apart into its individual pieces, and know
how to write those pieces in the programming language you are using at
the time, writing your statements in the right order, using the right syntax.
But what language? Well, sometimes you get to pick a language and
sometimes it's kind of picked for you. This will be made clearer in this
courseware.
The computer is only capable of processing binary, i.e. a series of 0s and
1s. Therefore we require a programming language to be able to write
commands that the computer can execute, but in a legible manner, i.e.

9
 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

commands that are understood by humans. These programs are then

translated into machine code (in binary) by a compiler.

ITQ

Question
Explain the term “statements” with respect to programming?
Feedback
Statements in programming languages have a similar role to what
sentences do in English language. Statements uses words, numbers, and
punctuation to express one thought, one individual piece in
programming. Your understanding of the how statement relate to
programming is key in grasping how a program functions.

1.2.1 Writing a Computer Program

The method of writing a program is closely linked to the programming
language chosen, there being many different types. Furthermore, the
compiler should match the chosen language: each programming language
has its own compiler (except interpreted languages). Generally speaking,
the program is a simple text file (written using a word processor or a text
editor), this is called the source file). The source file contains lines of
program called source code. Once the source file has been completed it
must be compiled. Compilation takes place in two stages:
1. The compiler transforms the source code into object code, and
saves it in an object file, i.e. it translates the source file into
machine code (some compilers also create a file in assembler), a
language similar to machine code as it possesses basic functions
but is legible by humans)
2. The compiler then makes a call to a link editor (or linker or
binder) which enables it to embed all additional elements
(functions or libraries)that are referenced in the program into the
final file but which are not stored in the source file.
3. Then an executable file is created which contains all items
required for the program to run on its own (in Microsoft
Windows or MS-DOS this file will have the extension .exe).

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

ITQ

Question
Using a flow chart, outline the basic steps in writing a computer program
Feedback

Compiler 1
•Simple Text File (source file) Link Editor
•Source Code
(linker/binder)
•Object Code
•Object file (machine code)

Executable file

1.3 Characteristics of Computer Program

Every computer requires appropriate instruction set (programs) to
perform the required task. The quality of the processing depends upon the
given instructions. If the instructions are improper or incorrect, then it is
obvious that the result will be superfluous. Therefore, proper and correct
instructions should be provided to the computer so that it can provide the
desired output. Hence, a program should be developed in such a way that
it ensures proper functionality of the computer. In addition, a program
should be written in such a manner that it is easier to understand the
underlying logic. The characteristics of a good computer program are
listed by 79experts (http://www.79xperts.com/blog/good-computer-
program/) as follows:

1.3.1 Portability
Portability refers to the ability of an application to run on different
platforms (operating systems) with or without minimal changes. Due to
rapid development in the hardware and the software, nowadays platform
change is a common phenomenon. Hence, if a program is developed for a
particular platform, then the life span of the program is severely affected.

1.3.2 Readability
The program should be written in such a way that it makes other
programmers or users to follow the logic of the program without much
effort. If a program is written structurally, it helps the programmers to
understand their own program in a better way. Even if some
computational efficiency needs to be sacrificed for better readability, it is

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

advisable to use a more user-friendly approach, unless the processing of

an application is of utmost importance.

1.3.3 Efficiency
Every program requires certain processing time and memory to process
the instructions and data. As the processing power and memory are the
most precious resources of a computer, a program should be laid out in
such a manner that it utilizes the least amount of memory and processing
time. Programs written in a good programming language are efficiently
translated into machine code, are efficiently executed, and acquire as
little space in the memory as possible. That is a good programming
language is supported with a good language translator which gives due
consideration to space and time efficiency.

1.3.4 Structural
To develop a program, the task must be broken down into a number of
subtasks. These subtasks are developed independently, and each subtask
is able to perform the assigned job without the help of any other subtask.
If a program is developed structurally, it becomes more readable, and the
testing and documentation process also gets easier. A Structured program
implies that the language should have necessary features to allow its users
to write their programs based on the concepts of structured programming.
This property of a moreover, it forces a programmer to look at a problem
in a logical way, so that fewer errors are created while writing a program
for the problem.

1.3.5 Flexibility
A program should be flexible enough to handle most of the changes
without having to rewrite the entire program. Most of the programs are
developed for a certain period and they require modifications from time
to time. For example, in case of payroll management, as the time
progresses, some employees may leave the company while some others
may join. Hence, the payroll application should be flexible enough to
incorporate all the changes without having to reconstruct the entire
application.

1.3.6 Generality
Apart from flexibility, the program should also be general. Generality
means that if a program is developed for a particular task, then it should
also be used for all similar tasks of the same domain. For example, if a
program is developed for a particular organization, then it should suit all
the other similar organizations.

1.3.7 Documentation
Documentation is one of the most important components of an
application development. Even if a program is developed following the
best programming practices, it will be rendered useless if the end user is
not able to fully utilize the functionality of the application. A well-

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

documented application is also useful for other programmers because

even in the absence of the author, they can understand it.
The followings are additional characteristics believed to be important for
making a programming language good are:
1. Simplicity: A good programming language must be simple and
easy to learn and use. It should provide a programmer with a
clear, simple and unified set of concepts, which can be easily
grasped. The overall simplicity of a programming language
strongly affects the readability of the programs written in that
language, and programs, which are easier to read and understand,
are also easier to maintain. It is also easy to develop and
implement a compiler or an interpreter for a programming
language, which is simple. However, the power needed for the
language should not be sacrificed for simplicity.
2. Naturalness: A good language should be natural for the
application area, for which it has been designed. That is, it should
provide appropriate operators, data structures, control structures,
and a natural syntax to facilitate the users to code their problem
easily and efficiently.
3. Abstraction: Abstraction means the ability to define and then use
complicated structures or operations in ways that allow many of
the details to be ignored. The degree of abstraction allowed by a
programming language directly affect its writability. Object
oriented language support high degree of abstraction. Hence,
writing programs in object oriented language is much easier.
Object oriented language also support reusability of program
segments due to this features.
4. Compactness: In a good programming language, programmers
should be able to express intended operations concisely. A
verbose language is generally not liked by programmers, because
they need to write too much.
5. Locality: A good programming language should be such that
while writing a programmer concentrate almost solely on the part
of the program around the statement currently being worked
with.

ITQ

Question
What does the term ‘flexibility’ refer to?
Feedback
Flexibility refers to the ability of a program to handle most of the
changes without having to rewrite the entire program. This is necessary
as most programs are developed for a certain period and they require
modifications from time to time. Therefore, the payroll application
should be flexible enough to incorporate all the changes without having
to reconstruct the entire application.

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

1.4 The Computer Programmer

A computer programmer, also known as developer, coder, or software
engineer is a person who writes computer software. The term computer
programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer
programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of
software and can be used to refer to a software developer, Web
developer, mobile applications developer, embedded firmware developer,
software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst. A
programmer's primary computer language is often prefixed to these titles,
and those who work in a Web environment often prefix their titles with
Web. As such, based on computer programming language expertise, we
can name a computer programmers as follows −
1. C Programmer
2. C++ Programmer
3. Java Programmer
4. Python Programmer
5. PHP Programmer
6. Perl Programmer
7. Ruby Programmer

ITQ

Question
What other names can we call a computer programmer?
Feedback
A computer programmer can also be called a developer, coder, or
software engineer.

1.4.1 The Work of a Computer Programmer

The purpose of programming is to create a program that produces a
certain desired behaviour (customization). The process of writing source
code often requires expertise in many different subjects, including
knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal
logic. A computer programmer figures out the process of designing,
writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting and maintaining the source
code of computer programs. This source code is written in a
programming language so the computer can 'understand' it. The code may
be a modification of an existing source or something completely new.
The computer programmer also designs a graphical user interface (GUI)
so that non-technical users can use the software through easy, point-and-
click menu options. The GUI acts as a translator between the user and the
software code. Some, especially those working on large projects that
involve many programmers, use computer-assisted software engineering
(CASE) tools to automate much of the coding process. These tools enable
a programmer to concentrate on writing the unique parts of a program. A
programmer working on smaller projects will often use “programmer

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

environments,” applications that increase productivity by combining

compiling, code walk-through, code generation, test data generation, and
debugging functions.
A programmer will also use libraries of basic code that can be modified
or customized for a specific application. This approach yields more
reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers' productivity
by eliminating some routine steps. The programmer will also be
responsible for maintaining the program’s health. As software design has
continued to advance, and some programming functions have become
automated, programmers have begun to assume some of the
responsibilities that were once performed only by software engineers. As
a result, some computer programmers now assist software engineers in
identifying user needs and designing certain parts of computer programs,
as well as other functions. (Adapted fromwww.sokanu.com)

ITQ

Question
What is the sole purpose of a computer programmer?
Feedback
The purpose of programming is to create a program that produces a
certain desired behaviour (customization). The process of writing source
code often requires expertise in many different subjects, including
knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal
logic.

Study Session Summary

In this study session, you explored programming. You began the session
by defining programming. You also distinguished between application
and system programming. You continued by examining the computer
Summary program and how to write a computer program. Thereafter, you
highlighted the characteristics of a computer program. You ended the
session by describing who a programmer is and his functions.

Assessment
SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1)
1. What is the essence of programming?
2. What is the essence of programming?
Assessment SAQ 1.2 (tests learning outcome 1.2)
What is a computer program?
SAQ 1.3 (tests learning outcome 1.3)

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 Study Session 1 Overview of Programming

What are the characteristics of a computer program?

SAQ 1.4 (tests learning outcome 1.4)
1. Who is a computer programmer?
2. List four (4) core functions of a computer programmer?

Bibliography
http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~rxb/java/intro/2programming.html)
http://interactivepython.org/runestone/static/pythonds/Introduction/Wha
tIsProgramming.html

Reading http://www.79xperts.com/blog/good-computer-program/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_errorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L
ogic_error
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integration_testinghttps://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Integration_testing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/unit_testinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/u
nit_testing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/smoke_testing
Cem Kaner, James Bach, Bret Pettichord, Lessons learned in software
testing: a context-driven approach. Wiley, 2001

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

Study Session 2

History of Programming Languages

Introduction
In this study session, you will be tracing the history of programming
language. You will describe the different stages of programming
language. Under which you will look at the first computer language, the
birth of assembly language and the first modern language. Lastly, you
will highlight the different categories of computer languages by Epoch.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
2.1 trace the evolution of programming languages
2.2 categorize computer languages by epochs
Outcomes

Terminology
Formulaic Closely following a formula or predictable pattern

Compiler A computer program which transforms source code into

object code

2.1 The Evolution of Programming

Languages
Thousands of different programming languages have been created,
mainly in the computer field, and many more still are being created every
year. The history of programming languages dates back to the 19th
century, when Ada Lovelace (1815 – 1852) wrote a set of notes after
translating the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea (1809 –
1896) about the Analytical Engine shown below during a period of nine
months between 1842 and 1843. . The Analytical Engine was an
invention of English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles
Babbage (1791-1871). Ada Lovelace’s set of notes, has been recognized
by some historians as the world’s first computer program as it contained a
ground-breaking description of the possibilities of programming the
machine to go beyond number-crunching to “computing”. Ada Lovelace
was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on
Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine as mentioned above. Her notes on

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the engine include what is recognized as the first algorithm intended to be

carried out by a machine. Because of this, she is often regarded as the
first computer programmer. She also pointed out what otherwise might
have been remembered as the first computer bug in Babbage’s equations,
which also makes her possibly the world’s first debugger. The computer
language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of
Defense, was named after Ada Lovelace.

Analytical Engine

Ada Lovace- The world’s first programmer

ITQ

Question
Why was Ada Lovelace’s set of notes recognized as the world’s first
computer program?
Feedback
Some historians have recognized Ada Lovelace’s set of notes, as the
world’s first computer program because it contained a groundbreaking
description of the possibilities of programming the machine to go
beyond number crunching to “computing”.

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2.1.1 The First Computer Language

47 years after Ada Lovelace had annotated as what is considered the first
computer program, Herman Hollerith (1860 – 1929) created what is
considered the first computer language when he realized he could encode
information on punch cards. Hollerith’s punch card system was used to
encode the 1890 census data on punch cards, saving millions of dollars
and many years of manual work.
ITQ

Question
Who created the first computer language?
Feedback
Herman Hollerith

2.1.2 The Birth of Assembly Language

In 1926, Alonzo Church (1903 – 1995) was able to express the lambda
calculus (also written as λ-calculus) in a formulaic way. In the 1940s,
machine-specific assembly language was probably the first (vaguely)
human-readable programming language. An early high-level
programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül,
developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945.
However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000. John Mauchly’s
Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages
ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short
Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable
form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every
time it ran, making the process slower than running the equivalent
machine code. The Manchester Mark 1 ran programs written in Autocode
from 1952.
At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in
the early 1950s. A programming language, it used as a compiler to
automatically convert the language into machine code. The first code and
compiler was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the
University of Manchester and is considered to be the first compiled high-
level programming language. By the 1950s computer engineers realized
that assembly language was too complex and a fallible process to build
entire systems, and so the first modern programming language was born.

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

ITQ

Question
Where was Autocode developed?
Feedback
Autocode was developed in the early 1950s at the University of
Manchester.

2.1.3 The First Modern Computer Languages

John Warner Backus (1924 – 2007), an American computer scientist,
assembled a team in 1954 to define and develop Fortran for the IBM 704
computer. In 1957, Backus and his team had created Fortran. Fortran was
the first high-level programming language to be put to broad use. Lisp
was invented by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The name LISP derives
from “List Processing”. Linked lists are one of Lisp’s major data
structures, and Lisp source code is itself made up of lists. COBOL was
later designed in 1959 by the Conference on Data Systems Languages
(CODASYL) and was partly based on previous programming language
design work by Grace Hopper, commonly referred to as “the (grand)
mother of COBOL” The name COBOL derives from “Common Business
Oriented Language”. Cobol is a compiled English-like computer
programming language designed for business use.
In 1970, Pascal was developed by Niklaus Wirth. He is a Swiss computer
scientist, best known for designing several programming languages,
including Pascal, and for pioneering several classic topics in software
engineering. The name Pascal is in honor of the French mathematician
and philosopher Blaise Pascal. Initially, Pascal was largely, but not
exclusively, intended to teach students structured programming. A
generation of students used Pascal as an introductory language in
undergraduate courses.
The language C was developed in 1972. The name was based on an
earlier language called B which is now almost extinct, the C was
originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at AT&T
Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. It was
renamed from C with Classes to C++. New features were added including
virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references,
constants, type-safe free-store memory allocation (new/delete), improved
type checking, and BCPL style single-line comments with two forward
slashes “//”, etc.

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ITQ

Question
Who was responsible for the development of FORTRAN?
Feedback
John Warner Backus, an American computer scientist.

2.1.4 More Recent Modern Languages

Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C,
including C++, D, Go, Rust, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, C#,
Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Verilog (hardware description
language), and Unix’s C shell. C++ was created by Bjarne Stroustrup, a
Danish computer scientist. The motivation for creating a new language
originated from Stroustrup’s experience in programming for his Ph.D. In
1983 Objective-C was created in 1983, primarily by Brad Cox and Tom
Love in the early 1980s at their company Stepstone. Both had been
introduced to Smalltalk while at ITT Corporation’s Programming
Technology Center in 1981. The earliest work on Objective-C traces back
to around that time. Objective-C is a thin layer on top of C, and is a
“strict superset” of C, meaning that it is possible to compile any C
program with an Objective-C compiler, and to freely include C language
code within an Objective-C class.
Perl was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Wall, a computer
programmer and author, most widely known as the creator of the Perl
programming language. It was developed as a general-purpose Unix
scripting language to make report processing easier. Though Perl is not
officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, the most
well-known being “Practical Extraction and Reporting Language”. It was
named Perl because Pearl was already taken.
In 1991, Python was born. The name of the programming language was
chosen by the author while being in a slightly irreverent mood (and
because he was a big fan of Monty Python’s Flying Circus). Python is a
widely used general-purpose, high-level programming language. Its
design philosophy emphasizes code readability, and its syntax allows
programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code than it would be
possible in languages such as C++ or Java.
Python was conceived in the late 1980s and its implementation was
started in December 1989 by Guido van Rossum at CWI in the
Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language capable of exception
handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Van
Rossum is Python’s principal author, and his continuing central role in
deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by
the Python community, benevolent dictator for life (BDFL) 1993
witnessed the evolution of Ruby. The name “Ruby” originated during an
online chat session between Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka. Initially two
names were proposed: “Coral” and “Ruby”. Matsumoto chose the latter
because it was the birthstone of one of his colleagues. Ruby is a dynamic,
reflective, object-oriented, general-purpose programming language.

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

According to its authors, Ruby was influenced by Perl, Smalltalk, Eiffel,

Ada, and Lisp. Ruby was designed and developed by Yukihiro “Matz”
Matsumoto in Japan. Matsumoto has said that Ruby is designed for
programmer productivity and fun, following the principles of good user
interface design.
1995 witnessed the evolution of three major modern languages; Java,
PHP and JAvascript. Java is a general-purpose computer programming
language that was named Java for the amount of coffee consumed while
developing the language. It is concurrent, class-based, object-oriented,
and specifically designed to have as few implementation dependencies as
possible. It is intended to let application developers “write once, run
anywhere” (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run on all
platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation. Java was
originally developed by James Gosling, a Canadian computer scientist at
Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun
Microsystems’ Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax
from C and C++.
The name PHP derived originally from Personal Home Page, now it
stands for Hypertext PreProcessor. PHP is a server-side scripting
language designed for web development but also used as a general-
purpose programming language. In 1994, Rasmus Lerdorf started the
development of PHP when he wrote a series of Common Gateway
Interface (CGI) binaries in C, which he used to maintain his personal
homepage. He extended them to add the ability to work with web forms
and to communicate with databases, and called this implementation
“Personal Home Page/Forms Interpreter” or PHP/FI.
Javascript It was developed under the name Mocha, and then the
language was officially called LiveScript when it first shipped in beta
releases of Netscape Navigator 2.0 in September 1995, but it was
renamed JavaScript when it was deployed in the Netscape browser
version 2.0B3. JavaScript is a high level, dynamic, untyped, and
interpreted programming language. It has been standardized in the
ECMAScript language specification. Alongside HTML and CSS, it is one
of the three essential technologies of World Wide Web content
production; the majority of websites employ it and it is supported by all
modern web browsers without plug-ins.
Despite some naming, syntactic, and standard library similarities,
JavaScript and Java are otherwise unrelated and have very different
semantics. The syntax of JavaScript is actually derived from C, while the
semantics and design are influenced by the Self and Scheme
programming languages. JavaScript was originally developed by Brendan
Eich, while he was working for Netscape Communications Corporation.
Indeed, while competing with Microsoft for user adoption of web
technologies and platforms, Netscape considered their client-server
offering a distributed OS with a portable version of Sun Microsystems’
Java providing an environment in which applets could be run.
In 2000, The name “C sharp” was inspired by musical notation where a
sharp indicates that the written note should be made a semitone higher in
pitch. C# is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose, object-
oriented programming language. Its development team is led by Anders

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

Hejlsberg. The most recent version is C# 6.0, which was released on July
20, 2015.
In January 1999, Anders Hejlsberg formed a team to build a new
language at the time called Cool, which stood for “C-like Object Oriented
Language”. Microsoft had considered keeping the name “Cool” as the
final name of the language, but chose not to do so for trademark reasons.
By the time the .NET project was publicly announced at the July 2000
Professional Developers Conference, the language had been renamed C#.

ITQ

Question
Who created C++?
Feedback
Bjarne Stroustrup created C++.
Born in 2003, Scala is a programming language for general software
applications. The name Scala is a portmanteau of “scalable” and
“language”, signifying that it is designed to grow with the demands of its
users. Scala has full support for functional programming and a very
strong static type system. This allows programs written in Scala to be
very concise and thus smaller in size than other general-purpose
programming languages. The design of Scala started in 2001 at the École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) by Martin Odersky,
following on from work on Funnel, a programming language combining
ideas from functional programming and Petri nets. Odersky had
previously worked on Generic Java and javac, Sun’s Java compiler.
In 2009, the Go language was born. It is also commonly referred to as
golang, is a programming language developed at Google. Go is
recognizably in the tradition of C, but makes many changes to improve
conciseness, simplicity, and safety. Go was developed at Google in 2007
by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. It is a statically
typed language with syntax loosely derived from that of C, adding
garbage collection, type safety, some dynamic-typing capabilities,
additional built-in types such as variable-length arrays & key-value maps,
and a large standard library. Swift was introduced at Apple’s 2014
Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), It underwent an upgrade to
version 1.2 during 2014, and a more major upgrade to Swift 2 at WWDC
2015. Swift is a multi-paradigm, compiled programming language
created by Apple Inc. for iOS, OS X, and watch OS development. Swift
is designed to work with Apple’s Cocoa and Cocoa Touch frameworks
and the large body of existing Objective-C code written for Apple
products. Swift is intended to be more resilient to erroneous code
(“safer”) than Objective-C, and more concise. Development on Swift
began in 2010 by Chris Lattner, with the eventual collaboration of many
other programmers at Apple. Swift took language ideas “from Objective-
C, Rust, Haskell, Ruby, Python, C#, CLU, and far too many others to
list”. On June 2, 2014, the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC)
application became the first publicly released app written in Swift.

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

ITQ

Question
When was Python created?
Feedback
1991

2.2 Categorizing Computer Languages by

Epochs
Simon Raik-Allen divided the history of computer languages into three
primary epochs as follows:
1. The High-Level Dawning: In the 1940s computer programs were
cryptic and lengthy streams of low-level machine instructions.
That changed in 1955 and through the 60s with the advent of
Fortran, good for scientific calculations, and then Cobol for
commercial data processing. These languages gave early
programmers their first glimpse of the expressive power of
abstracting away underlying details and using higher-level
constructs to describe their needs.
2. The C Era: Around 1972 the C language was born and has
probably had more impact on programming and language design
than any other language to date. Many subsequent languages
derived their syntax (appearance) from C and there are also a
number of C dialects (such as C++ in 1980) which collectively
still dominate the list of most popular programming languages
today. With C one can create high-performing and low-memory-
using applications so it's often used for writing other languages,
operating systems, and small device controllers.
3. The Age of Java: In 1995 the Java language hit the scene, rapidly
rose to popularity and is widely considered the most popular
programming language in existence today. I put its success down
to three reasons. Firstly, it was based on the C/C++ syntax so it
was familiar looking. Secondly, it omitted a number of its
predecessor's more complex language features greatly
simplifying the language (although at the price of performance)
but thus opening it up to a wider audience of programmers. And
lastly due to the web. Netscape Navigator, the first web browser,
entered the market around the same time and allowed embedding
of Java programs into web pages to extend their functionality and
the two rode the tech boom together. A few years later Java made
its way into the enterprise market (some say basically replacing
COBOL) and the rest is history.

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

ITQ

Question
Which primary epoch had more impact on programming and language
design than any other language?
Feedback
The C Era.
According to Raik-Allen, the historical perspective above is one way to
look at it, but there are a few others. Which he sliced across some other
dimensions:
1. The Web Dimension: For rapidly building web sites Perl (1987)
and PHP (1995) have been two popular choices for a number of
years. Among other things they make it easy to merge business
data and page layout for delivery to web browsers. There are also
many Web Application Frameworks, which are pre-built
components, which provide many of the features required to
build and manage web sites. Different versions of these have
been built in most of the popular programming languages.
2. The Corporate Dimension : The big technology companies have
each largely aligned themselves with different languages stacks.
Oracle and IBM are aligned with Java (Oracle actually owns
Java). Google are known for their use of Python (1997), a very
versatile, dynamic and extensible language, although in reality
they are also heavy users of C++ and Java. They have also
created their own language called Go (2009). Developers who
use Microsoft technology tend to use their systems, tools, and
languages exclusively, and for over a decade now Microsoft have
focused their efforts on their own language C# (pronounced 'see
sharp'). Although its namesake is C it began life (debatably)
closer to Java and was reportedly developed as a response to
Java's growing popularity in 2000. That said, C# has since
evolved rapidly into a rich and eloquent language and if there
was any similarity to Java, it's gone. C# has been enjoying solid
growth in popularity since day one. Another language worth
mentioning is BASIC. Originally from 1964 BASIC took off
when it found its way onto almost every Personal Computer from
the 70s and 80s and two variants are still extremely popular
today. Both are made by Microsoft.
ITQ

Question
Which language is regarded as the most popular programming language
in existence today?
Feedback
The Java Language
3. The Mobile Dimension: This is the language of Apple's mobile
phones and tablets. Although officially published in 1986 it

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

remained almost dormant until the rise of the App Store in 2009.
Since then it has been one of the fastest growing languages each
year. On the other hand, Google's Android mobile platform uses
Java to write applications which is surely contributing to that
language's current popularity in a significant way.
ITQ

Question
What programming language has Oracle and IBM aligned themselves?
Feedback
Oracle and IBM are aligned with Java (Oracle actually owns Java).
4. The New Age Dimension: There is of late an emerging backlash
to the highly verbose and structured C-derived languages. Many
developers are wanting to do more with less and hence we are
seeing a rise in a number of more succinct, streamlined, and
potentially more productive languages. Three worth mentioning
are Clojure (2007), Scala (2003), and Ruby (1993). Clojure is a
modern interpretation of an older language called LISP (from the
Fortran days). Scala was designed to be a 'better Java' and has
added many new features to the language over the last few years,
making it also more C#-like. Ruby is definitely the most popular
of the bunch and has been sitting just inside the top 10 for a few
years.
ITQ

Question
What is Google known with and what other languages do they make use
of?
Feedback
Google is known for their use of Python (1997), a very versatile,
dynamic and extensible language.
They are also heavy users of C++ and Java.

2.2.1 Summary of Important Programming

Languages by Year
Below is a Summary of important programming languages by year:

1951 – Regional Assembly

Language 1970 – Pascal 1993 – Ruby

1994 – CLOS (part of ANSI

1952 – Autocode 1972 – C Common Lisp)

1954 – IPL (forerunner to LISP) 1972 – Prolog 1995 – Ada 95

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

1955 – FLOW-MATIC (led to 1995 – Delphi (Object

COBOL) 1972 – Smalltalk Pascal)

1957 – COMTRAN (precursor to

COBOL) 1973 – ML 1995 – Java

1957 – FORTRAN (First

compiler) 1975 – Scheme 1995 – JavaScript

1978 – SQL (a query language,

1958 – ALGOL 58 later extended) 1995 – PHP

1980 – C++ (as C with classes,

1958 – LISP renamed in 1983) 1996 – WebDNA

1959 – COBOL 1983 – Ada 1997 – Rebol

1959 – FACT (forerunner to

COBOL) 1984 – Common Lisp 1999 – D

1959 – RPG 1984 – MATLAB 2000 – ActionScript

1962 – APL 1985 – Eiffel 2000 – C#

1962 – Simula 1986 – Erlang 2001 – Visual Basic .NET

1962 – SNOBOL 1986 – Objective-C 2003 – Groovy

1963 – CPL (forerunner to C) 1987 – Perl 2003 – Scala

1964 – BASIC 1988 – Mathematica 2005 – F#

1964 – PL/I 1988 – Tcl 2007 – Clojure

1966 – JOSS 1989 – FL (Backus) 2009 – Go

1967 – BCPL (forerunner to C) 1990 – Haskell 2011 – Dart

1968 – Logo 1991 – Python 2012 – Rust

1969 – B (forerunner to C) 1991 – Visual Basic 2014 – Swift

1970 – Forth 1993 – Lua

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 Study Session 2 History of Programming Languages

Study Session Summary

In this study session, you traced the history of programming languages.
You discussed the different developmental stages of program
development. You examined the first computer language, the birth of
Summary assembly language and the first modern computer language. You also
highlighted the different categories of computer languages by Epoch.

Assessment
SAQ 2.1 (tests Learning Outcome 2.1)
What are the key points in the evolution of programming languages?
Assessment SAQ 2.2 (tests Learning Outcome 2.2)
1. How do you categorize computer languages by epochs?
2. Give a summary of the important languages by year.

Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_languagehttps://en.wikipedi
a.org/wiki/Programming_language
http://www.ricardodsanchez.com/2015/08/31/programming-a-short-
history-of-computer-languages/
Reading

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

Study Session 3

The Programming Process

Introduction
In this study session, you will examine the programming process. You
will begin by discussing problem definition and analysis. Thereafter, you
will point out planning and outlining the solution. In addition, you will
examine how to code the program, compilation and debugging. You will
conclude the session by exploring testing, validation, and program
documentation.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 explain problem definition and analysis
3.2 discuss the process of coding the program
Outcomes 3.3 define compilation
3.4 define debugging
3.5 explain testing and validation
3.6 describe programming documentation

Terminology
Flowchart A schematic representation of how the different stages in
a process are interconnected

Pseudo code A description of a computer programming algorithm that

uses the structural conventions of programming languages

Word Processor A software that provides word processing functions on a

computer, typically including typeface selection, line
justification and other formatting, pagination and
numerous other features

Syntax A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form
phrases and sentences

Error A failure to complete a task, usually involving a premature

termination

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

3.1 Problem Definition and Analysis

The first thing in the programming life cycle is to identify and analyze the
specific problem to be solved. If you have no problem, you cannot
concentrate your capability on programming work. If you have a
problem, you engage yourself in programming. The first thing is an
analytical brain that can help a programmer to quickly understand
problems and analyze problem for the next step.
Suppose that, as a programmer, you have been contacted because your
services are needed. You meet with users from the client organization to
analyze the problem, or you meet with a systems analyst who outlines the
project. Specifically, the task of defining the problem consists of
identifying what it is you know (input-given data), and what it is you
want to obtain (output-the result). Eventually, you produce a written
agreement that, among other things, specifies the kind of input,
processing, and output required. This is not a simple process.
ITQ

Question
How do you identify a problem in programming?
Feedback
To identify a problem, there must be a need. The need from the end-
user/clients determines what the problem is and how to solve it

3.1.1 Planning and Outlining the Solution

If you have understood your problem, outline of solution is next
important steps. The problem is divided into several modules or tasks and
assigned to each programmer. The software industries are based on
efficient system analyst, and competent programmers. Two common
ways of planning the solution to a problem are to draw a flowchart and to
write pseudocode, or possibly both. Essentially, a flowchart is a pictorial
representation of a step-by-step solution to a problem. It consists of
arrows representing the direction the program takes and boxes and other
symbols representing actions. It is a map of what your program is going
to do and how it is going to do it. Pseudocode is an English-like
nonstandard language that lets you state your solution with more
precision than you can in plain English but with less precision than is
required when using a formal programming language. Pseudocode
permits you to focus on the program logic without having to be
concerned just yet about the precise syntax of a particular programming
language. However, pseudocode is not executable on the computer until it
is developed into an executable program.

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

ITQ

Question
What is the uniqueness of the Pseudocode?
Feedback
Pseudocode allows you state your solution with precision and permits
you to focus on the program logic

3.2 Coding the Program

As the programmer, your next step is to code the program-that is, to
express your solution in a programming language. You will translate the
logic from the flowchart or pseudocode-or some other tool-to a
programming language. Coding is the act of translating the design into an
actual program, written in some form of programming language. This is
the step where you actually have to sit down at the computer and type!
Coding is a little bit like writing an essay. In most cases you write your
program using something a bit like a word processor. And, like essays,
there are certain things that you always need to include in your program
(a bit like titles, contents pages, introductions, references etc.). When
you've finished translating your design into a program (usually filling in
lots of details in the process) you need to submit it to the computer to see
what it makes of it.
As we have already noted, a programming language is a set of rules that
provides a way of instructing the computer what operations to perform.
There are many programming languages: BASIC, COBOL, Pascal,
FORTRAN, and C are some examples. Although programming
languages operate grammatically, somewhat like the English language,
they are much more precise. To get your program to work, you have to
follow exactly the rules-the syntax-of the language you are using. Of
course, using the language correctly is no guarantee that your program
will work, any more than speaking grammatically correct English means
you know what you are talking about. The point is that correct use of the
language is the required first step. Then your coded program must be
keyed, probably using a terminal or personal computer, in a form the
computer can understand. Programmers usually use a text editor, which
is somewhat like a word processing program, to create a file that contains
the program. However, as a beginner, you will probably want to write
your program code on paper first. Generally, programmers choose
general purpose programming languages. The specific type’s languages
are used for specific types of software. Before doing the coding, the
programmer has to choose a computer language based on the following
considerations:
1. The nature of the problem.
2. The programming language available on the computer.
3. The facilities and limitations of the computer installation.

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

ITQ

Question
What is the idea behind coding a program?
Feedback
It allows you not just to state your solution in plain English but to
express your solution in a programming language.

3.3 Compilation
Every programming language has to take a set of programming
specifications and translate them, i.e. create a means to execute those
specifications, by using a compiler. Technically, the term, compiler
generally means a program that produces a separate executable from the
compiler (that may require a run time library or subsystem to operate), a
compiler that merely executes the original specifications is usually
referred to as an "interpreter", although because of differing methods of
analyzing what represents compilation and what represents interpretation,
there is some overlap between the two terms. Compilation turns the
program into the instructions made up of 0's and 1's that the computer can
actually follow. This is necessary because the chip that makes your
computer work only understands binary machine code - something that
most humans would have a great deal of trouble using since it looks
something like:
01010101 11111101 10111100 10000001 10010001
Early programmers actually used to write their programs in that sort of a
style - but luckily they soon learnt how to create programs that could take
something written in a more understandable language and translate it into
this gobbled gook. These programs are called compilers, and you can
think of them simply as translators that can read a programming
language, translate it and write out the corresponding machine code.
Compilers are notoriously pedantic though - if you don't write very
correct programs, they will complain. Think of them as the strictest sort
of English teacher, who picks you up on every single missing comma,
misplaced apostrophe and grammatical error. This is where debugging
makes it first appearance, since once the compiler has looked at your
program it is likely to come back to you with a list of mistakes, the next
thing is to correct these mistakes through a process known as debugging,,
otherwise the program will not execute.

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

ITQ

Question
What can a compiler be compared with?
Feedback
I don’t know what you have compared a compilier with, but a compiler
can be compared with a translator. This is because they can read a
program language, translate it, and write out the corresponding machine
code.

3.4 Debugging
Debugging is the process of detecting, locating and fixing or bypassing
errors, typically known as bugs in the process of compiling a computer
program. When we compile program, we debug the program by looking
at the error messages that are displayed due to syntax error, and removing
the bug or error so that no erroneous messages are displayed. It is a
common daily life event in software industries. When a program is coded
carefully, bugs can still creep stealthily into the program. Some compilers
are equipped with debugger to remove programming errors. These
compilers diagnose errors and debug them carefully.
It should be noted that it is not actually necessary to write the entire
program before you start to compile and debug. In most cases it is better
to write a small section of the code first, get that to work, and then move
on to the next stage. This reduces the amount of code that needs to be
debugged each time and generally creates a good feeling of "getting
there" as each section is completed. Finally, the compiler presents you
with a program that the computer can run, hopefully, your solution!
To clearly understand the concept of debugging in computer programs, it
is important to first understand the concepts of Syntax, Semantics, and
program errors.
ITQ

Question
How do you improve outcome and save time while programing?
Feedback
You could save time and improve the speed of programming by
debugging in bits. Do not wait until you finish writing your program
before you start debugging. That could be overwhelming! To avoid that,
once you have written up to a particular level, you should commence the
process of debugging.

3.4.1 Syntax
The syntax of a computer language is the set of rules that defines the
combinations of symbols that are considered to be a correctly structured
document or fragment in that language. Simply put, syntax is the basic

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

spelling and grammar of a particular programming language in order to

indicates the program’s validity. Generally, syntax differs from language
to language. A program follows valid syntax rules in order to be able to
function, otherwise the program cannot execute successfully.

ITQ

Question
What is syntax?
Feedback
Syntax is the basic spelling and grammar of a particular programming
language in order to indicates the program’s validity.

3.4.2 Semantics
Semantics of a programming language refer to the rules that give
meaning to programs. We can say syntax has specific output oriented
meaning, which is called semantics. It's refers to the meaning of the
language elements in terms of what they formally mean as regards
computation (operational semantics). This means that it expresses what a
term of your language effectively does assuming an underlying kind of
model that depends on which semantic we are talking about.
Wikipedia describes 3 kinds of semantics as follows:
1. operational semantics express the meaning of the language by
specifying how an abstract virtual machine behaves whenever it
executes a term. (eg: +: pops two elements from the stack and
push the sum. This is NOT formal and it is NOT how you should
really consider it, it's just to give you an idea). This is the most
used one to describe semantics of "normal" programming
languages. For example for Java you could have, for every
possible term, a sequence of JVM instruction meant to be
executed to model that term. Probably when you asked for the
meaning of semantics this is the one you were looking for.
2. Denotational semantics is a different approach: you give for
every term of the language a meaning that is represented by a
mathematical function. So for previous example you would have
a function f associated with + that contains what is the semantic
(effective meaning) of the term
3. axiomatic semantics is a way to annotate the terms of your
language expressing how they alter the validity of some logical
formulas you want to verify over your program. You should
consider reading this just because the inference rules and axioms
used are similar in how you develop this kind of semantics but
it's explained in a practical way
From this description above, you understand that a semantic is something
well defined inside a context, and you need a specified context otherwise
you couldn't give you language a formal definition of what its terms do..

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

Example 3.1
The semantics of the following equation tells that sum of x and y is
assigned to variable sum:
Sum = x + y
Example 3.2
Consider another equation below:
p =q*r+1/2*s*r*r
It is a syntax which has two set of variables. In right set has ‘q’, ‘r’ and
‘s’ variables and left set has only one variable ‘p’. The semantics tells
that right side has operators +, / and * working over variables. In first
step, variables are multiplied (one set ‘q’ and ‘r’ and other set s, r and r),
then 1 is divided by2*s*r*r and added to q * r, and sum is assigned to p.
Syntax is the rule used by programming grammar. So programming
statement may be correct on the basis of syntax, but it may be
semantically wrong.

ITQ

Question
What is the most important rule in programming with respect to
Semantics?
Feedback
Syntax is the rule used by programming grammar. So
programming statement may be correct because of syntax, but it
may be semantically wrong. Therefore, it is essential that you
understand the rules of semantics, how it applies to programming,
and syntax.

3.4.3 Programming Errors

There are three types of errors in a program:
1. Syntax Error
2. Run time Error or Execution Error, and
3. Logical Errors
Syntax errors are the result of avoiding rules of program coding. These
errors occur due to lack of concentration on language syntax. Some
QBASIC experts learn C or C+ +, avoid semicolon at the end of
statements or use crater (^) sign for exponential. These types of syntax
errors occurred due to transference of skill of one language into others
and syntax errors are occurred.
The followings are some General causes of Syntax errors:
1. Missing parenthesis or extra parenthesis causes syntax errors.
2. In some language (Pascal, C, C++, C#, JAVA), statements’
terminators are used. Missing terminators or extra terminators
cause syntax errors.

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

3. Misspelled keywords.
4. Extra blanks or missing blanks also cause syntax errors.
5. All type of operators is very sensitive to produce syntax errors,
when not used properly.
6. The use of colon (:) instead of semi-colon (;) causes syntax
errors.
The syntax errors are displayed at the time of program compilation
because compilers and interpreters are equipped with error-diagnostic
features. These errors are easily debugged from programs and some
compilers check erroneous input and recover errors also. The 50 to 75%
overall programming times are to be spent on debugging. 8023588240
8167518347 7034993743
Run-time Errors are the errors appeared at the time of program execution
Compilers do not detect these types of errors because these types of
errors are not caused by syntax errors. Rather, they are noticed at the
time of execution.
A logic error is a bug in a program that causes it to operate incorrectly
and the compiler or interpreter is unable to detect these type of errors. A
logic error produces an incorrect or unintended or undesired output or
other behaviour, although it may not immediately be recognised as such.
As an example, telling a computer to repeat an operation but not telling it
how to stop repeating may result in a situation where the program runs in
an endless cycle. Logic errors occur in both compiled and interpreted
languages. The only clue to the existence of logic errors is the production
of wrong solutions. One of the ways to find these type of errors is to
output the program's variables to a file or on the screen in order to define
the error's location in code. Although this will not work in all cases, for
example when calling the wrong subroutine, it is the easiest way to find
the problem if the program uses the incorrect results of a bad
mathematical calculation.
Example 3.3
This example function in C to calculate the average of two numbers
contains a logic error. It is missing brackets in the calculation, so it
compiles and runs but does not give the right answer due to operator
precedence (division is evaluated before addition).
int average(int a, int b)
{
return a + b / 2; /* should be (a + b) / 2 */
}
Example 3.4
The following statements are intended to be used to find the roots of a
quadratic equation. They are syntactically acceptable and would not
cause any error message but produce wrong outputs.
X1 = -b+sqrt(b^2-4*a*c/2*a);
X2 = -b-sqrt(b^2-4*a*c)/2*a;

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

ITQ

Question
Describe briefly the types of error in a program?
Feedback
The errors in a program are described as follows:
 Syntax errors, which occur because rules guiding program
coding have not been followed.
 Run-time Errors often appear at the time of program execution
Compilers do not detect these types of errors because these types
of errors are not caused by syntax errors.
 A logic error is a bug in a program that causes it to operate
incorrectly and the compiler or interpreter is unable to detect
these type of errors.

3.5 Testing and Validation

It is important to test your program to check that it does what you want it
to do. This step is necessary because though the compiler has checked
that your program is correctly written, it can't check whether what you've
written actually solves your original problem. This is because it is quite
possible to write a sentence in any language that is perfectly formed with
regards to the language that it's written in (syntactically correct) but at the
same time be utter nonsense (semantically incorrect). For example, 'Fish
trousers go sideways.' is a great sentence - it's got a capital letter and a
full stop - but it doesn't mean a lot. Similarly, 'Put the ice cube tray in the
oven.' has verbs and nouns and so on - but it's pretty useless if you
wanted to make ice cubes. So your program needs to be tested, and this is
often initially done informally (or perhaps, haphazardly) by running it
and playing with it for a bit to see if it seems to be working correctly.
After this has been done, it should also be checked more thoroughly by
subjecting it to carefully worked out set of tests that put it through its
paces, and check that it meets the requirements and specification. Where
mistakes are identified, there is need to figure out where in the code the
mistake is. Once identified, the problem should be fixed by changing the
code and recompiling. Care should be taken at this point that this fix
doesn't break something else, so careful retesting is important. This
process is also known as debugging.
Once all the testing and debugging has been completed, you should be
pretty certain that your program works according to your requirements
and your specification and so you should finally have a solution to your
problem! Software testing involves the execution of a software
component or system component to evaluate one or more properties of
interest. In general, these properties indicate the extent to which the
component or system under test:
1. meets the requirements that guided its design and development,
2. responds correctly to all kinds of inputs,
3. performs its functions within an acceptable time,

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

4. is sufficiently usable,
5. can be installed and run in its intended environments, and
6. achieves the general result its stakeholders desire.

ITQ

Question
Mention two properties needed before a software can be tested.
Feedback
1. The software must meet the requirements that guided its design
and development, and
2. The software should respond correctly to all kinds of inputs.

3.5.1 Types of Programming Tests

Many methods exist which are used for program testing:
1. Unit Testing: Unit testing is a software testing method by which
individual units of source code, sets of one or more computer
program modules together with associated control data, usage
procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine
whether they are fit for use. Intuitively, one can view a unit as the
smallest testable part of an application. The goal of unit testing is
to isolate each part of the program and show that the individual
parts are correct. A unit test provides a strict, written contract that
the piece of code must satisfy.
2. Integration testing: The purpose of integration testing is to verify
functional, performance, and reliability requirements placed on
major design items. In integration testing, software modules are
combined and tested as a group. It occurs after unit testing and
before validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input
modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger
aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration test plan to
those aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system
ready for system testing.
3. Regression Testing: Regression testing is a type of software
testing that verifies that software previously developed and tested
still performs correctly after it was changed or interfaced with
other software. Changes may include software enhancements,
patches, configuration changes, etc. During regression testing,
new software bugs or regressions may be uncovered. Sometimes
a Software Change Impact Analysis is performed to determine
what areas could be affected by the proposed changes. These
areas may include functional and non-functional areas of the
system. The purpose of regression testing is to ensure that
changes such as those mentioned above have not introduced new
faults. One of the main reasons for regression testing is to
determine whether a change in one part of the software affects
other parts of the software.
4. Smoke Testing: smoke testing (also confidence testing, sanity
testing) is preliminary testing to reveal simple failures severe

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

enough to (for example) reject a prospective software release or

determine whether it is reasonable to proceed with further testing.
Smoke testing consists of minimal attempts to operate the
software, designed to determine whether there are any basic
problems that will prevent it from working at all. Such tests can
be used as build verification test. A smoke tester will select and
run a subset of test cases that cover the most important
functionality of a component or system, to ascertain if crucial
functions of the software work correctly. When used to determine
if a computer program should be subjected to further, more fine-
grained testing, a smoke test may be called an intake test. For
example, a smoke test may address basic questions like "Does the
program run?", "Does it open a window?", or "Does clicking the
main button do anything?" The process of smoke testing aims to
determine whether the application is so badly broken as to make
further immediate testing unnecessary. As the book Lessons
Learned in Software Testing puts it, "smoke tests broadly cover
product features in a limited time ... if key features don't work or
if key bugs haven't yet been fixed, your team won't waste further
time installing or testing".
5. Recovery Testing: recovery testing is the activity of testing how
well an application is able to recover from crashes, hardware
failures and other similar problems. Recovery testing is the
forced failure of the software in a variety of ways to verify that
recovery is properly performed. Recovery testing should not be
confused with reliability testing, which tries to discover the
specific point at which failure occurs. Recovery testing is
basically done in order to check how fast and better the
application can recover against any type of crash or hardware
failure etc. Type or extent of recovery is specified in the
requirement specifications. It is basically testing how well a
system recovers from crashes, hardware failures, or other
catastrophic problems: Examples of recovery testing:
i. While an application is running, suddenly restart the
computer, and afterwards check the validness of the
application's data integrity.
ii. While an application is receiving data from a network,
unplug the connecting cable. After some time, plug the
cable back in and analyze the application's ability to
continue receiving data from the point at which the
network connection disappeared.
iii. Restart the system while a browser has a definite number
of sessions. Afterwards, check that the browser is able to
recover all of them.
6. Security Testing: Security testing is a process intended to reveal
flaws in the security mechanisms of an information system that
protect data and maintain functionality as intended. Due to the
logical limitations of security testing, passing security testing is
not an indication that no flaws exist or that the system adequately
satisfies the security requirements.
7. Stress testing: Stress testing, in general, should put computer
hardware under exaggerated levels of stress in order to ensure

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

stability when used in a normal environment. These can include

extremes of workload, type of task, memory use, thermal load
(heat), clock speed, or voltages. Memory and CPU are two
components that are commonly stress tested in this way. There is
considerable overlap between stress testing software and
benchmarking software, since both seek to assess and measure
maximum performance. Of the two, stress testing software aims
to test stability by trying to force a system to fail; benchmarking
aims to measure and assess the maximum performance possible
at a given task or function.
8. Installation testing: An installation test assures that the system is
installed correctly and working at actual customer's hardware.
9. Compatibility testing: This ensures that a software is compatible
with other application software, operating systems (or operating
system versions, old or new), or target environments that differ
greatly from the original (such as a terminal or GUI application
intended to be run on the desktop now being required to become
a web application, which must render in a web browser).
10. Regression testing: Regression testing focuses on finding defects
after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to
uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features,
including old bugs that have come back.
11. Acceptance testing: Acceptance testing can be divided into 2
categories; Smoke testing and acceptance testing. A smoke test is
used as an acceptance test prior to introducing a new build to the
main testing process, i.e., before integration or regression.
Acceptance testing performed by the customer, often in their lab
environment on their own hardware, is known as user acceptance
testing (UAT).

ITQ

Question
What is the central theme of program testing?
Feedback
Program testing is an important tool used by either program developers
or end users to check whether a program would function properly amidst
several constraints that should make the program not function properly.
The weak and faulty areas are identified, corrected, and improved for an
enjoyable experience by the end users.

12. Alpha testing: Alpha testing is simulated or actual operational

testing by potential users/customers or an independent test team
at the developer's' site.
13. Beta testing: Beta testing comes after alpha testing and can be
considered a form of external user acceptance testing. Versions
of the software, known as beta versions, are released to a limited
audience outside of the programming team known as beta testers.
The software is released to groups of people so that further
testing can ensure the product has few faults or bugs.

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

14. Functional vs non-functional testing: Functional testing refers to

activities that verify a specific action or function of the code.
These are usually found in the code requirements documentation,
although some development methodologies work from user cases
or user stories. Non-functional testing refers to aspects of the
software that may not be related to a specific function or user
action, such as scalability or other performance, behavior under
certain constraints, or security. Testing will determine the
breaking point, the point at which extremes of scalability or
performance leads to unstable execution.
15. Continuous testing: Continuous testing is the process of
executing automated tests as part of the software delivery
pipeline to obtain immediate feedback on the business risks
associated with a software release candidate
16. Destructive testing: Destructive testing attempts to cause the
software or a sub-system to fail. It verifies that the software
functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected
inputs, thereby establishing the robustness of input validation and
error-management routines.
17. Software performance testing: Performance testing is generally
executed to determine how a system or sub-system performs in
terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular workload.
It can also serve to investigate, measure, validate or verify other
quality attributes of the system, such as scalability, reliability and
resource usage.
18. Usability testing: Usability testing is to check if the user interface
is easy to use and understand. It is concerned mainly with the use
of the application.
19. Security testing: Security testing is essential for software that
processes confidential data to prevent system intrusion by
hackers.
20. Development testing: Development Testing involves
synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect
prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software
development risks, time, and costs.
21. A/B testing: A/B testing is basically a comparison of two outputs,
generally when only one variable has changed: run a test, change
one thing, run the test again, compare the results. This is more
useful with more small-scale situations, but very useful in fine-
tuning any program.
22. Concurrent testing: In concurrent testing, the focus is on the
performance while continuously running with normal input and
under normal operational conditions, as opposed to stress testing,
or fuzz testing.
23. Conformance testing: In software testing, conformance testing
verifies that a product performs according to its specified
standards. Compilers, for instance, are extensively tested to
determine whether they meet the recognized standard for that
language.

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ITQ

Question
What is Regression testing?
Feedback
Regression testing is a type of software testing that verifies that software
previously developed and tested still performs correctly after it was
changed or interfaced with other software. Changes may include
software enhancements, patches, configuration changes, etc. During
regression testing, new software bugs or regressions may be uncovered.
Sometimes a Software Change Impact Analysis is performed to
determine what areas could be affected by the proposed changes.

3.6 Program Documentation

Program documentation is a written text or illustration that accompanies
computer software. It either explains how it operates or how to use it, and
may mean different things to people in different roles. Documenting is an
ongoing, necessary process, although, as many programmers are, you
may be eager to pursue more exciting computer-centered activities.
Documentation is a written detailed description of the programming cycle
and specific facts about the program. Typical program documentation
materials include the origin and nature of the problem, a brief narrative
description of the program, logic tools such as flowcharts and
pseudocode, data-record descriptions, program listings, and testing
results. Comments in the program itself are also considered an essential
part of documentation. Many programmers document as they code. In a
broader sense, program documentation can be part of the documentation
for an entire system.
Types of documentation include:
1. Requirements documentation - Statements that identify attributes,
capabilities, characteristics, or qualities of a system. This is the
foundation for what will be or has been implemented.
2. Architecture/Design documentation - Overview of software.
Includes relations to an environment and construction principles
to be used in design of software components.
3. Technical documentation - Documentation of code, algorithms,
interfaces, and APIs.
4. End user documentation - Manuals for the end-user, system
administrators and support staff.
5. Marketing documentation - How to market the product and
analysis of the market demand.
The wise programmer continues to document the program throughout its
design, development, and testing. Documentation is needed to
supplement human memory and to help organize program planning. Also,
documentation is critical to communicate with others who have an
interest in the program, especially other programmers who may be part of
a programming team. And, since turnover is high in the computer

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

industry, written documentation is needed so that those who come after

you can make any necessary modifications in the program or track down
any errors that you missed.
ITQ

Question
What is program documentation?
Feedback
Program documentation is a written text or illustration that accompanies
computer software.

ITQ

Question
What is the smart thing to do while undergoing the process of program
documentation?
Feedback
The wise programmer continues to document the program throughout its
design, development, and testing. This is necessary, as documentation is
needed to supplement human memory and to help organize program
planning.

Study Session Summary

In this study session, you discussed programming process. You started
by discussing how to define and analyze a problem. You also discussed
how to code a program. You furthered the discussion by examining how
Summary to compile and debug a problem. You concluded the session by
discussing how to test and validate a programming problem.

Assessment
SAQ 3.1 (tests learning outcome 3.1)
1. What does Problem definition and Analysis entails?
2. How would you plan and outline solutions to the problems you
Assessment have identified?
SAQ 3.2 (tests learning outcome 3.2)
What are the processes of coding a program?
SAQ 3.3 (tests learning outcome 3.3)
What is compilation?

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 Study Session 3 The Programming Process

SAQ 3.4 (tests learning outcome 3.4)

What is Debugging?
SAQ 3.5 (tests learning outcome 3.5)
What is the aim of testing?
SAQ 3.6 (tests learning outcome 3.6)
1. What do you understand by the term program documentation?
2. Mention the types of documentation that you know

Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_documentation

Reading

44
 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

Study Session 4

Types of Programming Languages

Introduction
In this study session, you will be highlighting the different types of
programming languages. You will discuss the different characteristics of
programming language. You will also compare low-level and high-level
programming language. In addition, you will examine the compiled code
interpreted codes. You will conclude the session by describing the
different classifications of programming language.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
4.1 highlight the characteristics of programming languages
4.2 compare low-level and high-level programming languages
Outcomes 4.3 describe the compiled code and interpreted code
4.4 identify the classifications of programming languages

4.1 Characteristics of Programming

Languages
You can think of programming languages just like spoken languages, as
they both share many of the same characteristics, such as:
1. Functionality across languages: Programming languages can all
create the same functionality similar to how spoken languages
can all express the same objects, phrases, and emotions.
2. Syntax and structure: Commands in programming languages can
overlap just like words in spoken languages overlap. To output
text to screen in Python or Ruby you use the print command, just
like imprimer and imprimir are the verbs for “print” in French
and Spanish.
3. Natural lifespan: Programming languages are born when a
programmer thinks of a new or easier way to express a
computational concept. If other programmers agree, they adopt
the language for their own programs and the programming
language spreads. However, just like Latin or Aramaic, if the
programming language is not adopted by other programmers or a
better language comes along, then the programming language
slowly dies from lack of use.

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

Despite these similarities, programming languages also differ

from spoken languages in a few key ways:
1. One creator: Unlike spoken languages, programming languages
can be created by one person in a short period of time, sometimes
in just a few days. Popular languages with a single creator
include JavaScript (Brendan Eich), Python (Guido van Rossum),
and Ruby (Yukihiro Matsumoto).
2. Written in English: Unlike spoken languages (except, of course,
English), almost all programming languages are written in
English. Whether they’re programming in HTML, JavaScript,
Python, or Ruby, Brazilian, French, or Chinese programmers all
use the same English keywords and syntax in their code. Some
non-English programming languages exist, such as languages in
Hindi or Arabic, but none of these languages are widespread or
mainstream.
ITQ

Question
List two characteristics of programming language
Feedback
Syntax and structure; Natural lifespan

4.2 Comparing Low-level and High-level

Programming Languages
One way to classify programming languages is either as low-level
languages or high-level languages. Low-level languages interact directly
with the computer processor or CPU, are capable of performing very
basic commands, and are generally hard to read. Machine code, one
example of a low-level language, uses code that consists of just two
numbers — 0 and 1. The figure below shows an example of machine
code. Assembly language, another low-level language, uses keywords to
perform basic commands like read data, move data, and store data.

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

By contrast, high-level languages use natural language so it is easier for

people to read and write. Once code is written in a high-level language,
like C++, Python, or Ruby, an interpreter or compiler translates this high-
level language into low-level code a computer can understand.

4.3 Compiled code and interpreted code

High-level programming languages must be converted to low-level
programming languages using an interpreter or compiler, depending on
the language. Interpreted languages are considered more portable than
compiled languages, while compiled languages execute faster than
interpreted languages. However, the speed advantage compiled languages
have is starting to fade in importance as improving processor speeds
make performance differences between interpreted and compiled
languages negligible. High-level programming languages like JavaScript,
Python, and Ruby are interpreted. For these languages the interpreter
executes the program directly, translating each statement one line at a
time into machine code. High-level programming languages like C++,
COBOL, and Visual Basic are compiled. For these languages, after the
code is written a compiler translates all the code into machine code, and
an executable file is created. This executable file is then distributed via
the Internet, CD-ROMs, or other media and run. Software you install on
your computer, like Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X, are coded using
compiled languages, usually C or C++.
ITQ

Question
What is the peculiarity of program languages?
Feedback
Some program languages (JavaScript, Python) are interpreted while
others (C++, COBOL) are compiled.

4.4 Classification of Programming

Languages
Designing, developing and using a programming language is always
dynamic in nature and no particular programming languages have ever
been under constant attraction to the programmers/users. Depending on
the size of the program and its complexity, users prefer to choose their
programming languages. It is well known that more than 2000
programming languages have been designed, developed and used till date
for various purposes. But each language has drawn the attention of
specific group of users and has been used for solving problems in
scientific, business and engineering fields. In general, high level
programming languages fall into any of the categories explained in the
following subsections:

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

4.4.1 Modular Programming Languages

Modular programming languages have been very influential in
introducing certain fundamental concepts in contemporary programming
languages. It is the first programming language that introduced
subprogram concepts and variable declaration, etc. In real life situations,
problems in scientific, engineering and business areas are usually large
and complex. To solve the entire problem in one shot may not be a
feasible option. Modular programming methodology advocates the
breakdown structure approach of a large project into several smaller and
manageable modules. Then each small module is programmed
comfortably and then put together in order to generate program and hence
the answer to the entire problem. Modular programming has several
unique advantages as given below: It is easier to understand∙ It is easier
to code∙ It is easier to document∙ It is easier to modify∙ In order to
implement each module in a programming language, subprograms are
used. In programming, a subprogram is a series of instructions that
performs a particular task. An example for the modular programming
language is ALGOL. ALGOL stands for ALGorithmic Oriented
Language. ALGOL had its unique name and place among programmers
in late 1960s. A notable feature of ALGOL was that it laid the foundation
for many advanced programming languages of today and some of its
salient features were embedded into new languages like Pascal and C.
ITQ

Question
What are the unique advantages of methodology programming
language?
Feedback
It is easier to understand, easier to code, document, and modify.

4.4.2 Structured Programming Language

Since the early 1970s a new methodology has become very common in
programming environments. This new methodology advocates GOTO
programming. The very purpose is to eliminate the use of GOTO
statements in programs. Proponents of this methodology believe that the
GOTO statements make the program complex and difficult to debug or
modify. In structured programming, four structures are normally used for
performing any tasks. These include the following:
1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Iteration
4. CASE structure∙
Sequence means going from step1 step2 and so on. There is no looping or
branching involved. Selection is used whenever choices are to be
executed between two options. Iteration indicates a loop for performing a
specific task. The CASE structure is used when there are more than two
options from which one has to be selected based on the value of an

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

expression. An example of the structured programming language is

Pascal. The following are the salient features of Pascal that identifies it as
a structured language. These features allow a programmer to write Pascal
programs in a top-down modular design:
1. It is a block structured language in which blocks of statements
can be used as a unit by∙ control structures.
2. It relies on a very heavy use of subroutines which it calls as
procedures and functions.∙
3. It also supports both local variables known and valid only within
a procedure and global∙ variables known and valid throughout a
program.
ITQ

Question
How is ‘sequence’ different from ‘selection’?
Feedback
Sequence means going from step one to step two and so on. It does not
involve looping or branching, while Selection is used whenever choices
are to be executed between two options.

4.4.3 Business Oriented Language

An example for the business oriented language is COBOL. COBOL
stands for COmmon Business Oriented Language. Advantages of
COBOL can be listed in the following points:
1. COBOL programs can be easily understood even by non-
programmers due to its self∙ documenting nature and verbose of
the grammar.
2. It is an ideal language for processing voluminous data files.
Therefore it is an excellent∙ language for commercial data
processing.
3. Editing facility is very powerful and hence even the manipulation
of non-numeric data is∙ very easy.
4. COBOL is a universally standardized language.
5. It is best suited for time sharing computer systems. It is easy to
debug and maintain programs in COBOL.
6. It is one of the most structured languages.
7. COBOL provides scope for effective documentation.
8. Functional/logic programming language
One of the well known and commercially available logic programming
languages is PROLOG which stands for PROgramming in LOGic. Its
unique property is its level of abstraction. Other main feature of
PROLOG include:
1. It is exclusively meant for Artificial Intelligence (AI) and
knowledge representation∙ techniques.
2. It supports rule based expert systems and knowledge bases (data
bases with inferential∙ components).

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

3. It provides a foundation for understanding the semantics of other

kinds of rules and is∙ itself a good language for writing rule
processors with various search strategies.
4. It is well suited for symbolic manipulation and information
representation tasks.∙
5. Construction and extraction of data structures are the principal
mechanism used in the∙ computation processes of PROLOG.
6. Another example for the functional and logic programming
language used in AI applications is the LISP. LISP stands for
LISt Processing. LISP takes functions as arguments or return
functions as results. It provides for defining functions that are
based directly on the lambda-calculus. LISP is characterized by
the following ideas:
i. Computing with symbolic expressions rather than with
numbers.∙
ii. Representing symbolic expressions and other information
by list structure in the memory∙ of a computer.
iii. The use of lambda expression for naming functions.∙
iv. Representation of LISP programs as LISP data that can be
manipulated by other∙ programs.
v. Conditional expression interpretation of Boolean
connection and others.
ITQ

Question
Mention one example of Logic Programming Language?
Feedback
A known and commercially available logic programming language is
PROLOG, which stands for PROgramming in LOGic. Its unique
property is its level of abstraction.

4.4.4 Object oriented programming (OOP)

language
The aim of using an object oriented programming language is to handle
complex software design projects in a very easy, simple and efficient
manner. Redesigning and maintaining the source code costs much more
than reusability of the source code. The turn over time and software cost
are drastically brought down due to the use of OOP language. Some of
the famous objects oriented programming languages are: Object Pascal,
C++, Smalltalk, Simula, Eiffel, Java, Ada. A major advantage of C++ is
its ability to support object oriented programming, while retaining the
high level of compactness and speed offered by the C programming
language.

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

ITQ

Question
What is the aim of using Object-Oriented Programming Language?
Feedback
The aim of using an object oriented programming language is to handle
complex software design projects in a very easy, simple and efficient
manner.

4.4.5 Visual Programming Languages

Visual programming is one of the key points for developing any software
product with multimedia and graphical user interface. Visual effects are
one of the most salient features and characteristics of the modern
software especially on microcomputer systems. Icons, graphics, animated
pictures and texts form the foundation for designing a visual system.
Modern computer is not just an electronic information processing
machine but it is a powerful tool for information gathering, collection,
storing and retrieving the items in any form such as text, picture, audio
and video. Visual programming systems are computer systems which
support both visual programming and visualization. Visual programming
means the use of visual expressions (such as icons, drawings or gestures)
in the process of programming and visualization and hence the use of
visual representation (such as graphics, images or animation sequences)
to illustrate programs, data, the structure of a complex system or the
dynamic behaviour of a complex system. In visual programming
languages, objects have logical meaning but not visual image. Objects are
then assigned a visual representation so that it can be visualized. Some
examples of visual programming languages are Visual Basic, Visual
C++, Visual Foxpro, Visual J++/Java. Their application domains include
the following:
1. Image processing and image communication
2. Computer vision
3. Robotics
4. Image data base management
5. Office automation
6. Computer graphics
7. Database interface
8. Form management
9. Computer aided design

ITQ

Question
Mention examples of visual programming languages and their
application domains?
Feedback
Examples of visual programming languages include Visual Basic, Visual

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

C++, Visual Foxpro, Visual J++/Java. Their application domains could

be image processing and communication, robotics, database interface
just to mention a few.

Study Session Summary

In this study session, you describe the different types of programming
language. You compared the low-level and high-level programming
language. You also described the compiled and interpreted code. You
Summary brought the session to an end by highlighting the different classifications
of programming language.

Assessment
SAQ 4.1 (tests Learning Outcome 4.1)
What are the characteristics of programming languages?
Assessment SAQ 4.2 (tests learning outcome 4.2)
How will you compare low-level and high level programming
languages?
SAQ 4.3 (tests learning outcome 4.3)
Identify the classifications of programming languages?

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 Study Session 4 Types of Programming Languages

Credits
This lesson has been adapted from:
http://www.uew.edu.gh/sites/default/files/teaching%20materials/A_BRI
EF_HISTORY_OF_PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGES_Sem2_2012.pd
fhttp://www.uew.edu.gh/sites/default/files/teaching
Reading materials/A_BRIEF_HISTORY_OF_PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGE
S_Sem2_2012.pdf
http://www.uew.edu.gh/sites/default/files/teaching
materials/A_BRIEF_HISTORY_OF_PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGE
S_Sem2_2012.pdf
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-types-of-programming-
languages.htmlhttp://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-types-of-
programming-languages.html
http://www.uew.edu.gh/sites/default/files/teaching%20materials/A_BRI
EF_HISTORY_OF_PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGES_Sem2_2012.pd
fhttp://www.uew.edu.gh/sites/default/files/teaching
materials/A_BRIEF_HISTORY_OF_PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGE
S_Sem2_2012.pdf
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-types-of-programming-
languages.html

53
 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

Study Session 5

Algorithms and Problem-Solving

Introduction
In this study session, you will examine algorithms and problem solving.
You will explain algorithm and highlight its properties. Thereafter, you
will describe the pseudo-codes. In doing this, you will discuss the rules
for writing pseudocodes, its advantages and disadvantages. You will
conclude the session by describing what a flow chart is.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
5.1 explain the problem solving process
5.2 describe algorithm
Outcomes 5.3 discuss pseudo-codes
5.4 illustrate flowchart

5.1 The Problem Solving Process

The problems in the preceding section offer a glimpse into the craft of
problem solving. The Hungarian mathematician George Pólya (1887-
1985) conceptualized the process and captured it in the famous book
“How To Solve It” by enumerating four phases a problem solver has to
go through. The four phases are outlined below.
1. Phase 1: Understanding the problem.
i. What is the unknown? What are the data?
ii. What is the condition? Is it possible to satisfy the
condition? Is the condition sufficient to determine the
unknown? Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or
contradictory?
iii. Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
iv. Separate the various parts of the condition. Can you write
them down?
2. Phase 2: Devising a plan.
i. Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same
problem in slightly different form?
ii. Do you know a related problem?
iii. Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem
having the same or similar unknown.
iv. Split the problem into smaller, simpler sub-problems.

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 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

v. If you cannot solve the proposed problem try to solve

first some related problem. Or solve a more general
problem. Or a special case of the problem. Or solve a
part of the problem.
3. Phase 3: Carrying out the plan.
i. Carrying out your plan of the solution, check each step.
ii. Can you see clearly that the step is correct?
iii. Can you prove that it is correct?
4. Phase 4: Looking back.
i. Can you check the result?
ii. Can you derive the result differently?
iii. Can you use the result, or the method, for some other
problem?
ITQ

Question
How many phases are involved in the problem-solving process?
Feedback
Four (4)

5.2 The Concept of Algorithm

The term ‘algorithm’ was derived from the name of Mohammed al-
Khowarizmi, a Persian mathematician in the ninth century. An algorithm
is a well-defined computational procedure consisting of a set of
instructions, that takes some value or set of values, as input, and produces
some value or set of values, as output. In other word, an algorithm is a
procedure that accepts data, manipulate them following the prescribed
steps, so as to eventually fill the required unknown with the desired
value(s).

Tersely put, an algorithm, a jargon of computer specialists, is simply a

procedure. People of different professions have their own form of
procedure in their line of work, and they call it different names. A cook,
for instance, follows a procedure commonly known as a recipe that
converts the ingredients (input) into some culinary dish (output), after a
certain number of steps. An algorithm is a form that embeds the complete
logic of the solution. From programming point of view, an algorithm is a
step-by-step procedure to resolve any problem. An algorithm is an
effective method expressed as a finite set of well-defined instructions.

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 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

ITQ

Question
How can do programmers view Algorithms?
Feedback
Programmers often see algorithm as a systematic procedure to resolve
any problem. They also agree that it is an effective method expressed as
a finite set of well-defined instructions.

5.2.1 Properties of Algorithm

Donald Ervin Knuth provided a list of five properties for algorithm. They
are:
1. Finiteness: An algorithm must always terminate after a finite
number of steps. It means after every step one reach closer to
solution of the problem and after a finite number of steps
algorithm reaches to an end point.
2. Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be precisely
defined. It is done by well thought actions to be performed at
each step of the algorithm. In addition, the actions are defined
unambiguously for each activity in the algorithm.
3. Input: Any operation you perform need some beginning
value/quantities associated with different activities in the
operation. So, the value/quantities are given to the algorithm
before it begins.
4. Output: One always expects output/result (expected
value/quantities) in terms of output from an algorithm. The result
may be obtained at different stages of the algorithm. If some
result is from the intermediate stage of the operation then it is
known as intermediate result and result obtained at the end of
algorithm is known as end result. The output is expected to have
value/quantities that always have a specified relation to the inputs
5. Effectiveness: Algorithms are to be developed/written using basic
operations. Actually, operations should be basic, so that they can
in principle, be done exactly, and in a finite amount of time by a
person by using paper and pencil only.

ITQ

Question
List the essential properties of Algorithms?
Feedback
Finiteness, definiteness, input, output, and effectiveness.

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 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

5.2.2 Algorithmic Problem Solving

Webopedia defines an algorithm as “A formula or set of steps for solving
a particular problem. To be an algorithm, a set of rules must be
unambiguous and have a clear stopping point”. There may be more than
one way to solve a problem, so there may be more than one algorithm for
a problem. Now, if we take definition of algorithm as: “A sequence of
activities to be processed for getting desired output from a given input.”
Then we can say that:
1. Getting specified output is essential after algorithm is executed.
2. One will get output only if algorithm stops after finite time.
3. Activities in an algorithm to be clearly defined in other words for
it to be unambiguous. Before writing an algorithm for a problem,
one should find out what is/are the inputs to the algorithm and
what is/are expected output after running the algorithm.
Algorithmic problem solving actually comes in two phases: derivation of
an algorithm that solves the problem, and conversion of the algorithm
into code. The latter, usually known as coding, is comparatively easier,
since the logic is already present – it is just a matter of ensuring that the
syntax rules of the programming language are adhered to. The first phase
is what stumbles most people, for two main reasons. Firstly, it challenges
the mental faculties to search for the right solution, and secondly, it
requires the ability to articulate the solution concisely into systematic
instructions, a skill that is acquired only through lots of practice. A
computer programmer lists down all the steps required to resolve a
problem before writing the actual code.
Example 5.1
The following is a simple example of an algorithm to find out the largest
number from a given list of numbers:
1. Get a list of numbers L1, L2, L3....LN
2. Assume L1 is the largest, Largest = L1
3. Take next number Li from the list and do the following
4. If Largest is less than Li
5. Largest = Li
6. If Li is last number from the list then
7. Print value stored in Largest and come out
8. Else repeat same process starting from step 3
The above algorithm has been written in a crude way to help beginners
understand the concept. You will come across more standardized ways of
writing computer algorithms as you move on to advanced levels of
computer programming.
Example 5.2:
The following algorithm finds the volume of a cube where the input to
the algorithm is length, width and height, and expected output is volume
of the cube.
Step 1: input the length, width and height of the circe
Step 2: Volume ← length*width*height

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 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

Step 3: Print Volume

ITQ

Question
What is the most important rule for a computer programmer?
Feedback
A computer programmer lists down all the steps required to resolve a
problem before writing the actual code.

5.3 Pseudo-Codes
Pseudocode is an informal high-level description of the operating
principle of a computer program or other algorithm. It uses the structural
conventions of a normal programming language, but is intended for
human reading rather than machine reading. Pseudocode typically omits
details that are essential for machine understanding of the algorithm, such
as variable declarations, system-specific code and some subroutines. The
programming language is augmented with natural language description
details, where convenient, or with compact mathematical notation. The
purpose of using pseudocode is that it is easier for people to understand
than conventional programming language code, and that it is an efficient
and environment-independent description of the key principles of an
algorithm. It is commonly used in textbooks and scientific publications
that are documenting various algorithms, and also in planning of
computer program development, for sketching out the structure of the
program before the actual coding takes place.
No standard for pseudocode syntax exists, as a program in pseudocode is
not an executable program. Pseudocode resembles, but should not be
confused with skeleton programs which can be compiled without errors.
Flowcharts, drakon-charts and Unified Modeling Language (UML) charts
can be thought of as a graphical alternative to pseudocode, but are more
spacious on paper.
ITQ

Question
What augments Pseudo-Code?
Feedback
The programming language (Pseudo-Code) is augmented with natural
language description details, where convenient, or with compact
mathematical notation.

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 Study Session 5 Algorithms and Problem-Solving

5.3.1 Rules for Writing Pseudocode

1. Write only one statement per line: As illustrated in example 5.3,
each statement in pseudocode should express just one action for
the computer.
Example 5.3:
The gross pay of a worker is calculated in the pseudocode below
where name, hours worked and pay rate are the input and name,
hours worked and gross pay are the output.
READ name, hoursWorked, payRate
gross = hoursWorked * payRate
WRITE name, hoursWorked, gross
2. Capitalize the keywords. In example 5.3, note that the words:
READ and WRITE are keywords. These are just a few of the
keywords to use, others can be:
IF, ELSE, ENDIF, WHILE, ENDWHILE
3. Indent to show hierarchy: The indentation pattern in each of the 3
major design structures; sequence, selection and iteration is
commonly used to show hierarchy. In sequence pattern,
statements that are “stacked” in sequence all start in the same
column. In selection pattern, statements that fall inside the
selection structure, but not the keywords that form the selection
are indented. Lastly, in the looping pattern, statements that fall
inside the loop, but not the keywords that form the loop are
indented. This is illustrated in example 5.4
Example 5.4
The pseudocode below illustrates indentation using example 5.3
above where, employees whose grossPay is less than 100 do not
have any deduction.
READ name, grossPay, taxes
IF taxes > 0
net = grossPay – taxes
ELSE
net = grossPay
ENDIF
WRITE name, net
4. End multiline structures: As shown in example 5.4 above, the
ENDIF (or END whatever) always is in line with the IF (or
whatever starts the structure).
5. Keep stats language independent: Resist the urge to write in
whatever language you are most comfortable with. In the long
run, you will save time! There may be special features available
in the language you plan to eventually write the program in; if

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you are SURE it will be written in that language, then you can
use the features. If not, then avoid using the special features.
ITQ

Question
Highlight the rules for writing Pseudo-codes?
Feedback
1. Write only one statement per line
2. Capitalize the keywords
3. Indent to show hierarchy
4. End multiline structures
5. Keep stats language independent

5.3.2 Advantages of Pseudocode

1. It can be easily in any word processor.
2. It can be easily modified as compared to flowchart.
3. It's implementation is very useful in structured design elements.
It implements structured concepts well
4. It can be written easily.
5. It can be read and understood easily
6. Converting a pseudocode to programming language is very easy
as compared with converting a flowchart to programming
language.

5.3.3 Disadvantages of Pseudocode

1. It is not visual.
2. We do not get a picture of the design.
3. There is no standardized style or format, so one pseudocode may
be different from another.
4. For a beginner, it is more difficult to follow the logic or write
pseudocode as compared to flowchart.

Example 5.5
The pseudocode below prints “failed” or “passed” depending on
whether or not the student’s grade is less than 60.
1. If student's grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print "passed"
Else
Print "failed"

Example 5.6
The pseudocode below finds the class average by using the
grades of all students in the class as input:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Set the class average to the total divided by ten

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Print the class average.

ITQ

Question
What are the disadvantages of using Pseudo-Codes?
Feedback
1. Pseudo-Code is not visual.
2. Pseudo-Code does not reveal a picture of the design.

5.4 Flowchart
Algorithms are nothing but sequence of steps for solving problems. So a
flow chart can be used for representing an algorithm. A flowchart is a
graphical representation of an algorithm, which will describe the
operations (and in what sequence) are required to solve a given problem.
These flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem and
are quite helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy
problems. You can see a flow chart as a blueprint of a design you have
made for solving a problem. For example suppose you are going for a
picnic with your friends then you plan for the activities you will do there.
If you have a plan of activities then you know clearly when you will do
what activity. Similarly when you have a problem to solve using
computer or in other word you need to write a computer program for a
problem then it will be good to draw a flowchart prior to writing a
computer program. Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write
the program in any high level language. Often we see how flowcharts are
helpful in explaining the program to others. Hence, it is correct to say that
a flowchart is a must for the better documentation of a complex program.
ITQ

Question
Explain the importance of flow charts in the documentation of a
program?
Feedback
A flowchart, once prepared, makes it easy to write programs in any high
level language. This important feature of flow charts makes it an
indispensable tool and helps in explaining the program to others.

5.4.1 Advantages of Flowcharts

The pictorial representation of a solution/system is having many
advantages. These advantages are as follows:
1. Communication: A Flowchart can be used as a better
way of communication of the logic of a system and steps
involve in the solution, to all concerned particularly to
the client of system.
2. Effective analysis: A flowchart of a problem can be used
for effective analysis of the problem.

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3. Documentation of Program/System: Program flowcharts

are a vital part of a good program documentation.
Program document is used for various purposes like
knowing the components in the program, complexity of
the program etc.
4. Efficient Program Maintenance: Once a program is
developed and becomes operational it needs time to time
maintenance. With help of flowchart maintenance
become easier.
5. Coding of the Program: Any design of solution of a
problem is finally converted into computer program.
Writing code referring the flowchart of the solution
become easy.

5.4.2 Disadvantages of Flowcharts

1. Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite
complicated. In that case, flowchart becomes complex
and clumsy. This will become a pain for the user,
resulting in a waste of time and money trying to correct
the problem
2. Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required
the flowchart may require re-drawing completely. This
will usually waste valuable time.
3. Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed,
reproduction of flowchart becomes a problem.
ITQ

Question
What are the advantages of Flow Charts?
Feedback
Documentation of program/system; and effective analysis.

5.4.3 Flowchart Symbols

Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols:,

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5.4.4 General Guidelines in Flowcharting

1. In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary
requirements should be listed out in logical order.
2. The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow.
There should not be any room for ambiguity in
understanding the flowchart.
3. The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system
is from left to right or top to bottom.
4. Only one flow line should come out from a process
symbol

or
5. Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but
two or three flow lines, one for each possible answer,
should leave the decision symbol.

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6. Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal

symbol.

7. All boxes of the flowchart are connected with Arrows.

(Not lines). If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better
to use connector symbols to reduce the number of flow
lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want to
make it more effective and better way of communication.
8. Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish.
9. It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing
through it with a simple test data.

Example 5.7
The following flowchart finds the area of a circle of radius r.

Example 5.8
The flowchart below finds the greater of two numbers

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Example 5.9
Write an algorithm and draw the flowchart for finding the average of two
numbers
Algorithm:
Input: two numbers n1 and n2
Output: the average of n1 and n2
Steps:
1. input n1
2. input n2
3. sum = n1 + n2
4. average = sum /2
5. output average
ITQ

Question
Mention two (2) guidelines in flowcharting
Feedback
 The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There
should not be any room for ambiguity in understanding the
flowchart, and
 The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from
left to right or top to bottom.

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Study Session Summary

In this study session, you examined algorithm and problem solving. You
started by defining algorithm and highlighted its different properties.
You also discussed the pseudocode. Under this, you looked at rules for
Summary writing pseudocodes, its advantages and disadvantages. You concluded
the session by describing what a flow chart is, its advantages and
disadvantages.

Assessment
SAQ 5.1 (tests Learning Outcome 5.1)
Describe the problem solving process?
Assessment SAQ 5.2 (tests learning outcome 5.2)
Explain the concept of Algorithm?
SAQ 5.3 (tests learning outcome 5.3)
Describe Pseudo-codes?
SAQ 5.4 (test learning outcome 5.4)
What is a Flowchart?

Credits
This lesson has been adapted from:
http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~cs1101x/4_misc/jumpstart/chap2.pdf
http://faradars.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Algorithm-and-Flow-
Reading Chart.pdf
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_programming/computer_progr
amming_overview.htm
http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~cs1101x/4_misc/jumpstart/chap3.pdfhttp:
//faradars.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Algorithm-and-Flow-
Chart.pdf
http://faculty.ccri.edu/mkelly/COMI1150/PseudocodeBasics.pdfhttp://fa
culty.ccri.edu/mkelly/COMI1150/PseudocodeBasics.pdf
http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~cs1101x/4_misc/jumpstart/chap2.pdf
http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~cs1101x/4_misc/jumpstart/chap2.pdf

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 Study Session 6 Basics of Computer Program

Study Session 6

Basics of Computer Program

Introduction
In this study session, you will be examining the basics of computer
programming. You will begin by exploring the programming
environment. Under which you will examine text editor, compiler and
interpreter. Thereafter, you will discuss the basic syntax of programming.
You will also explain variable. In doing so, you will describe how to
create, store and access variables. Moving on, you will examine reserve
words. In addition, you will describe operator. This will lead you to
focusing on arithmetic, relational, logical operations, and functions.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
6.1 describe a programming environment
6.2 explain basic syntax of programming
Outcomes 6.3 define variables
6.4 discuss reserved words
6.5 define operators
6.6 explain functions

Terminology
Interpreter A program that executes another program written in a
programming language other than machine code.

Editors A program for creating and making changes to files,

especially text files

6.1 Programming Environment

Though Environment Setup is not an element of any Programming
Language, it is the first step to take before setting on to write a program.
When we say Environment Setup, it simply implies a base on top of
which we can do our programming. Thus, we need to have the required
software setup, i.e., installation on our PC which will be used to write

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computer programs, compile, and execute them. For example, if you need
to browse Internet, then you need the following setup on your machine −
1. A working Internet connection to connect to the Internet
2. A Web browser such as Internet Explorer, Chrome, Safari, etc.
Similarly, you will need the following setup to start with programming
using any programming language.
1. A text editor to create computer programs.
2. A compiler to compile the programs into binary format.
3. An interpreter to execute the programs directly.
In case you do not have sufficient exposure to computers, you will not be
able to set up either of this software. Therefore, we suggest you take the
help from any technical person around you to set up the programming
environment on your machine from where you can start. However, for
you, it is important to understand what these items are.
ITQ

Question
What is the first step to take before writing a program?
Feedback
Environment Set-up

6.1.1 Text Editor

A text editor is a software that is used to write computer programs.
Common example is Notepad, which can be used to type programs. You
can launch it by following these steps −
Start Icon → All Programs → Accessories → Notepad → Mouse Click
on Notepad
It will launch Notepad with the following window −

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You can use this software to type your computer program and save it in a
file at any location. You can download and install other good editors like
Notepad++, which is freely available. If you are a Mac user, then you will
have TextEdit or you can install some other commercial editor like
BBEdit to start with.

6.1.2 Compiler
You write your computer program using your favorite programming
language and save it in a text file called the program file. Now let us try
to get a little more detail on how the computer understands a program
written by you using a programming language. Actually, the computer
cannot understand your program directly given in the text format, so we
need to convert this program in a binary format, which can be understood
by the computer. The conversion from text program to binary file is done
by another software called Compiler and this process of conversion from
text formatted program to binary format file is called program
compilation. Finally, you can execute binary file to perform the
programmed task.
The following flow diagram gives an illustration of the compilation
process −

So, if you are going to write your program in any such language, which
needs compilation like C, C++, Java and Pascal, etc., then you will need
to install their compilers before you start programming.

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ITQ

Question
What does Program Compilation entail?
Feedback
Ordinarily, the computer cannot understand your program directly given
in the text format, so there is a need to convert the program in a binary
format, which the computer understands. This conversion from text
program to binary file is done using a software called Compiler and this
process of conversion from text formatted program to binary format file
is called program compilation.

6.1.3 Interpreter
We just discussed about compilers and the compilation process.
Compilers are required in case you are going to write your program in a
programming language that needs to be compiled into binary format
before its execution. There are other programming languages such as
Python, PHP, and Perl, which do not need any compilation into binary
format, rather an interpreter can be used to read such programs line by
line and execute them directly without any further conversion.

So, if you are going to write your programs in PHP, Python, Perl, Ruby,
etc., then you will need to install their interpreters before you start
programming.

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ITQ

Question
Mention two programming languages that does not require compilation
into a binary format.
Feedback
Python and PHP? Yes, you are correct.

6.2 Basic Syntax of Programming

Let’s start with a little coding, which will really make you a computer
programmer. We are going to write a single-line computer program to
write Hello, World! on your screen. Let’s see how it can be written using
different programming languages.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
printf( "Hello, World!" );
}
This little Hello World program will help us understand various basic
concepts related to C Programming.

6.2.1 Program Entry Point

For now, just forget about the #include <stdio.h> statement, but keep a
note that you have to put this statement at the top of a C program.
Every C program starts with main(), which is called the main function,
and then it is followed by a left curly brace. The rest of the program
instruction is written in between and finally a right curly brace ends the
program.
The coding part inside these two curly braces is called the program body.
The left curly brace can be in the same line as main(){ or in the next line
like it has been mentioned in the above program.
ITQ

Question
What follows the main function { main() }?
Feedback
A left curly brace

6.2.2 Functions
Functions are small units of programs and they are used to carry out a
specific task. For example, the above program makes use of two

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functions: main()and printf(). Here, the function main() provides the entry
point for the program execution and the other function printf() is being
used to print an information on the computer screen You can write your
own functions which we will see in a separate chapter, but C
programming itself provides various built-in functions like main(),
printf(), etc., which we can use in our programs based on our
requirement. Some of the programming languages use the word sub-
routine instead of function, but their functionality is more or less the
same.
ITQ

Question
What do we utilize functions?
Feedback
Functions are used to carry out a specific task.

6.2.3 Comments
A C program can have statements enclosed inside /*.....*/. Such
statements are called comments and these comments are used to make the
programs user friendly and easy to understand. The good thing about
comments is that they are completely ignored by compilers and
interpreters. So you can use whatever language you want to write your
comments.

ITQ

Question
How do we utilize comments?
Feedback
Comments is used to make the program more user friendly, and easy to
understand.

6.2.4 Whitespaces
When we write a program using any programming language, we use
various printable characters to prepare programming statements. These
printable characters are a, b, c,......z, A, B, C,.....Z, 1, 2, 3,...... 0, !, @, #,
$, %, ^, &, *, (, ), -, _, +, =, \, |, {, }, [, ], :, ;, <, >, ?, /, \, ~. `. ", '. Hope
I'm not missing any printable characters from your keyboard.
Apart from these characters, there are some characters which we use very
frequently but they are invisible in your program and these characters are
spaces, tabs (\t), new lines(\n). These characters are called whitespaces.
These three important whitespace characters are common in all the
programming languages and they remain invisible in your text document
–

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Whitespace Explanation Representation

New Line To create a new line \n

Tab To create a tab. \t

Space To create a space. empty space

A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as

a blank line, and a C compiler totally ignores it. Whitespace is the term
used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters, and comments. So
you can write printf("Hello, World!" ); as shown below. Here all the
created spaces around "Hello, World!" are useless and the compiler will
ignore them at the time of compilation.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
printf( "Hello, World!" );
}
If we make all these whitespace characters visible, then the above
program will look like this and you will not be able to compile it −
#include <stdio.h>\n
\n
main()\n
{
\n
\t/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
\n
\tprintf(\t"Hello, World!"\t);\n
\n
}\n

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ITQ

Question
What do we refer to as “Whitespaces”?
Feedback
These often refer to characters, which we use very frequently but are not
visible in your program. These characters could be spaces, tabs (\t), new
lines(\n).

6.2.5 Semicolons
Every individual statement in a C Program must be ended with a
semicolon (;), for example, if you want to write "Hello, World!" twice,
then it will be written as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
printf( "Hello, World!\n" );
printf( "Hello, World!" );
}
This program will produce the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Here, we are using a new line character \n in the first printf() function to
create a new line. Let us see what happens if we do not use this new line
character −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
/* printf() function to write Hello, World! */
printf( "Hello, World!" );
printf( "Hello, World!" );
}
This program will produce the following result −
Hello, World! Hello, World!
We will learn identifiers and keywords in next few chapters.
Program Explanation
Let us understand how the above C program works. First of all, the above
program is converted into a binary format using C compiler. So let’s put
this code in test.c file and compile it as follows −
$gcc test.c -o demo

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If there is any grammatical error (Syntax errors in computer

terminologies), then we fix it before converting it into binary format. If
everything goes fine, then it produces a binary file called demo. Finally,
we execute the produced binary demo as follows −
$./demo
which produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Here, when we execute the binary a.out file, the computer enters inside
the program starting from main() and encounters a printf() statement.
Keep a note that the line inside /*....*/ is a comment and it is filtered at
the time of compilation. So printf() function instructs the computer to
print the given line at the computer screen. Finally, it encounters a right
curly brace which indicates the end of main() function and exits the
program.

6.2.6 Syntax Error

If you do not follow the rules defined by the programing language, then
at the time of compilation, you will get syntax errors and the program
will not be compiled. From syntax point of view, even a single dot or
comma or a single semicolon matters and you should take care of such
small syntax as well. In the following example, we have skipped a
semicolon, let's try to compile the program −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {

printf("Hello, World!")
}
This program will produce the following result −
main.c: In function 'main':
main.c:7:1: error: expected ';' before '}' token
}
^
So the bottom-line is that if you are not following proper syntax defined
by the programming language in your program, then you will get syntax
errors. Before attempting another compilation, you will need to fix them
and then proceed.
ITQ

Question
How does Syntax Error occur?
Feedback
Syntax Error often occur when the rules defined by the programing

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language are not followed to letter. The result is that at the time of
compilation, you will get syntax errors and the program would not be
compiled leading to a failed execution

6.2.7Hello World Program in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. This program will
also produce the same result Hello, World!.
public class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String []args) {
/* println() function to write Hello, World! */
System.out.println("Hello, World!");
}
}

6.2.8 Hello World Program in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will
also produce the same result Hello, World!.
# print function to write Hello, World! */
print "Hello, World!"
Note that for C and Java examples, first we are compiling the programs
and then executing the produced binaries, but in Python program, we are
directly executing it. As we explained in the previous chapter, Python is
an interpreted language and it does not need an intermediate step called
compilation. Python does not require a semicolon (;) to terminate a
statement, rather a new line always means termination of the statement.
ITQ

Question
Mention one important point to note when using a Python program
Feedback
Python program uses an interpreted language; therefore, it does not
require the compilation process/stage unlike the C and Java programs
that need the intermediate stage of compiling before execution.

6.3 Variables
Variables are the names you give to computer memory locations which
are used to store values in a computer program. For example, assume you
want to store two values 10 and 20 in your program and at a later stage,
you want to use these two values. Let us see how you will do it. Here are
the following three simple steps:
1. Create variables with appropriate names.
2. Store your values in those two variables.
3. Retrieve and use the stored values from the variables.

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6.3.1 Creating Variables

Creating variables is also called declaring variables in C programming.
Different programming languages have different ways of creating
variables inside a program. For example, C programming has the
following simple way of creating variables −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a;
int b;
}
The above program creates two variables to reserve two memory
locations with names a and b. We created these variables using int
keyword to specify variable data type which means we want to store
integer values in these two variables. Similarly, you can create variables
to store long, float, char or any other data type. For example −
/* variable to store long value */
long a;
/* variable to store float value */
float b;
You can create variables of similar type by putting them in a single line
but separated by comma as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a, b;
}
Listed below are the key points about variables that you need to keep in
mind:
1. A variable name can hold a single type of value. For example, if
variable a has been defined int type, then it can store only integer.
2. C programming language requires a variable creation, i.e.,
declaration before its usage in your program. You cannot use a
variable name in your program without creating it, though
programming language like Python allows you to use a variable
name without creating it.
3. You can use a variable name only once inside your program. For
example, if a variable a has been defined to store an integer
value, then you cannot define a again to store any other type of
value.
4. There are programming languages like Python, PHP, Perl, etc.,
which do not want you to specify data type at the time of creating
variables. So you can store integer, float, or long without
specifying their data type.

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5. You can give any name to a variable like age, sex, salary,
year1990or anything else you like to give, but most of the
programming languages allow to use only limited characters in
their variables names. For now, we will suggest to use only a....z,
A....Z, 0....9 in your variable names and start their names using
alphabets only instead of digits.
6. Almost none of the programming languages allow to start their
variable names with a digit, so 1990year will not be a valid
variable name whereas year1990 or ye1990ar are valid variable
names.
Every programming language provides more rules related to variables
and you will learn them when you will go in further detail of that
programming language.
ITQ

Question
In C programming language, what other term can used to replace
‘Creating variables’?
Feedback
Creating variables is also called declaring variables in C programming.

6.3.2 Storing Values in Variables

You have seen how we created variables in the previous section. Now,
let's store some values in those variables −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
}
The above program has two additional statements where we are storing
10 in variable a and 20 is being stored in variable b. Almost all the
programming languages have similar way of storing values in variable
where we keep variable name in the left hand side of an equal sign = and
whatever value we want to store in the variable, we keep that value in the
right hand side.
Now, we have completed two steps, first we created two variables and
then we stored required values in those variables. Now variable a has
value 10 and variable b has value 20. In other words we can say, when
above program is executed, the memory location named a will hold 10
and memory location b will hold 20.

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6.3.3 Accessing Stored Values in Variables

If we do not use the stored values in the variables, then there is no point
in creating variables and storing values in them. We know that the above
program has two variables a and b and they store the values 10 and 20,
respectively. So let's try to print the values stored in these two variables.
Following is a C program, which prints the values stored in its variables −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d\n", a );
printf( "Value of b = %d\n", b );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of a = 10
Value of b = 20
You must have seen printf() function in the previous chapter where we
had used it to print "Hello, World!". This time, we are using it to print the
values of variables. We are making use of %d, which will be replaced
with the values of the given variable in printf() statements. We can print
both the values using a single printf() statement as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d and value of b = %d\n", a, b );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of a = 10 and value of b = 20
If you want to use float variable in C programming, then you will have to
use%f instead of %d, and if you want to print a character value, then you
will have to use %c. Similarly, different data types can be printed using
different % and characters.

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ITQ

Question
What is necessary after creating variable?
Feedback
It is important to store variables after creating them else, the purpose of
creation would be defeated.

6.3.4 Variables in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java programming
language. This program will create two variables a and b and very similar
to C programming, it will assign 10 and 20 in these variables and finally
print the values of the two variables in two ways −
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
int a;
int b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
System.out.println("Value of a = " + a);
System.out.println("Value of b = " + b);
System.out.println("Value of a = " + a + " and value of b = " + b);
}
}

6.3.5 Variables in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will
create two variables a and b and at the same time, assign 10 and 20 in
those variables.
Python does not want you to specify the data type at the time of variable
creation and there is no need to create variables in advance.
a = 10
b = 20
print "Value of a = ", a
print "Value of b = ", b
print "Value of a = ", a, " and value of b = ", b
You can use the following syntax in C and Java programming to declare
variables and assign values at the same time −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {

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int a = 10;
int b = 20;
printf( "Value of a = %d and value of b = %d\n", a, b );
}

6.4 Reserved Words

Reserved word (also known as a keyword) is a word in programming that
cannot be used as an identifier, such as the name of a variable, function,
or label – it is "reserved from use". Different programming languages
provide different set of reserved keywords, but there is one important &
common rule in all the programming languages that we cannot use a
reserved keyword to name our variables, which means we cannot name
our variable like int or float rather these keywords can only be used to
specify a variable data type.
For example, if you will try to use any reserved keyword for the purpose
of variable name, then you will get a syntax error.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int float;
float = 10;
printf( "Value of float = %d\n", float);
}
When you compile the above program, it produces the following error −
main.c: In function 'main':
main.c:5:8: error: two or more data types in declaration specifiers
int float;
......
Let's now give a proper name to our integer variable, then the above
program should compile and execute successfully −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int count;
count = 10;
printf( "Value of count = %d\n", count);
}
The following sections give the list of reserved words in C, Java and
Python programming languages. We know you cannot memorize all these
keywords, but we have listed them down for your reference purpose and
to explain the concept of reserved keywords. So just be careful while

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giving a name to your variable, you should not use any reserved keyword
for that programming language.
ITQ

Question
What is the common rule in all programming languages?
Feedback
The important and common rule in all the programming languages is
that a reserved keyword cannot be used to name variables.

6.4.1 C Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by C
Programming language:

Auto Else long switch

Break Enum register typedef

Case Extern return union

Char Float short unsigne

d

Const For signed void

continue Goto sizeof volatile

Default If static while

Do Int struct _Packed

Double

6.4.2 Java Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by Java
Programming language −

Abstract Assert boolean break

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Byte Case catch char

Class Const continue default

Do Double else enum

Extends Final finally float

For Goto if implements

Import Instanceof int interface

Long Native new package

Private Protected public return

Short Static strictfp super

Switch Synchronized this throw

Throws Transient try void

Volatile While

6.4.3 Python Programming Reserved Keywords

Here is a table having almost all the keywords supported by Python
Programming language −

And Exec not

Assert Finally or

Break For pass

Class From print

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Continue Global raise

Def If return

Del Import try

Elif In while

Else Is with

Except Lambda yield

6.5 Operators
An operator in a programming language is a symbol that tells the
compiler or interpreter to perform specific mathematical, relational or
logical operation and produce final result. This lesson will explain the
concept of operators and it will take you through the important arithmetic
and relational operators available in C, Java, and Python.

6.5.1 Arithmetic Operators

Computer programs are widely used for mathematical calculations. We
can write a computer program which can do simple calculation like
adding two numbers (2 + 3) and we can also write a program, which can
solve a complex equation like P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9. Even if you have
been a poor student, you must be aware that in first expression 2 and 3
are operands and + is an operator. Similar concepts exist in Computer
Programming.
Take a look at the following two examples −
2+3
P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9.
These two statements are called arithmetic expressions in a programming
language and plus, minus used in these expressions are called arithmetic
operators and the values used in these expressions like 2, 3 and x, etc., are
called operands. In their simplest form, such expressions produce
numerical results. Similarly, a programming language provides various
arithmetic operators. The following table lists down a few of the
important arithmetic operators available in C programming language.
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then –

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Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

% This gives remainder of an integer division B % A will give 0

Following is a simple example of C Programming to understand the

above mathematical operators −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a, b, c;
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
c = a - b;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
c = a * b;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
c = b / a;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
c = b % a;
printf( "Value of c = %d\n", c);
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of c = 30
Value of c = -10
Value of c = 200
Value of c = 2

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Value of c = 0

6.5.2 Relational Operators

Consider a situation where we create two variables and assign them some
values as follows −
A = 20
B = 10
Here, it is obvious that variable A is greater than B in values. So, we need
the help of some symbols to write such expressions which are called
relational expressions. If we use C programming language, then it will be
written as follows −
(A > B)
Here, we used a symbol > and it is called a relational operator and in their
simplest form, they produce Boolean results which means the result will
be either true or false. Similarly, a programming language provides
various relational operators. The following table lists down a few of the
important relational operators available in C programming language.
Assume variable Aholds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

== Checks if the values of two operands are (A == B) is

equal or not, if yes then condition not true.
becomes true.

!= Checks if the values of two operands are (A != B) is

equal or not, if values are not equal then true.
condition becomes true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is (A > B) is

greater than the value of right operand, if not true.
yes then condition becomes true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less (A < B) is

than the value of right operand, if yes true.
then condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is (A >= B) is

greater than or equal to the value of right not true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.

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<= Checks if the value of left operand is less (A <= B) is

than or equal to the value of right true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.

Here, we will show you one example of C Programming which makes

use of if conditional statement. Though this statement will be discussed
later in a separate chapter, but in short, we use if statement to check a
condition and if the condition is true, then the body of if statement is
executed, otherwise the body of if statement is skipped.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a, b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
/* Here we check whether a is equal to 10 or not */
if( a == 10 ) {
/* if a is equal to 10 then this body will be executed */
printf( "a is equal to 10\n");
}
/* Here we check whether b is equal to 10 or not */
if( b == 10 ) {
/* if b is equal to 10 then this body will be executed */
printf( "b is equal to 10\n");
}
/* Here we check if a is less b than or not */
if( a < b ) {
/* if a is less than b then this body will be executed */
printf( "a is less than b\n");
}
/* Here we check whether a and b are not equal */
if( a != b ) {
/* if a is not equal to b then this body will be executed */
printf( "a is not equal to b\n");
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −

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a is equal to 10
a is less than b
a is not equal to b

ITQ

Question
What does a programming language provide?
Feedback
A programming language provides various relational operators.

6.5.3 Logical Operators

Logical operators are very important in any programming language and
they help us take decisions based on certain conditions. Suppose we want
to combine the result of two conditions, then logical AND and OR logical
operators help us in producing the final result.
The following table shows all the logical operators supported by the C
language. Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then −

Operator Description Example

&& Called Logical AND operator. If both the (A && B) is false.

operands are non-zero, then condition
becomes true.

|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the (A || B) is true.

two operands is non-zero, then condition
becomes true.

! Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to !(A && B) is true.

reverses the logical state of its operand. If a
condition is true then Logical NOT
operator will make false.

Try the following example to understand all the logical operators

available in C programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a = 1;
int b = 0;
if ( a && b ) {

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printf("This will never print because condition is false\n" );

}
if ( a || b ) {
printf("This will be printed print because condition is true\n" );
}
if ( !(a && b) ) {
printf("This will be printed print because condition is true\n" );
}
}
When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the
following result −
This will be printed print because condition is true
This will be printed print because condition is true
ITQ

Question
How do logical operators help programmers?
Feedback
Logical Operators serves as a reliable guide when taking decisions based
on certain conditions.

6.5.4 Operators in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. C programming and
Java provide almost identical set of operators and conditional statements.
This program will create two variables a and b, very similar to C
programming, then we assign 10 and 20 in these variables and finally, we
will use different arithmetic and relational operators −
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above example.
public class DemoJava {

public static void main(String []args) {

int a, b, c;
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );
c = a - b;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );

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c = a * b;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );
c = b / a;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );
c = b % a;
System.out.println("Value of c = " + c );
if( a == 10 ) {
System.out.println("a is equal to 10" );
}
}
}
ITQ

Question
What does Java provide?
Feedback
Java provide almost identical set of operators and conditional statements.

6.5.5 Operators in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. This program will
create two variables a and b and at the same time, assign 10 and 20 in
those variables. Fortunately, C programming and Python programming
languages provide almost identical set of operators. This program will
create two variables a and b, very similar to C programming, then we
assign 10 and 20 in these variables and finally, we will use different
arithmetic and relational operators.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above example.
a = 10
b = 20
c=a+b
print "Value of c = ", c
c=a-b
print "Value of c = ", c
c=a*b
print "Value of c = ", c

c=a/b
print "Value of c = ", c

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c=a%b
print "Value of c = ", c
if( a == 10 ):
print "a is equal to 10"

6.6 Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a
single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your
application and a high degree of code reusing. You have already seen
various functions like printf() and main(). These are called built-in
functions provided by the language itself, but we can write our own
functions as well and this tutorial will teach you how to write and use
those functions in C programming language.
Good thing about functions is that they are famous with several names.
Different programming languages name them differently, for example,
functions, methods, sub-routines, procedures, etc. If you come across any
such terminology, then just imagine about the same concept, which we
are going to discuss in this tutorial.
Let us start with a program where we will define two arrays of numbers
and then from each array, we will find the biggest number. Given below
are the steps to find out the maximum number from a given set of
numbers −
1) Get a list of numbers L1, L2, L3....LN
2) Assume L1 is the largest, Set max = L1
3) Take next number Li from the list and do the following
4) If max is less than Li
5) Set max = Li
6) If Li is last number from the list then
7) Print value stored in max and come out
8) Else prepeat same process starting from step 3
Let us translate the above program in C programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int set1[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int set2[5] = {101, 201, 301, 401, 501};
int i, max;
/* Process first set of numbers available in set1[] */
max = set1[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set1[i] ) {
max = set1[i];

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}
i = i + 1;
}
printf("Max in first set = %d\n", max );
/* Now process second set of numbers available in set2[] */
max = set2[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set2[i] ) {
max = set2[i];
}
i = i + 1;
}
printf("Max in second set = %d\n", max );
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Max in first set = 50 Max in second set = 501
If you are clear about the above example, then it will become easy to
understand why we need a function. In the above example, there are only
two sets of numbers, set1 and set2, but consider a situation where we
have 10 or more similar sets of numbers to find out the maximum
numbers from each set. In such a situation, we will have to repeat,
processing 10 or more times and ultimately, the program will become too
large with repeated code. To handle such situation, we write our functions
where we try to keep the source code which will be used again and again
in our programming.
Now, let's see how to define a function in C programming language and
then in the subsequent sections, we will explain how to use them.
ITQ

Question
Define Functions?
Feedback
Functions are small units of programs that are used to carry out a
specific task. Kindly note that C programming provides various built-in
functions like main(), printf(), etc., which are used in programs based on
the requirement.

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6.6.1 Defining a Function

The general form of a function definition in C programming language is
as follows −
return_type function_name( parameter list ) { body of the function
return [expression]; }
A function definition in C programming consists of a function header and
afunction body. Here are all the parts of a function:
1. Return Type − A function may return a value. The return_type is
the data type of the value the function returns. Some functions
perform the desired operations without returning a value. In this
case, the return_type is the keyword void.
2. Function Name − This is the actual name of the function. The
function name and the parameter list together constitute the
function signature.
3. Parameter List − A parameter is like a placeholder. When a
function is invoked, you pass a value as a parameter. This value
is referred to as the actual parameter or argument. The parameter
list refers to the type, order, and number of the parameters of a
function. Parameters are optional; that is, a function may contain
no parameters.
4. Function Body − The function body contains a collection of
statements that defines what the function does.
ITQ

Question
List two parts of a function
Feedback
The two parts of a function are Return Type, and Function Name.

6.6.2 Calling a Function

While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function
has to do. To use a function, you will have to call that function to perform
a defined task.
Now, let us write the above example with the help of a function −
#include <stdio.h>
int getMax( int set[] ) {
int i, max;
max = set[0];
i = 1;
while( i < 5 ) {
if( max < set[i] ) {
max = set[i];

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}
i = i + 1;
}
return max;
}
main() {
int set1[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int set2[5] = {101, 201, 301, 401, 501};
int max;
/* Process first set of numbers available in set1[] */
max = getMax(set1);
printf("Max in first set = %d\n", max );
/* Now process second set of numbers available in set2[] */
max = getMax(set2);
printf("Max in second set = %d\n", max );
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Max in first set = 50 Max in second set = 501
ITQ

Question
What must you bear in mind while creating a C function?
Feedback
You must always remember that while creating a C function, you should
give a definition of what the function has to do.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you discussed the basics of computer
programming. You started by describing the programming environment.
You also highlighted the basic syntax of programming. You examined
Summary variables and reserved words. You concluded the session by discuss
operators and functions.

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Assessment
SAQ 6.1 (tests Learning Outcome 6.1)
Identify a program environment?
Assessment SAQ 6.2 (tests learning outcome 6.2)
Explain the basic syntax of programming?
SAQ 6.3 (tests learning outcome 6.3)
Explain Reserved Words?
SAQ 6.4 (tests learning outcome 6.4)
Define Operators?
SAQ 6.5 (tests learning outcome 6.5)
Define Functions?
SAQ 6.6 (tests learning outcome 6.6)
Mention the parts of a function?

Credits
This lesson has been adapted from:
Program Structure- http://ccm.net/contents/317-program-structure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(computer_science)
Reading http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/statement.htmlhttp://www.webope
dia.com/TERM/S/statement.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_flowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Control_flow
Introduction to Problem Solving and Control Statements in Visual Basic
2010 By Paul Deitel and Harvey Deitel Apr 27, 2011
http://www.teach-
ict.com/gcse_computing/ocr/216_programming/control_flow/miniweb/p
g7.htm
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_programming/

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Study Session 7

Data Types
Introduction
In this study session, you will discuss the different data types. You will
describe the C and java data types and python data types. You will then
proceed to explaining data types and numbers manipulations. Under
which you will examine math operations on numbers, numbers in java
and numbers in python. Subsequently, you will discuss data types and
character manipulation. You will end the session by describing data types
and string manipulations.

Learning Outcomes
When we have studied this session, we should be able to:
7.1 identify data types
7.2 describe data types and numbers manipulation
Outcomes 7.3 examine data types and character manipulation
7.4 explain data types and string manipulation

Terminology
Data A representation of facts or ideas in a formalized manner
capable of being communicated or manipulated by some
processes

7.1 Understanding Data Types

Consider an easy example of adding two whole numbers 10 & 20, which
can be done simply as follows:
10 + 20
Let's take another problem where we want to add two decimal numbers
10.50 & 20.50, which will be written as follows −
10.50 + 20.50
The two examples are straightforward. Now let's take another example
where we want to record student information in a notebook. Here we
would like to record the following information −
Name:

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Class:
Section:
Age:
Sex:
Now, let's put one student record as per the given requirement −
Name: Zara Ali
Class: 6th
Section: J
Age: 13
Sex: F
The first example dealt with whole numbers, the second example added
two decimal numbers, whereas the third example is dealing with a mix of
different data. Let's put it as follows:
1. Student name "Zara Ali" is a sequence of characters which is also
called a string.
2. Student class "6th" has been represented by a mix of whole
number and a string of two characters. Such a mix is called
alphanumeric.
3. Student section has been represented by a single character which
is 'J'.
4. Student age has been represented by a whole number which is 13.
5. Student sex has been represented by a single character which is
'F'.
This way, we realized that in our day-to-day life, we deal with different
types of data such as strings, characters, whole numbers (integers), and
decimal numbers (floating point numbers). Similarly, when we write a
computer program to process different types of data, we need to specify
its type clearly; otherwise the computer does not understand how
different operations can be performed on that given data. Different
programming languages use different keywords to specify different data
types. For example, C and Java programming languages use int to specify
integer data, whereas char specifies a character data type.
Subsequent sections will show you how to use different data types in
different situations. For now, let's check the important data types
available in C, Java, and Python and the keywords we will use to specify
those data types.
ITQ

Question
What must we specify when writing a computer program?
Feedback
Whenever you are to write a computer program to process different
types of data, you need to specify its type clearly; otherwise the
computer does not understand how different operations should be

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performed on that given data.

7.1.1 C and Java Data Types

C and Java support almost the same set of data types, though Java
supports additional data types. For now, we are taking a few common
data types supported by both the programming languages –

Type Keyword Value range which can be represented by this

data type

Character Char -128 to 127 or 0 to 255

Number int -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647

Small short -32,768 to 32,767

Number

Long long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Number

Decimal float 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 till 6 decimal places

Number

These data types are called primitive data types and you can use these
data types to build more complex data types, which are called user-
defined data type, for example a string will be a sequence of characters.
ITQ

Question
What are called primitive data types?
Feedback
The following are referred to as primitive data types: Character,
Number, Small Number, Long Number, and Decimal Number.

7.1.2 Python Data Types

Python has five standard data types but this programming language does
not make use of any keyword to specify a particular data type, rather
Python is intelligent enough to understand a given data type
automatically.
1. Numbers
2. String
3. List

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4. Tuple
5. Dictionary
Here, Number specifies all types of numbers including decimal numbers
and string represents a sequence of characters with a length of 1 or more
characters. For now, let's proceed with these two data types and skip List,
Tuple, and Dictionary, which are advanced data types in Python.

7.2 Data Type and Numbers Manipulation

Every programming language provides support for manipulating different
types of numbers such as simple whole integers and floating-point
numbers. C, Java, and Python categorize these numbers in several
categories based on their nature.
Let us go back and check the data types chapter, where we listed down
the core data types related to numbers −

Type Keyword Value range which can be represented by this

data type

Number int -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647

Small short -32,768 to 32,767

Number

Long long -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Number

Decimal float 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 till 6 decimal places

Number

These data types are called primitive data types and you can use these
data types to build more data types, which are called user-defined data
types.
We have seen various mathematical and logical operations on numbers
during a discussion on operators. So we know how to add numbers,
subtract numbers, divide numbers, etc.

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ITQ

Question
What must every programming language provide?
Feedback
Every programming language should provide support for manipulating
different types of numbers such as simple whole integers, and floating
point numbers.

7.2.1 Math Operations on Numbers

The following table lists down various useful built-in mathematical
functions available in C programming language which can be used for
various important mathematical calculations. For example, if you want to
calculate the square root of a number, for example, 2304, then you have a
built-in function available to calculate the square root.

S.N. Function & Purpose

1 double cos(double);
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the cosine.

2 double sin(double);
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the sine.

3 double tan(double);
This function takes an angle (as a double) and returns the tangent.

4 double log(double);
This function takes a number and returns the natural log of that
number.

5 double pow(double, double);

The first is a number you wish to raise and the second is the power
you wish to raise it to.

6 double hypot(double, double);

If you pass this function the length of two sides of a right triangle,
it will return the length of the hypotenuse.

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 Study Session 7 Data Types

7 double sqrt(double);
You pass this function a number and it returns its square root.

8 int abs(int);
This function returns the absolute value of an integer that is passed
to it.

9 double fabs(double);
This function returns the absolute value of any decimal number
passed to it.

10 double floor(double);
Finds the integer which is less than or equal to the argument
passed to it.

Following is a simple example to show a few mathematical operations.

To utilize these functions, you need to include the math header file
<math.h> in your program in the same way you included stdio.h −
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
main() {
short s;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
s = 10;
i = 1000;
l = 1000000;
f = 230.47;
d = 2.374;
printf( "sin(s): %f\n", sin(s));
printf( "abs(i): %f\n", abs(i));
printf( "floor(f): %f\n", floor(f));
printf( "sqrt(f): %f\n", sqrt(f));
printf( "pow(d, 2): %f\n", pow(d, 2));
}

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When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −

sin(s): -0.544021
abs(i): -0.544021
floor(f): 230.000000
sqrt(f): 15.181238
pow(d, 2): 5.635876
Besides the above usage, you will use numbers in loop counting, flag
representation, true or false values in C programming.

7.2.2 Numbers in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java provides almost
all the numeric data types available in C programming.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which is
identical to the result generated by the above C example.
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
short s;
int i;
long l;
float f;
double d;
s = 10;
i = 1000;
l = 1000000L;
f = 230.47f;
d = 30949.374;
System.out.format( "s: %d\n", s);
System.out.format( "i: %d\n", i);
System.out.format( "l: %d\n", l);
System.out.format( "f: %f\n", f);
System.out.format( "d: %f\n", d);
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
s: 10
i: 1000
l: 1000000

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f: 230.470001
d: 30949.374000
Java also provides a full range of built-in functions for mathematical
calculation and you can use them in the same way as you did in C
programming.
ITQ

Question
What additional feature does Java provide?
Feedback
Java also provides a full range of built-in functions for mathematical
calculation.

7.2.3 Numbers in Python

Python is a little different from C and Java; it categorizes numbers in
int,long, float and complex. Here are some examples of numbers in
Python:

Int Long Float complex

10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j

100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j

-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j

080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j

-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J

-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J

0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

Following is the equivalent program written in Python −

s = 10
i = 1000
l = 1000000
f = 230.47

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d = 30949.374
print "s: ", s
print "i: ", i
print "l: ", l
print "f: ", f
print "d: ", d
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
s: 10
i: 1000
l: 1000000
f: 230.47
d: 30949.374
Python also provides a full range of built-in functions for mathematical
calculations and you can use them in the same way you have used them
in C programming.

7.3 Data Type and character manipulation

If it was easy to work with numbers in computer programming, it would
be even easier to work with characters. Characters are simple alphabets
like a, b, c, d...., A, B, C, D,....., but with an exception. In computer
programming, any single digit number like 0, 1, 2,....and special
characters like $, %, +, -.... etc., are also treated as characters and to
assign them in a character type variable, you simply need to put them
inside single quotes. For example, the following statement defines a
character type variable ch and we assign a value 'a' to it −
char ch = 'a';
Here, ch is a variable of character type which can hold a character of the
implementation's character set and 'a' is called a character literal or a
character constant. Not only a, b, c,.... but when any number like 1, 2, 3....
or any special character like !, @, #, #, $,.... is kept inside single quotes,
then they will be treated as a character literal and can be assigned to a
variable of character type, so the following is a valid statement −
char ch = '1';
A character data type consumes 8 bits of memory which means you can
store anything in a character whose ASCII value lies in between -127 to
127, so it can hold any of the 256 different values. A character data type
can store any of the characters available on your keyboard including
special characters like !, @, #, #, $, %, ^, &, *, (, ), _, +, {, }, etc.
Note that you can keep only a single alphabet or a single digit number
inside single quotes and more than one alphabets or digits are not allowed
inside single quotes. So the following statements are invalid in C
programming −

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char ch1 = 'ab';

char ch2 = '10';
Given below is a simple example, which shows how to define, assign,
and print characters in C Programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;
char ch4;
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
printf( "ch1: %c\n", ch1);
printf( "ch2: %c\n", ch2);
printf( "ch3: %c\n", ch3);
printf( "ch4: %c\n", ch4);
}
Here, we used %c to print a character data type. When the above program
is executed, it produces the following result −
ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
ITQ

Question
How many bits of memory does a character Data type consumes?
Feedback
A character data type consumes 8 bits of memory, which means you can
store anything in a character whose ASCII value lies in between -127 to
127, so it can hold any of the 256 different values.

7.3.1 Escape Sequences

Many programming languages support a concept called Escape Sequence.
When a character is preceded by a backslash (\), it is called an escape
sequence and it has a special meaning to the compiler. For example, \n in

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the following statement is a valid character and it is called a new line

character −
char ch = '\n';
Here, character n has been preceded by a backslash (\), it has special
meaning which is a new line but keep in mind that backslash (\) has
special meaning with a few characters only. The following statement will
not convey any meaning in C programming and it will be assumed as an
invalid statement −
char ch = '\1';
The following table lists the escape sequences available in C
programming language –

Escape Sequence Description

\t Inserts a tab in the text at this point.

\b Inserts a backspace in the text at this point.

\n Inserts a newline in the text at this point.

\r Inserts a carriage return in the text at this point.

\f Inserts a form feed in the text at this point.

\' Inserts a single quote character in the text at this

point.

\" Inserts a double quote character in the text at this

point.

\\ Inserts a backslash character in the text at this point.

The following example shows how the compiler interprets an escape

sequence in a print statement −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;

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char ch4;
ch1 = '\t';
ch2 = '\n';
printf( "Test for tabspace %c and a newline %c will start here", ch1,
ch2);
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Test for tabspace and a newline
will start here
ITQ

Question
What concept does many programming support?
Feedback
Many programming languages support a concept called Escape
Sequence

7.3.2 Characters in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java handles
character data types much in the same way as we have seen in C
programming. However, Java provides additional support for character
manipulation.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above C example.
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
char ch1;
char ch2;
char ch3;
char ch4;
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
System.out.format( "ch1: %c\n", ch1);
System.out.format( "ch2: %c\n", ch2);
System.out.format( "ch3: %c\n", ch3);
System.out.format( "ch4: %c\n", ch4);

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}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
Java also supports escape sequence in the same way you have used them
in C programming.
ITQ

Question
How does Java handle character data types?
Feedback
Java handles character data types much in the same way as we have seen
in C programming. However, Java provides additional support for
character manipulation.

7.3.3 Characters in Python

Python does not support any character data type but all the characters are
treated as string, which is a sequence of characters. We will study strings
in a separate chapter. You do not need to have any special arrangement
while using a single character in Python.
Following is the equivalent program written in Python −
ch1 = 'a';
ch2 = '1';
ch3 = '$';
ch4 = '+';
print "ch1: ", ch1
print "ch2: ", ch2
print "ch3: ", ch3
print "ch4: ", ch4
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
ch1: a
ch2: 1
ch3: $
ch4: +
Python supports escape sequences in the same way as you have used
them in C programming.

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ITQ

Question
How does Python handle character data types?
Feedback
Python does not support any character data type but all the characters are
treated as string, which is a sequence of characters.

7.4 Data Types and String Manipulation

During our discussion about characters, we learnt that character data type
deals with a single character and you can assign any character from your
keyboard to a character type variable.
Now, let's move a little bit ahead and consider a situation where we need
to store more than one character in a variable. We have seen that C
programming does not allow to store more than one character in a
character type variable. So the following statements are invalid in C
programming and produce syntax errors −
char ch1 = 'ab';
char ch2 = '10';
We have also seen how to use the concept of arrays to store more than
one value of similar data type in a variable. Here is the syntax to store
and print five numbers in an array of int type −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int number[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int i = 0;
while( i < 5 ) {
printf("number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
number[0] = 10
number[1] = 20
number[2] = 30
number[3] = 40
number[4] = 50

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Now, let's define an array of five characters in the same way as we did for
numbers and try to print them −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char ch[5] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'};
int i = 0;
while( i < 5 ) {
printf("ch[%d] = %c\n", i, ch[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
Here, we used %c to print character value. When the above code is
compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
ch[0] = H
ch[1] = e
ch[2] = l
ch[3] = l
ch[4] = o
If you are done with the above example, then I think you understood how
strings work in C programming, because strings in C are represented as
arrays of characters. C programming simplified the assignment and
printing of strings. Let's check the same example once again with a
simplified syntax −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char ch[5] = "Hello";
int i = 0
/* Print as a complete string */
printf("String = %s\n", ch);
/* Print character by character */
while( i < 5 ) {
printf("ch[%d] = %c\n", i, ch[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
Here, we used %s to print the full string value using array name ch,
which is actually the beginning of the memory address holding ch
variable as shown below −

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Although it's not visible from the above examples, a C program internally
assigns null character '\0' as the last character of every string. It indicates
the end of the string and it means if you want to store a 5 character string
in an array, then you must define an array size of 6 as a good practice,
though C does not complain about it.
If the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
String = Hello
ch[0] = H
ch[1] = e
ch[2] = l
ch[3] = l
ch[4] = o
ITQ

Question
What must you remember with reference to data types and strings
manipulation?
Feedback
You need to remember that character data type deals with a single
character and you can assign any character from your keyboard to a
character type variable.

7.4.1 Basic String Concepts

Based on the above discussion, we can conclude the following important
points about strings in C programming language:
1. Strings in C are represented as arrays of characters.
2. We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning
character by character into an array of characters.
3. We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning a
complete string enclosed in double quote.
4. We can print a string character by character using an array
subscript or a complete string by using an array name without
subscript.
5. The last character of every string is a null character, i.e., ‘\0’.

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6. Most of the programming languages provide built-in functions to

manipulate strings, i.e., you can concatenate strings, you can
search from a string, you can extract sub-strings from a string,
etc. For more, you can check our detailed tutorial on C
programming or any other programming language.

7.4.2 Strings in Java

Though, you can use character arrays to store strings, but Java is an
advanced programming language and its designers tried to provide
additional functionality. Java provides strings as a built-in data type like
any other data type. It means you can define strings directly instead of
defining them as array of characters.
Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java makes use of
the new operator to create string variables as shown in the following
program.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output −
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
String str = new String("Hello");
System.out.println( "String = " + str );
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
String = Hello

7.4.3 Strings in Python

Creating strings in Python is as simple as assigning a string into a Python
variable using single or double quotes.
Given below is a simple program that creates two strings and prints them
using print() function −
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
print "var1 = ", var1
print "var2 = ", var2
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
var1 = Hello World!
var2 = Python Programming
Python does not support character type; these are treated as strings of
length one, thus also considered a substring.
To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the
index or indices to obtain your substring. Take a look at the following
code segment −

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var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"
print "var1[0]: ", var1[0]
print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5]
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
ITQ

Question
Mention two conclusions that we can deduce from the Basic String
Concept
Feedback
From the aforementioned, we can deduce that
1. Strings in C are represented as arrays of characters.
2. We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning
character by character into an array of characters.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you examined how to deal with data types, and
how to manipulate number data types (integer and float/real). In
addition, you explored character manipulation and string data types
Summary manipulation. You concluded the session by describing data types in
python and gave examples of programs on data type manipulation.

Assessment
SAQ 7.1 (tests Learning Outcome 7.1)
1. Discuss Data types?
2. Discuss C and Java Data types?
Assessment 3. Discuss about Python Data types?
SAQ 7.2 (tests learning outcomes 7.2)
Discuss data types, numbers, character, and string manipulation?
SAQ 7.3 (tests learning outcome 7.3)
List the Basic Strings Concept that you know?
SAQ 7.4 (tests learning outcome 7.4)
1. What is important about Strings in Java?

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2. What is important about strings in Python?

Credits
This content of this lesson is adapted from
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/

Reading

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 Study Session 8 Decision-Making and Loops

Study Session 8

Decision-Making and Loops

Introduction
In this study session, you will discuss the concept of decision-making and
loops. You will start the session by examining conditional statement.
Under which you will examine the if statement. You will end the session
by exploring loops. Here, you will look at the while loop, do-while-loop,
loops in java and loops in python.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
8.1 identify Conditional statements and their usefulness in
programming
Outcomes 8.2 explain and implement loops in programming

Terminology
Loop A programmed sequence of instructions that is repeated
until or while a particular condition is satisfied

Switch A programming construct that takes different actions

depending on the value of an expression

8.1 Conditional Statements

A conditional statement is a mechanism that allows for conditional
execution of instructions based upon the outcome of a conditional
statement, which can either be true or false.

8.1.1 The if Statement

Assuming we want to print a remark about a student based on his secured
marks. Following is the situation:
1. Assume given marks are x for a student:
2. If given marks are more than 95, then
3. Student is brilliant
4. If given marks are less than 30, then
5. Student is poor
6. If given marks are less than 95 and more than 30, then
7. Student is average

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Now, the question is how to write a programming code to handle such

situations. Almost all the programming languages provide conditional
statements that work based on the following flow diagram −

Let's write a C program with the help of if conditional statements to

convert the above given situation into a programming code −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {
printf( "Student is brilliant\n");
}
if( x < 30) {
printf( "Student is poor\n");
}
if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
printf( "Student is average\n");
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Student is average
The above program uses if conditional statements. Here, the first if
statement checks whether the given condition i.e., variable x is greater

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than 95 or not and if it finds the condition is true, then the conditional
body is entered to execute the given statements. Here we have only one
printf()statement to print a remark about the student.
Similarly, the second if statement works. Finally, the third if statement is
executed, here we have the following two conditions −
1. First condition is x > 95
2. Second condition is x < 30
The computer evaluates both the given conditions and then, the overall
result is combined with the help of the binary operator &&. If the final
result is true, then the conditional statement will be executed, otherwise
no statement will be executed.

8.1.2 if...else statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which
executes when the Boolean expression is false. The syntax of an
if...elsestatement in C programming language is −
if(boolean_expression) {
/* Statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */
}
else {
/* Statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is false */
}
The above syntax can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below –

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An if...else statement is useful when we have to take a decision out of two

options. For example, if a student secures more marks than 95, then the
student is brilliant, otherwise no such situation can be coded, as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {
printf( "Student is brilliant\n");
}else {
printf( "Student is not brilliant\n");
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Student is not brilliant
ITQ

Question
What follows an ‘if..else statement’?
Feedback
An Optional Else Statement

8.1.3 if...else if...else statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement,
which is very useful to test various conditions.
While using if, else if, else statements, there are a few points to keep in
mind:
1. An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after an else if.
2. An if can have zero to many else…if's and they must come
before theelse.
3. Once an else…if succeeds, none of the remaining else…if's or
else'swill be tested.
The syntax of an if...else if...else statement in C programming language is
−
if(boolean_expression 1) {
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
}
else if( boolean_expression 2) {
/* Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true */
}

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else if( boolean_expression 3) {

/* Executes when the boolean expression 3 is true */
}
else {
/* Executes when the none of the above condition is true */
}
Now with the help of if...elseif...else statement, the very first program can
be coded as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {
printf( "Student is brilliant\n");
}else if( x < 30) {
printf( "Student is poor\n");
}else if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
printf( "Student is average\n");
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Student is average
ITQ

Question
What follows an ‘If’ statement?
Feedback
An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement.

8.1.4 The Switch Statement

A switch statement is an alternative of if statements which allows a
variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each value is
called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each
switch case. It has the following syntax −
switch(expression){
case ONE :
statement(s);
break;

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 Study Session 8 Decision-Making and Loops

case TWO:
statement(s);
break;
......
default :
statement(s);
}
The expression used in a switch statement must give an integer value,
which will be compared for equality with different cases given. Wherever
an expression value matches with a case value, the body of that case will
be executed and finally, the switch will be terminated using a break
statement. If no break statements are provided, then the computer
continues executing other statements available below to the matched
case. If none of the cases matches, then the default case body is executed.
The above syntax can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below −

Now, let's consider another example where we want to write the

equivalent English word for a given number. Then, it can be coded as
follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int x = 2;

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switch( x ){
case 1 :
printf( "One\n");
break;
case 2 :
printf( "Two\n");
break;
case 3 :
printf( "Three\n");
break;
case 4 :
printf( "Four\n");
break;
default :
printf( "None of the above...\n");
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Two
ITQ

Question
What are Switch Statement?
Feedback
A switch statement is an alternative of if statements which allows a
variable to be tested for equality against a list of values.

8.1.5 Decisions in Java

The following is the equivalent program written in Java which too
supports if,if...else, if...elseif...else, and switch statements.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above C example.
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
int x = 45;
if( x > 95) {
System.out.println( "Student is brilliant");

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 Study Session 8 Decision-Making and Loops

}else if( x < 30) {

System.out.println( "Student is poor");
}else if( x < 95 && x > 30 ) {
System.out.println( "Student is average");
}
}
}

8.1.6 Decisions in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. Python provides
if,if...else, if...elif...else, and switch statements. Here, you must note that
Python does not make use of curly braces for conditional body, instead it
simply identifies the body of the block using indentation of the
statements.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output −
x = 45
if x > 95:
print "Student is brilliant"
elif x < 30:
print "Student is poor"
elif x < 95 and x > 30:
print "Student is average"
print "The end"
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Student is average
The end
ITQ

Question
What does Python provide?
Feedback
Python provides if,if...else, if...elif...else, and switch statements

8.2 Loops
Let us consider a situation when you want to print Hello, World! five
times. Here is a simple C program to do the same −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {

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printf( "Hello, World!\n");

printf( "Hello, World!\n");
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
It was simple, but again, let's consider another situation when you want to
write Hello, World! a thousand times. We can certainly not write printf()
statements a thousand times. Almost all the programming languages
provide a concept called loop, which helps in executing one or more
statements up to a desired number of times. All high-level programming
languages provide various forms of loops, which can be used to execute
one or more statements repeatedly.
Let's write the above C program with the help of a while loop and later,
we will discuss how this loop works
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int i = 0;
while ( i < 5 ) {
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
i = i + 1;
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
The above program makes use of a while loop, which is being used to
execute a set of programming statements enclosed within {....}. Here, the
computer first checks whether the given condition, i.e., variable "a" is

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less than 5 or not and if it finds the condition is true, then the loop body is
entered to execute the given statements. Here, we have the following two
statements in the loop body −
1. First statement is printf() function, which prints Hello World!
2. Second statement is i = i + 1, which is used to increase the value
of variable i
After executing all the statements given in the loop body, the computer
goes back to while( i < 5) and the given condition, (i < 5), is checked
again, and the loop is executed again if the condition holds true. This
process repeats till the given condition remains true which means variable
"a" has a value less than 5.
To conclude, a loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group
of statements multiple times. Given below is the general form of a loop
statement in most of the programming languages −

This lesson has been designed to present programming's basic concepts to

non-programmers, so let's discuss the two most important loops available
in C programming language. Once you are clear about these two loops,
then you can pick-up C programming tutorial or a reference book and
check other loops available in C and the way they work.
ITQ

Question
How does a loop help a programmer save time?
Feedback
A loop statement allows the programmer to execute a statement or group
of statements multiple times.

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8.2.1 The while Loop

A while loop available in C Programming language has the following
syntax −
while ( condition ) {
/*....while loop body ....*/
}
The above code can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below −

The following important points are to be noted about a while loop:

1. A while loop starts with a keyword while followed by a condition
enclosed in ( ).
2. Further to the while() statement, you will have the body of the
loop enclosed in curly braces {...}.
3. A while loop body can have one or more lines of source code to
be executed repeatedly.
4. If the body of a while loop has just one line, then its optional to
use curly braces {...}.
5. A while loop keeps executing its body till a given condition holds
true. As soon as the condition becomes false, the while loop
comes out and continues executing from the immediate next
statement after the while loop body.
6. A condition is usually a relational statement, which is evaluated
to either true or false. A value equal to zero is treated as false and
any non-zero value works like true.

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ITQ

Question
Mention one important to note with respect to While Loops
Feedback
A while loop starts with a keyword while followed by a condition
enclosed in ( ).

8.2.2 The do...while Loop

A while loop checks a given condition before it executes any statements
given in the body part. C programming provides another form of loop,
called the do...while that allows to execute a loop body before checking a
given condition. It has the following syntax −
do {
/*....do...while loop body ....*/
} while ( condition );
The above code can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below −

If you will write the above example using do...while loop, then Hello,
Worldwill produce the same result −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int i = 0;
do {
printf( "Hello, World!\n");

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i = i + 1;
}while ( i < 5 );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
ITQ

Question
How does a ‘do…while loop’ function?
Feedback
A do…while loop allows to execute a loop body before checking a given
condition.

8.2.3 The break statement

When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is
immediately terminated and the program control resumes at the next
statement following the loop. The syntax for a break statement in C is as
follows:
break;
A break statement can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below –

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Following is a variant of the above program, but it will come out after
printing Hello World! only three times −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int i = 0;
do {
printf( "Hello, World!\n");
i = i + 1;
if( i == 3 ) {
break;
}
}while ( i < 5 );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
ITQ

Question
What do we encounter in a loop?
Feedback
The Break Statement

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8.2.4 The continue statement

The continue statement in C programming language works somewhat like
the break statement. Instead of forcing termination, continue forces the
next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between. The
syntax for a continue statement in C is as follows −
continue;
A continue statement can be represented in the form of a flow diagram as
shown below

Following is a variant of the above program, but it will skip printing

when the variable has a value equal to 3 −
#include <stdio.h>

main() {

int i = 0;

do {

if( i == 3 ) {

i = i + 1;
continue;
}

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printf( "Hello, World!\n");

i = i + 1;
}while ( i < 5 );
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!

8.2.5 Loops in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java that too supports
whileand do...while loops. The following program prints Hello, World!
five times as we did in the case of C Programming −
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above example.
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
int i = 0;
while ( i < 5 ) {
System.out.println("Hello, World!");
i = i + 1;
}
}
}
The break and continue statements in Java programming work quite the
same way as they work in C programming.
ITQ

Question
What is peculiar about the break and continue statements in Java
programming?
Feedback
The break and continue statements in Java programming work quite the
same way as they work in C programming.

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8.2.6 Loops in Python

Following is the equivalent program written in Python. Python too
supports while and do...while loops. The following program prints Hello,
World! five times as we did in case of C Programming. Here you must
note that Python does not make use of curly braces for the loop body,
instead it simply identifies the body of the loop using indentation of the
statements.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output. To show
the difference, we have used one more print statement, which will be
executed when the loop will be over.
i=0
while (i < 5):
print "Hello, World!"
i=i+1
print "Loop ends"
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Loop ends
The break and continue statements in Python work quite the same way as
they do in C programming.
ITQ

Question
What important point should you bear in mind about loops in python?
Feedback
Python does not make use of curly braces for the loop body; instead, it
simply identifies the body of the loop using indentation of the
statements.

Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, you discussed decision-making and loops, with
example of programs in C, Java and Python. You also examined the
necessary framework for you to use loops in other languages.
Summary

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Assessment
SAQ 8.1 (tests Learning Outcome8.1)
1. What are Conditional Statements?
Assessment SAQ 8.2 (tests learning outcome 8.2)
1. Explain and implement loops in programming?
2. What is peculiar about the ‘break’ and ‘continue’ statement in
Java Programming?

Credit
This content of this lesson is adapted from
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/

Reading

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 Study Session 9 Arrays

Study Session 9

Arrays
Introduction
In this study session, your focus will be on Arrays. You will begin by
explaining what an array is. You will then create, initialize and access
arrays. Thereafter, you will examine arrays in java and python.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
9.1 explain the term arrays
9.2 discuss arrays in java
Outcomes 9.3 describe arrays (lists) in python.

Terminology
Array A data structure that contains a group of elements.

9.1 Understanding Arrays

Consider a situation where we need to store five integer numbers. If we
use programming's simple variable and data type concepts, then we need
five variables of int data type and the program will be as follows −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int number1;
int number2;
int number3;
int number4;
int number5;
number1 = 10;
number2 = 20;
number3 = 30;
number4 = 40;
number5 = 50;

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printf( "number1: %d\n", number1);

printf( "number2: %d\n", number2);
printf( "number3: %d\n", number3);
printf( "number4: %d\n", number4);
printf( "number5: %d\n", number5);
}
It was simple, because we had to store just five integer numbers. Now
let's assume we have to store 5000 integer numbers. Are we going to use
5000 variables?
To handle such situations, almost all the programming languages provide
a concept called array. An array is a data structure, which can store a
fixed-size collection of elements of the same data type. An array is used
to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an array
as a collection of variables of the same type.
Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number1, number2, ...,
number99, you just declare one array variable number of integer type and
use number1[0], number1[1], and ..., number1[99] to represent individual
variables. Here, 0, 1, 2, .....99 are index associated with var variable and
they are being used to represent individual elements available in the
array.
All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address
corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the last
element.

9.1.1 Creating Arrays

To create an array variable in C, a programmer specifies the type of the
elements and the number of elements to be stored in that array. Given
below is a simple syntax to create an array in C programming:
type arrayName [ arraySize ];
This is called a single-dimensional array. The array Size must be an
integer constant greater than zero and type can be any valid C data type.
For example, now to declare a 10-element array called number of type
int, use this statement:
int number[10];
Here, number is a variable array, which is sufficient to hold up to 10
integer numbers.

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ITQ

Question
1. What do most programming languages provide?
2. What do all arrays consist of?
Feedback
1. Arrays
2. All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations.

9.1.2 Initializing Arrays

You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single
statement as follows:
int number[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the
number of elements that we declare for the array between square brackets
[ ].
If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the
initialization is created. Therefore, if you write −
int number[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
You will create exactly the same array as you did in the previous
example. Following is an example to assign a single element of the array
−
number[4] = 50;
The above statement assigns element number 5th in the array with a value
of 50. All arrays have 0 as the index of their first element which is also
called the base index and the last index of an array will be the total size of
the array minus 1. The following image shows the pictorial representation
of the array we discussed above −

9.1.3 Accessing Array Elements

An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by
placing the index of the element within square brackets after the name of
the array. For example −
int var = number[9];
The above statement will take the 10th element from the array and assign
the value to var variable. The following example uses all the above-
mentioned three concepts viz. creation, assignment, and accessing arrays
−
#include <stdio.h>

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int main () {
int number[10]; /* number is an array of 10 integers */
int i = 0;
/* Initialize elements of array n to 0 */
while( i < 10 ) {
/* Set element at location i to i + 100 */
number[ i ] = i + 100;
i = i + 1;
}
/* Output each array element's value */
i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
printf("number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
number[0] = 100
number[1] = 101
number[2] = 102
number[3] = 103
number[4] = 104
number[5] = 105
number[6] = 106
number[7] = 107
number[8] = 108
number[9] = 109
ITQ

Question
How do we access an element?
Feedback
Elements are generally accessed by indexing the names of the array.

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9.2 Arrays in Java

Following is the equivalent program written in Java. Java supports arrays,
but there is a little difference in the way they are created in Java using the
new operator.
You can try to execute the following program to see the output, which
must be identical to the result generated by the above C example.
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) {
int[] number = new int[10];
int i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
number[ i ] = i + 100;
i = i + 1;
}
i = 0;
while( i < 10 ) {
System.out.format( "number[%d] = %d\n", i, number[i] );
i = i + 1;
}
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
number[0] = 100
number[1] = 101
number[2] = 102
number[3] = 103
number[4] = 104
number[5] = 105
number[6] = 106
number[7] = 107
number[8] = 108
number[9] = 109

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ITQ

Question
Does Java support arrays?
Feedback
Java support arrays though there is a little difference in the way they are
created.

9.3 Arrays (Lists) in Python

Python does not have a concept of Array, instead Python provides
another data structure called list, which provides similar functionality as
arrays in any other language.
Following is the equivalent program written in Python −
# Following defines an empty list.
number = []
i=0
while i < 10:
# Appending elements in the list
number.append(i + 100)
i=i+1
i=0
while i < 10:
# Accessing elements from the list
print "number[", i, "] = ", number[ i ]
i=i+1
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
number[ 0 ] = 100
number[ 1 ] = 101
number[ 2 ] = 102
number[ 3 ] = 103
number[ 4 ] = 104
number[ 5 ] = 105
number[ 6 ] = 106
number[ 7 ] = 107
number[ 8 ] = 108
number[ 9 ] = 109

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ITQ

Question
Can arrays be created using the Python programming?
Feedback
Python does not have a concept of Array; instead, Python provides
another data structure called LIST, which provides similar functionality
as arrays in any other language.

Study Session Summary

You began this session by describing what array means. You also
attempted to create, initialize and access arrays. You concluded the
session by pointing-out arrays in java and python.
Summary

Assessment
SAQ 9.1 (tests learning outcome 9.1)
1. Explain the term array?
2. How do you initialize and access array elements?
Assessment
SAQ 9.2 (tests learning outcome 9.2 and 9.3)
Discuss arrays in Java and Python?

Credit
This content of this lesson is adapted from
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/

Reading

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 Study Session 10 Computer Files

Study Session 10

Computer Files
Introduction
In this study session, you will discuss computer files in relation to
programming language. You will also examine the opening, closing,
writing and reading of computer files. You will end the session by
exploring file I/O in java and file I/O in python.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to
10.1 discuss file input/output
10.2 explain operation modes
Outcomes 10.3 examine file I/O in Java
10.4 describe file I/O python

Terminology
File An aggregation of data on a storage device, identified by a
name

10.1 File Input/output

Usually, you create files using text editors such as notepad, MS Word,
MS Excel or MS PowerPoint, etc. However, many times, we need to
create files using computer programs as well. We can modify an existing
file using a computer program. File input means data that is written into a
file and file output means data that is read from a file. Actually, input and
output terms are more related to screen input and output. When we
display a result on the screen, it is called output. Similarly, if we provide
some input to our program from the command prompt, then it is called
input. For now, it is enough to remember that writing into a file is file
input and reading something from a file is file output.

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ITQ

Question
How else can we create files if we decide not to use computer programs?
Feedback
Files cannot only be created using computer programs. We could also
create files using MS Word, MS PowerPoint, and MS Excel.

10.2 File Operation Modes

Before we start working with any file using a computer program, either
we need to create a new file if it does not exist or open an already
existing file. In either case, we can open a file in the following modes −
1. Read-Only Mode − If you are going to just read an existing file
and you do not want to write any further content in the file, then
you will open the file in read-only mode. Almost all the
programming languages provide syntax to open files in read-only
mode.
2. Write-Only Mode − If you are going to write into either an
existing file or a newly created file but you do not want to read
any written content from that file, then you will open the file in
write-only mode. All the programming languages provide syntax
to open files in write-only mode.
3. Read & Write Mode − If you are going to read as well as write
into the same file, then you will open file in read & write mode.
4. Append Mode − When you open a file for writing, it allows you
to start writing from the beginning of the file; however it will
overwrite existing content, if any. Suppose we don’t want to
overwrite any existing content, then we open the file in append
mode. Append mode is ultimately a write mode, which allows
content to be appended at the end of the file. Almost all the
programming languages provide syntax to open files in append
mode.
In the following sections, we will learn how to open a fresh new file, how
to write into it, and later, how to read and append more content into the
same file.
ITQ

Question
Which file mode would you select if you were ONLY interested in
writing into either an existing file, or a newly created file?
Feedback
In such a case as described above, you would open the file in a Write-
Only Mode.

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10.2.1 Opening Files

You can use the fopen() function to create a new file or to open an
existing file. This call will initialize an object of the type FILE, which
contains all the information necessary to control the stream. Here is the
prototype, i.e., signature of this function call −
FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );
Here, filename is string literal, which you will use to name your file and
access mode can have one of the following values −

Mode Description

R Opens an existing text file for reading purpose.

W Opens a text file for writing. If it does not exist, then a new file
is created. Here, your program will start writing content from the
beginning of the file.

A Opens a text file for writing in appending mode. If it does not

exist, then a new file is created. Here, your program will start
appending content in the existing file content.

r+ Opens a text file for reading and writing both.

w+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It first truncates
the file to zero length, if it exists; otherwise creates the file if it
does not exist.

a+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It creates a file, if
it does not exist. The reading will start from the beginning, but
writing can only be appended.

ITQ

Question
How would you open a file?
Feedback
Files are often opened using the fopen() function.

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10.2.2 Closing a File

To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is
−
int fclose( FILE *fp );

The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF, special character,

if there is an error in closing the file. This function actually flushes any
data still pending in the buffer to the file, closes the file, and releases any
memory used for the file. The EOF is a constant defined in the header file
stdio.h.
There are various functions provided by C standard library to read and
write a file character by character or in the form of a fixed length string.
Let us see a few of them in the next section.
ITQ

Question
What is the function for closing a file?
Feedback
int fclose( FILE *fp );

10.2.3 Writing a File

Given below is the simplest function to write individual characters to a
stream −
int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );
The function fputc() writes the character value of the argument c to the
output stream referenced by fp. It returns the written character written on
success, otherwise EOF if there is an error. You can use the following
functions to write a null-terminated string to a stream −
int fputs( const char *s, FILE *fp );
The function fputs() writes the string s into the file referenced by fp. It
returns a non-negative value on success, otherwise EOF is returned in
case of any error. You can also use the function int fprintf(FILE *fp,const
char *format, ...) to write a string into a file. Try the following example −
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "w+");
fprintf(fp, "This is testing for fprintf...\n");
fputs("This is testing for fputs...\n", fp);
fclose(fp);

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}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it creates a new file
test.txtin /tmp directory and writes two lines using two different
functions. Let us read this file in the next section.
ITQ

Question
What is the key function in writing a file?
Feedback
int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );

10.2.4 Reading a File

Given below is the simplest function to read a text file character by
character −
int fgetc( FILE * fp );
The fgetc() function reads a character from the input file referenced by fp.
The return value is the character read; or in case of any error, it returns
EOF. The following function allows you to read a string from a stream −
char *fgets( char *buf, int n, FILE *fp );
The function fgets() reads up to n - 1 characters from the input stream
referenced by fp. It copies the read string into the buffer buf, appending
anull character to terminate the string.
If this function encounters a newline character '\n' or EOF before they
have read the maximum number of characters, then it returns only the
characters read up to that point including the new line character. You can
also use int fscanf(FILE *fp, const char *format, ...) to read strings from a
file, but it stops reading after encountering the first space character.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
FILE *fp;
char buff[255];
fp = fopen("/tmp/test.txt", "r");
fscanf(fp, "%s", buff);
printf("1 : %s\n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp);
printf("2: %s\n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp);
printf("3: %s\n", buff );
fclose(fp);

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}When the above code is compiled and executed, it reads the file created
in the previous section and produces the following result −
1 : This 2: is testing for fprintf... 3: This is testing for fputs...
Let's analyze what happened here. First, the fscanf() method reads
Thisbecause after that, it encountered a space. The second call is for
fgets(), which reads the remaining line till it encountered end of line.
Finally, the last call fgets() reads the second line completely.

ITQ

Question
What is the key function in reading a file?
Feedback
int fgetc( FILE * fp );

10.3 File I/O in Java

Java provides even richer set of functions to handle File I/O. For more on
this topic, we suggest you to check our Java Tutorials.
Here, we will see a simple Java program, which is equivalent to the C
program explained above. This program will open a text file, write a few
text lines into it, and close the file. Finally, the same file is opened and
then read from an already created file. You can try to execute the
following program to see the output −
import java.io.*
public class DemoJava {
public static void main(String []args) throws IOException {
File file = new File("/tmp/java.txt");
// Create a File
file.createNewFile();
// Creates a FileWriter Object using file object
FileWriter writer = new FileWriter(file);
// Writes the content to the file
writer.write("This is testing for Java write...\n");
writer.write("This is second line...\n");
// Flush the memory and close the file
writer.flush();
writer.close();
// Creates a FileReader Object

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FileReader reader = new FileReader(file);

char [] a = new char[100];
// Read file content in the array
reader.read(a);
System.out.println( a );
// Close the file
reader.close();
}
}
When the above program is executed, it produces the following result −
This is testing for Java write... This is second line...

10.4 File I/O in Python

The following program shows the same functionality to open a new file,
write some content into it, and finally, read the same file −
# Create a new file
fo = open("/tmp/python.txt", "w")
# Writes the content to the file
fo.write( "This is testing for Python write...\n");
fo.write( "This is second line...\n");
# Close the file
fo.close()
# Open existing file
fo = open("/tmp/python.txt", "r")
# Read file content in a variable
str = fo.read(100);
print str
# Close opened file
fo.close()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
This is testing for Python write... This is second line...

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 Study Session 10 Computer Files

ITQ

Question
What more can we say about file input/output in Java?
Feedback
Java provides even richer set of functions to handle File Input/Output.

Study Session Summary

In this study session, you discussed computer files in relation to
programming language. You also examine the opening, closing, writing
and reading of computer files. You finally described file I/O in java and
Summary python.

Assessment
SAQ 10.1 (tests learning outcome 10.1)
Discuss file Input/Output?
Assessment SAQ 10.2 (tests learning outcome 10.2)
1. Explain Operation Modes?
2. How would you open/close a file?
3. How would you write/read a file?

Credit
This content of this lesson is adapted from
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/

Reading

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 Notes on Self Assessment Questions Computer Files

Notes on Self Assessment Questions

SAQ 1.1
1. The essence of programming languages is to allow a programmer
to manipulate numbers and texts (called variables) in different
ways, share them over a network or store them on disks for future
retrieval.
2. The essence of programming languages is to allow a programmer
to manipulate numbers and texts (called variables) in different
ways, share them over a network or store them on disks for
future retrieval.
SAQ 1.2
A computer program is a set of instructions, consisting of sequence of
separate commands or instructions, one after the other. Each step tells the
computer to perform a specific action.
SAQ 1.3
1. The core characteristics of a computer program includes
portability, readability, efficiency, structural, flexibility,
generality, and documentation. Additional features include
simplicity, naturalness, abstraction, compactness, and locality.
2. The core characteristics helps the computer obtain appropriate
instruction set (programs) needed to perform the required task.
The quality of the processing depends upon the given
instructions.

SAQ 1.4
1. A computer programmer, also known as developer, coder, or
software engineer is a person who writes computer software. The
term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of
computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for
many kinds of software. A programmer's primary computer
language is often prefixed to these titles, and those who work in a
Web environment often prefix their titles with Web. As such,
based on computer programming language expertise, we can
name a computer programmers as follows −
i. C Programmer
ii. C++ Programmer
iii. Java Programmer
iv. Python Programmer
v. PHP Programmer
vi. Perl Programmer
vii. Ruby Programmer
2. The function of a computer programmer are:
i. A computer programmer figures out the process of
designing, writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting and
maintaining the source code of computer programs.

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ii. The computer programmer also designs a graphical user

interface (GUI) so that non-technical users can use the
software through easy, point-and-click menu options. The
GUI acts as a translator between the user and the software
code.
iii. A programmer will also use libraries of basic code that can
be modified or customized for a specific application. This
approach yields more reliable and consistent programs and
increases programmers' productivity by eliminating some
routine steps.
iv. The programmer will also be responsible for maintaining
the program’s health. As software design advances, some
programming functions has become automated, and
programmers have begun to assume some of the
responsibilities once performed only by software engineers.

SAQ 2.1
1. The history of programming languages dates back to the 19th
century, when Ada Lovelace (1815 – 1852) wrote a set of notes
after translating the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi
Menabrea (1809 – 1896) about the Analytical Engine shown
below during a period of nine months between 1842 and 1843. .
The Analytical Engine was an invention of English
mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage (1791-
1871). Some historians have recognized Ada Lovelace’s set of
notes, as the world’s first computer program as it contained a
ground-breaking description of the possibilities of programming
the machine to go beyond number-crunching to “computing”.
2. Her notes on the engine include what is recognized as the first
algorithm intended to be carried out by a machine. Because of
this, she is often regarded as the first computer programmer.
3. 47 years after Ada Lovelace, Herman Hollerith (1860 – 1929)
created what is considered the first computer language when he
realized he could encode information on punch cards.
4. In the 1940s, machine-specific assembly language was probably
the first (vaguely) human-readable programming language.
5. John Mauchly’s Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the
first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic
computer.
6. By the 1950s computer engineers realized that assembly
language was too complex and a fallible process to build entire
systems, and so the first modern programming language was
born.
7. In 1957, Backus and his team had created FORTRAN. Fortran
was the first high-level programming language to be put to broad
use.
8. John McCarthy invented lisp in 1958.
9. COBOL was later designed in 1959 by the Conference on Data
Systems Languages (CODASYL).
10. In 1970, Niklaus Wirth developed Pascal.

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11. The language C was developed in 1972. The name was based on
an earlier language called B, which is now almost extinct.
12. Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, created C++. The
motivation for creating a new language originated from
Stroustrup experience in programming for his Ph.D.
13. Primarily Brad Cox and Tom Love in the early 1980s at their
company Stepstone created objective-C in 1983.
14. Larry Wall originally developed Perl in 1987; it was developed
as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report
processing easier.
15. Python, a widely used general-purpose, high-level programming
language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability,
and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer
lines of code was born in 1991.
16. Ruby, a dynamic, reflective, object-oriented, general-purpose
programming language came about in 1993. Ruby was designed
for programmer productivity and fun, following the principles of
good user interface design.
17. The year 1995 witnessed the evolution of three major modern
languages; Java, PHP and JavaScript.
18. Java is intended to let application developers “write once, run
anywhere” (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run
on all platforms that support Java without the need for
recompilation. The language derives much of its syntax from C
and C++.
19. Hypertext PreProcessor, PHP, is a server-side scripting language
designed for web development but also used as a general-purpose
programming language.
20. JavaScript is a high level, dynamic, untyped, and interpreted
programming language. It has been standardized in the
ECMAScript language specification. Alongside HTML and CSS,
it is one of the three essential technologies of World Wide Web
content production; the majority of websites employ it and all
modern web browsers without plug-ins support it.
21. C-sharp, C#, is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose,
object-oriented programming language.
22. Born in 2003, Scala is a programming language for general
software applications. Scala has full support for functional
programming and a very strong static type system. This allows
programs written in Scala to be very concise and thus smaller
than other general-purpose programming languages.
23. The Go language, commonly referred to as golang, was born in
2009. It is a programming language developed at Google, and is
recognizably in the tradition of C, but makes many changes to
improve conciseness, simplicity, and safety.
24. Swift was introduced at Apple’s 2014 Worldwide Developers
Conference (WWDC). It is a multi-paradigm, compiled
programming language created by Apple Inc. for iOS, OS X, and
watch OS development. Swift was designed to work with
Apple’s Cocoa and Cocoa Touch frameworks and the large body
of existing Objective-C code written for Apple products. It is also

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intended to be more resilient to erroneous code (“safer”) than

Objective-C, and more concise.

SAQ 2.2
1. According to Simon Raik-Allen, computer languages are
categorized thus:
i. The High-Level Dawning
ii. The C Era
iii. The Age of Java
or
According to Raik-Allen, we have:
i. The Web Dimension
ii. The Corporate Dimension
iii. The Mobile Dimension
iv. The New Age Dimension
2. In approaching this question, your attention is being pointed to
the fact that a thorough mastery of the important languages by
year is highly essential. As a way of helping you, the table has
been brought below to help with a quick check of the important
dates.
Below is a Summary of important programming languages by
year:
1951 – Regional Assembly Language
1970 – Pascal
1993 – Ruby
1952 – Autocode
1972 – C
1994 – CLOS (part of ANSI Common Lisp)
1954 – IPL (forerunner to LISP)
1972 – Prolog
1995 – Ada 95
1955 – FLOW-MATIC (led to COBOL)
1972 – Smalltalk
1995 – Delphi (Object Pascal)
1957 – COMTRAN (precursor to COBOL)
1973 – ML
1995 – Java
1957 – FORTRAN (First compiler)
1975 – Scheme
1995 – JavaScript

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1958 – ALGOL 58
1978 – SQL (a query language, later extended)
1995 – PHP
1958 – LISP
1980 – C++ (as C with classes, renamed in 1983)
1996 – WebDNA
1959 – COBOL
1983 – Ada
1997 – Rebol
1959 – FACT (forerunner to COBOL)
1984 – Common Lisp
1999 – D
1959 – RPG
1984 – MATLAB
2000 – ActionScript
1962 – APL
1985 – Eiffel
2000 – C#
1962 – Simula
1986 – Erlang
2001 – Visual Basic .NET
1962 – SNOBOL
1986 – Objective-C
2003 – Groovy
1963 – CPL (forerunner to C)
1987 – Perl
2003 – Scala
1964 – BASIC
1988 – Mathematica
2005 – F#
1964 – PL/I
1988 – Tcl
2007 – Clojure
1966 – JOSS
1989 – FL (Backus)
2009 – Go

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1967 – BCPL (forerunner to C)

1990 – Haskell
2011 – Dart
1968 – Logo
1991 – Python
2012 – Rust
1969 – B (forerunner to C)
1991 – Visual Basic
2014 – Swift
1970 – Forth
1993 – Lua

SAQ 3.1
1. Specifically, the task of defining the problem consists of
identifying what it is that you know (input-given data), and what
it is you want to obtain (output-the result). This vital information
guides you in problem identity and providing a solution to the
identified problem.
2. In carrying out a thorough task, it is expected of you to be able to
plan and outline solutions to the problems you have identified.
First, the problem is divided into several modules or tasks and
assigned to each programmer. Two common ways of planning
the solution to a problem is either to draw a flowchart or write a
pseudocode, or possibly both. Flow chart is a map of what your
program is going to do and how it is going to do it while
Pseudocode permits you to focus on the program logic without
having to be concerned just yet about the precise syntax of a
particular programming language.

SAQ 3.2
The step by step process of coding a program involves:
i. Translation of the logic from the flowchart or pseudocode-or
some other tool-to a programming language.
ii. This is the step where you actually have to sit down at the
computer and type! Coding is a little bit like writing an essay.
iii. To achieve this, you would require a programming language. A
programming language is a set of rules that provides a way of
instructing the computer what operations to perform. Examples
of programming languages include BASIC, COBOL, Pascal, etc.
iv. The correct use of the language is the required first step. Then,
your coded program must be keyed, probably using a terminal or
personal computer, in a form the computer can understand. This
is done using a text editor or a paper for beginners.

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v. Finally, before doing the coding, the programmer has to choose a

computer language based on the nature of the problem, the
programming language available on the computer, and the
facilities and limitations of the computer installation.

SAQ 3.3
Compilation turns the program into the instructions made up of 0's and 1's
that the computer can actually follow. This is necessary because the chip
that makes your computer work only understands binary machine code.
SAQ 3.4
Debugging is the process of correcting the mistakes made in the course of
programming. A compiler must have identified these mistakes. This is
important as failure to do so will affect the execution of the program.

SAQ 3.5
The aim of testing is to ensure that what you have written solves the
original problem. This is important as it is possible for you to write a
program correctly without errors but the program would fail in its bid to
solve the problem it has been designed for. That is why we test to ensure
this purpose has not been defeated.
This can be achieved by subjecting the program to carefully work out set
of tests that put it through its paces, and check that it meets the
requirements and specification. Where mistakes are identified, there is a
need to figure out where in the code the mistake is. Once identified, the
problem should be fixed by changing the code and recompiling.

SAQ 3.6
Documentation is a written detailed description of the programming cycle
and facts about the program. Typical program documentation materials
include the origin and nature of the problem, a brief narrative description
of the program, logic tools such as flowcharts and pseudocode, data-
record descriptions, program listings, and testing results. Essentially,
program documentation instructs you on how to interact with a software
or a program.
2. The following are some types of documentation that exist:
 Requirement documentation
 Architecture/Design documentation
 Technical documentation
 End-user documentation
 Marketing documentation

SAQ 4.1
The characteristics of programming languages are:
i. Functionality across languages

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ii. Syntax and structure

iii. Natural lifespan
iv. One creator
v. Written in English and all use the same English keywords and
syntax in their code

SAQ 4.2
One way to classify programming languages is either as low-level
languages or high-level languages. Low-level languages interact directly
with the computer processor or CPU, are capable of performing very
basic commands, and are generally hard to read. By contrast, high-level
languages use natural language so it is easier for people to read and write.
High-level programming languages must be converted to low-level
programming languages using an interpreter or compiler, depending on
the language. Interpreted languages are considered more portable than
compiled languages, while compiled languages execute faster than
interpreted languages.

SAQ 4.3
The classification of programming languages are:
i. Modular Programming language: It is the first programming
language that introduced subprogram concepts and variable
declaration. Modular programming methodology advocates the
breakdown structure approach of a large project into several
smaller and manageable modules. Then each small module is
programmed comfortably and then put together in order to
generate program and hence the answer to the entire problem.
ii. Structured Programming Language: Structured programming
utilizes structures normally used for performing any tasks. These
include the Sequence, Selection, Iteration, and CASE structure.
An example of the structured programming language is Pascal.
iii. Business Oriented Language: An example for the business-
oriented language is COmmon Business Oriented Language
(COBOL). It has a peculiar feature such that COBOL programs
can be easily understood even by non-programmers due to its
self-∙ documenting nature and verbose of the grammar. It is also
an ideal language for processing voluminous data files making it
an excellent language for commercial data processing. Another
example is PROLOG, which stands for PROgramming in LOGic.
It has a core feature making it exclusively for Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and knowledge representation∙ techniques.
iv. Object Oriented Programming (OOP) Language: The aim of
using an object oriented programming language is to handle
complex software design projects in a very easy, simple and
efficient manner. Some of the famous objects oriented
programming languages are: Object Pascal, C++, Smalltalk,
Simula, Eiffel, Java, Ada. A major advantage of C++ is its ability
to support object oriented programming, while retaining the high

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level of compactness and speed offered by the C programming

language.
v. Visual Programming Languages: Visual programming is one of
the key points for developing any software product with
multimedia and graphical user interface. Visual effects are one of
the most salient features and characteristics of the modern
software especially on microcomputer systems. Icons, graphics,
animated pictures and texts form the foundation for designing a
visual system. Visual programming systems are computer
systems, which support both visual programming and
visualization. Visual programming means the use of visual
expressions (such as icons, drawings or gestures) in the process
of programming and visualization. In visual programming
languages, objects have logical meaning but not visual image.
Objects are then assigned a visual representation so that it can be
visualized

SAQ 5.1
The problem solving process is a series of steps to be taken to arrive a
logical resolution of the identified problem. These steps have been
divided into phases and they include:
i. Phase 1: Understanding the problem.
ii. Phase 2: Devising a plan.
iii. Phase 3: Carrying out the plan.
iv. Phase 4: Looking back.
SAQ 5.2
An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure consisting of a
set of instructions, which takes some value or set of values, as input, and
produces some value or set of values, as output. In other words, an
algorithm is a procedure that accepts data; manipulate them following the
prescribed steps, to eventually fill the required unknown with the desired
value(s).
SAQ 5.3
Pseudo-codes uses the structural conventions of a normal programming
language, but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading.
Pseudocode typically omits details that are essential for machine
understanding of the algorithm, such as variable declarations, system-
specific code and some subroutines.
The purpose of using pseudocode is that it is easier for people to
understand than conventional programming language code, and that it is
an efficient and environment-independent description of the key
principles of an algorithm.
SAQ 5.4
Flowcharts are often used as illustrations for algorithms. A flowchart is a
graphical representation of an algorithm, which will describe the
operations (and in what sequence) are required to solve a given problem.
These flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem and

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are quite helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy

problems

SAQ 6.1
A program environment refers to a set-up such as a base on top of which
programs are created. Thus, it is essential to have to have the required
software setup in order to facilitate the proper execution of this function.
The following are necessary set-ups to start with in programming using
any language.
 A text editor to create computer programs.
 A compiler to compile the programs into binary format.
 An interpreter to execute the programs directly.
SAQ 6.2
The basic syntax of programming refers to codes that written on a
program to generate a specified output. These codes comes in forms of
commands that are then interpreted to carry out the specified outcome. It
is also important to note that if there are any grammatical error (Syntax
errors in computer terminologies), then they must be fixed before
conversion into a binary format.
SAQ 6.3
Reserved word (also known as a keyword) is a word in programming that
cannot be used as an identifier, such as the name of a variable, function,
or label – it is "reserved from use"
SAQ 6.4
An operator in a programming language is a symbol that tells the
compiler or interpreter to perform specific mathematical, relational or
logical operation and produce result.
Logical operators are very important in any programming language as
they help us in taking decisions based on certain conditions. C
programming and Java provide almost identical set of operators and
conditional statements.
SAQ 6.5
Functions are small units of programs used to carry out a specific task.
Kindly note that C programming provides various built-in functions like
main(), printf(), etc., which are used in programs based on the
requirement. A function is a block of organized, reusable code used to
perform a single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for
your application and a high degree of code reusing.
SAQ 6.6
The parts of a function have been described as follows:
1) Return Type
2) Function Name
3) Parameter List
4) Function Body

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SAQ 7.1
1. The types of data we deal with on a daily basis include strings,
characters, whole numbers (integers), and decimal numbers
(floating point numbers). Different programming languages use
different keywords to specify different data types. For example,
C and Java programming languages use int to specify integer
data, whereas char specifies a character data type.
2. C and Java support almost the same set of data types. The
common types include Character, Number, Small Number, Long
Number, and Decimal Number.
3. Python has five standard data types. These include Numbers,
String, List, Tuple, and Dictionary. Please note that Number
specifies all types of numbers including decimal numbers and
string represents a sequence of characters with a length of 1 or
more characters.
SAQ 7.2
i. Every programming language provides support for manipulating
different types of numbers such as simple whole integers and
floating point numbers. The major types of data include
Character, Number, Small Number, Long Number, and Decimal
Number. These data types are called primitive data types and you
can use these data types to build more data types, which are
called user-defined data types.
ii. Note that Java provides almost all the numeric data types
available in C programming. Java also provides a full range of
built-in functions for mathematical calculation and you can use
them in the same way as you did in C programming.
iii. Python is a little different from C and Java; it categorizes
numbers in int, long, float and complex. Python also provides a
full range of built-in functions for mathematical calculations and
you can use them in the same way you have used them in C
programming.
iv. Characters are simple alphabets like a, b, c, d...., A, B, C, D... but
with an exception. In computer programming, any single digit
number like 0, 1, 2 ...and special characters like $, %, +, -... etc.,
are also treated as characters and to assign them in a character
type variable, you simply need to put them inside single quotes.
A character data type consumes 8 bits of memory, which means
you can store anything in a character whose ASCII value lies in
between -127 to 127, so it can hold any of the 256 different
values. Note that you can keep only a single alphabet or a single
digit number inside single quotes and more than one alphabets or
digits are not allowed inside single quotes.
v. Escape Sequence refers to when a character is preceded by a
backslash (\) and many programming languages support this
concept. Java handles character data types much in the same way
as we have seen in C programming. However, Java provides
additional support for character manipulation. Java also supports
escape sequence in the same way you have used them in C
programming. Python does not support any character data type

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but all the characters are treated as string, which is a sequence of

characters. Python supports escape sequences in the same way as
you have used them in C programming
SAQ 7.3
The basic string concepts include:
 Strings in C are represented as arrays of characters.
 We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning
character by character into an array of characters.
 We can constitute a string in C programming by assigning a
complete string enclosed in double quote.
 We can print a string character by character using an array
subscript or a complete string by using an array name without
subscript.
 The last character of every string is a null character, i.e., ‘\0’.
 Most of the programming languages provide built-in functions
to manipulate strings

SAQ 7.4
1. Java provides strings as a built-in data type like any other data
type. It means you can define strings directly instead of defining
them as array of characters.
2. Creating strings in Python is as simple as assigning a string into a
Python variable using single or double quotes. Python does not
support character type; these are treated as strings of length one,
thus also considered a substring.

SAQ 8.1
1. A conditional statement is a mechanism that allows for
conditional execution of instructions based upon the outcome of a
conditional statement, which can be either true or false. Examples
include:
 The ‘If Statement’
 The ‘If…Else Statement’
 The ‘If…elseif….Else Statement’
 The Switch Statement

SAQ 8.2
1. A Loop is an important tool in programming. Almost all the
programming languages provide this concept (i.e. loop), which
helps in executing one or more statements up to a desired number
of times e.g. rather than repeating the statement ‘hello world’ a
thousand times by writing ‘printf()’ a thousand times, you can
bypass this challenge by simply using a loop. All high-level
programming languages provide various forms of loops, which
can be used to execute one or more statements repeatedly. The

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most important types of loop are ‘The While Loop’, and the ‘The
Do…While Loop’
2. The break and continue statements in Java programming work
quite the same way as they work in C programming.

SAQ 9.1
1. An array is a data structure, which can store a fixed-size
collection of elements of the same data type. An array is used to
store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an
array as a collection of variables of the same type. All arrays
consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address
corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the last
element.
2. To create an array variable in C, a programmer specifies the type
of the elements and the number of elements to be stored in that
array. Array in C can be initialized either one by one or using a
single statement. You should know that the number of values
between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements
that we declare for the array between square brackets [ ]. If you
omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the
initialization is created. An element is accessed by indexing the
array name. This is done by placing the index of the element
within square brackets after the name of the array.
SAQ 9.2
Java support arrays though there is a little difference in the way they are
created
Python does not have a concept of Array, instead Python provides
another data structure called list, which provides similar functionality as
arrays in any other language.

SAQ 10.1
File input means data that is written into a file and file output means data
that is read from a file. When we provide some input to our program from
the command prompt, then it is called input.
SAQ 10.2
1. Operation modes refer to a format through which a file can be
opened. This include the Read-Only Mode, Write-Only Mode,
Read & Write Mode, and the Append Mode.
2. Usually, we use the fopen() function to create a new file or to
open an existing file. This call will initialize an object of the type
FILE, which contains all the information necessary to control the
stream. In closing files, To close a file, we adopt the fclose( )
function. The prototype of this function is − int fclose( FILE *fp
);. The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF, special
character, if there is an error in closing the file. This function
actually flushes any data still pending in the buffer to the file,
closes the file, and releases any memory used for the file.

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3. In writing a file, we make use of the function int fputc( int c,

FILE *fp );. The function fputc() writes the character value of the
argument c to the output stream referenced by fp. It returns the
written character written on success, otherwise EOF if there is an
error. In reading a file, we make use of the function int fgetc(
FILE * fp );. The fgetc() function reads a character from the input
file referenced by fp. The return value is the character read; or in
case of any error, it returns EOF.

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