1.
1 Interaction of Heredity and
Environment
Heredity and environment shape who we are through a complex interplay of nature
and nurture. Genes inherited from our parents provide the blueprint, while our
experiences and surroundings mold us. This interaction determines our traits,
abilities, and behaviors.
Evolutionary psychology examines how natural selection has influenced human
behavior over time. Researchers use twin, family, and adoption studies to untangle
genetic and environmental effects on traits and mental processes.
Heredity and environment interaction
Nature vs nurture factors
● Genes inherited from parents make up the "nature" part of who we are 🧬
○ Gives us certain physical traits (eye color, height), behavioral
tendencies, and mental abilities
○ These are the characteristics we're born with, thanks to our unique
genetic makeup
● Everything else falls under "nurture" - the world around us that shapes who
we become
○ Family interactions, education, culture, and life experiences all play a
role
○ These environmental factors mold our personality, beliefs, and
behaviors as we grow
● Nature and nurture work together in a complex interplay to determine our
individual traits
○ It's not a question of one or the other, but how they interact and
influence each other
○ Example: A child may have a genetic predisposition for musical talent
(nature), but without exposure to instruments and lessons (nurture),
that potential may go unrealized
● 🚫 Exclusion Note: The AP Psych exam won't ask about specific genetic
concepts like genotypes, phenotypes, DNA, chromosomes, or dominant and
recessive genes.
Evolutionary perspective on behavior
● Evolutionary psychology looks at how natural selection has shaped our
behaviors and mental processes over time
○ Behaviors that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce were more
likely to be passed down
○ Example: A fear of snakes may have evolved because it helped early
humans avoid venomous bites
● This perspective suggests that many of our behaviors today have roots in
evolutionary adaptations
○ Aggression, mate selection, and even altruism may have evolved
because they increased chances of survival and passing on genes
● However, some have misused evolutionary principles to justify discrimination
and oppression
○ Eugenics is the idea that selective breeding can "improve" the human
race by promoting desirable traits 😰
○ This flawed and unethical ideology has been used to discriminate
against marginalized groups and justify atrocities like forced
sterilization
Research methods for genetic effects
● To study how genes influence behavior and mental processes, researchers
often use special family-based studies
● Twin studies compare the similarities between identical twins (who share all
their genes) and fraternal twins (who share about half)
○ If identical twins are more alike in a trait than fraternal twins, it suggests
a genetic influence
○ Example: If identical twins are more likely to both have schizophrenia
than fraternal twins, it points to a genetic component to the disorder
● Family studies look at how traits are shared among genetically related
individuals
○ If a trait runs in families more than would be expected by chance, it
may have a genetic basis
● Adoption studies compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive
families
○ Similarities to biological relatives suggest genetic influences, while
similarities to adoptive families point to environmental factors
○ Example: If adopted children's IQ scores are more similar to their
biological parents' scores than their adoptive parents', it suggests a
genetic component to intelligence
1.2 Overview of the Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex network of cells that controls our body's functions.
It's divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral
nervous system (nerves outside the brain and spinal cord).
The central nervous system processes information and sends commands, while the
peripheral system relays signals between the body and brain. The peripheral system
includes the autonomic nervous system (involuntary functions) and somatic nervous
system (voluntary movements).
Subsystems of nervous system
Central nervous system functions
● Consists of the brain and spinal cord, the command centers of the nervous
system 🧠
● Receives and processes sensory information from all over the body
● Sends out motor commands to control movement, behavior, and internal
processes
● Integrates and coordinates all neural activity, allowing for complex functions
like thought, emotion, and consciousness
● Stores memories, enables learning, and generates our perceptions and
subjective experiences
Peripheral nervous system functions
● Includes all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord
● Serves as a communication relay between the central nervous system and
the rest of the body
● Collects sensory information from receptors in the skin, muscles, and organs
and sends it to the brain and spinal cord for processing
● Carries motor commands from the central nervous system to effectors like
muscles and glands to produce responses and behaviors
● Divided into two main subsystems with distinct functions:
○ Autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary, unconscious
processes essential for survival (heart rate, digestion, etc.)
■ Parasympathetic division is responsible for "rest and digest"
functions that conserve energy and maintain homeostasis
■ Sympathetic division triggers "fight or flight" responses that
prepare the body for action in emergency situations
○
Somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and behaviors
under conscious control
■ Allows us to move our skeletal muscles and interact with the
external environment
■ Enables sensations like touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
through afferent nerve fibers
Autonomic vs somatic nervous systems
● The autonomic nervous system operates automatically and unconsciously,
regulating vital functions without our awareness (breathing, heart rate,
digestion)
○ Divided into opposing sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions that
work together to maintain homeostasis
○ Sympathetic activation prepares the body for "fight or flight" in stressful
situations (increased heart rate, dilated pupils) 😰
○ Parasympathetic activation promotes "rest and digest" functions during
relaxed states (decreased heart rate, constricted pupils) 😌
● The somatic nervous system is under voluntary, conscious control and
governs movements of skeletal muscles
○ Allows us to perform purposeful actions and behaviors in response to
our will and intentions
○ Includes sensory receptors in the skin and muscles that provide
information about the body's position and external stimuli
○ Works together with the autonomic nervous system to coordinate and
carry out complex patterns of behavior
● Both systems contain afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) nerve fibers that
transmit signals between the central nervous system and the periphery 🌐
1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing
Neurons and glial cells form the foundation of our nervous system, enabling all
behavior and mental processes. These specialized cells communicate through
electrical and chemical signals, creating complex networks that process information
and generate responses.
The neural transmission process involves a precise sequence of events, from resting
potential to action potential firing. Neurotransmitters and hormones act as chemical
messengers, influencing behavior and mental states. Psychoactive drugs can alter
these processes, affecting neurotransmitter function and behavior.
Neuron structures and functions
Neural cells in behavior
● Neurons are the primary neural cells that transmit information throughout the
brain and nervous system 🧠
○ Specialized cells that use electrical and chemical signals to
communicate with each other
○ Form complex networks to process and relay information
● Glial cells provide critical support functions for neurons
○ Create structure and scaffolding for neural networks
○ Insulate neurons to enhance signal transmission
○ Facilitate communication between neurons
○ Transport waste products away from neurons to maintain healthy
function
● Together, neurons and glial cells are the foundational building blocks that
enable all behavior and mental processes
○ Sensory input, information processing, decision making, and motor
output all rely on these neural cells working in concert
Spinal cord reflex arc
● The reflex arc is a simple neural circuit in the spinal cord that demonstrates
how different types of neurons work together to generate a rapid, automatic
response to a stimulus
○ Example: Quickly pulling your hand away from a hot stove before
consciously feeling pain
● Sensory neurons detect the stimulus (heat) and send signals to the spinal
cord
● Interneurons in the spinal cord relay the sensory information to the
appropriate motor neurons
● Motor neurons then transmit signals to the muscles, causing them to contract
and pull the hand away
● This entire process occurs very rapidly without involving the brain, illustrating
how the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (sensory and motor
neurons) nervous systems can function independently for simple reflexes
Neural transmission process
Neural transmission mechanisms
● Neural transmission typically follows a precise sequence of events within each
neuron:
○ Resting potential: Neuron maintains a negative electrical charge inside
the cell relative to outside
○ Threshold: Stimulus causes the neuron's membrane potential to
become less negative until it reaches a critical threshold
○ All-or-nothing principle: Once the threshold is reached, the neuron will
fire an action potential (or not at all if threshold isn't met)
○ Depolarization: Action potential involves a rapid reversal of the
membrane potential, making the inside of the cell briefly positive ⚡
○ Refractory period: After firing, the neuron enters a brief "rest" phase
where it cannot fire again until the resting potential is restored
○ Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the neuron to
terminate the signal and prepare for the next firing
● Disruptions to this orderly process can lead to disorders affecting neural
transmission
○ Multiple sclerosis: Damage to the insulation (myelin) around neurons
impairs signal transmission
○ Myasthenia gravis: Antibodies attack receptors for the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, weakening muscle contractions 🚫 Exclusion Note: The
sodium-potassium pump will not be covered on the AP Psych exam.
Neurotransmitter functions
● Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that relay signals between
neurons, with each one having specific functions depending on its location
and the type of message
● Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron
will fire an action potential
○ Glutamate is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
○ Norepinephrine increases arousal and alertness
● Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of the receiving neuron
firing
○ GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter, helping to balance out
excitation
○ Serotonin helps regulate mood, sleep, and appetite
● Some neurotransmitters can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects
depending on the receptor type
○ Dopamine is involved in motivation, reward, and motor control
○ Acetylcholine is critical for muscle contractions, learning, and memory
● Other key neurotransmitters include:
○ Endorphins: natural pain relievers and euphoria-inducers
○ Substance P: transmits pain signals from the body to the brain 🚫
Exclusion Note: The AP Psych exam will only cover the
neurotransmitters listed above.
Hormones in behavior
● Hormones are chemical messengers that are similar to neurotransmitters but
are produced by glands and travel through the bloodstream to influence
distant target cells
● Key hormones involved in behavior and mental processes:
○ Adrenaline (epinephrine): triggers "fight-or-flight" response during
stress
○ Leptin: signals satiety (fullness) to regulate appetite and body weight
○ Ghrelin: stimulates hunger and food-seeking behavior
○ Melatonin: regulates sleep-wake cycles based on light exposure
○ Oxytocin: promotes social bonding, trust, and maternal behavior 🚫
Exclusion Note: The AP Psych exam will only cover the hormones
listed above.
Psychoactive drugs and behavior
Drug effects on neurotransmitters
● Psychoactive drugs alter neurotransmitter function at various points in the
neural communication process
● Agonists mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effects, encouraging neural
firing
○ Opioids like heroin and morphine are agonists for the brain's natural
endorphins
● Antagonists block a neurotransmitter's effects, discouraging neural firing
○ Caffeine is an antagonist for the inhibitory neurotransmitter adenosine,
leading to increased alertness
● Reuptake inhibitors block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the
releasing neuron, prolonging their effects
○ Antidepressants like Prozac are serotonin reuptake inhibitors, helping
to elevate mood
Psychological and physiological effects
● Stimulants increase neural activity and arousal
○ Caffeine and nicotine are mild stimulants found in coffee, tea, and
cigarettes
○ Cocaine and amphetamines are more potent and addictive stimulants
that can cause euphoria, hyperactivity, and paranoia
● Depressants decrease neural activity and have sedating effects
○ Alcohol is a common depressant that can impair judgment,
coordination, and memory
○ Benzodiazepines (Xanax, Valium) are prescribed depressants used to
treat anxiety and insomnia
● Hallucinogens cause perceptual and cognitive distortions
○ Marijuana contains THC which can alter sensory perception, judgment,
and memory
○ LSD and psilocybin ("magic mushrooms") can induce vivid
hallucinations and feelings of dissociation from reality
● Opioids are powerful pain relievers that also induce euphoria and relaxation
○ Prescription opioids like OxyContin and Vicodin are used to treat
severe pain
○ Heroin is an illegal opioid with a high risk for overdose and addiction
Drug tolerance and addiction
● Repeated use of psychoactive drugs can lead to tolerance, where higher
doses are needed to achieve the same effects as before
○ Tolerance develops as the brain adapts to the drug's presence and
tries to maintain homeostasis
● Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive use despite negative
consequences
○ Addictive drugs typically activate the brain's reward system, reinforcing
the behavior
○ Attempting to quit can trigger withdrawal symptoms as the brain
readjusts to the absence of the drug
■ Symptoms may include cravings, anxiety, irritability, nausea,
and tremors depending on the drug
1.4 The Brain
The brain, our body's control center, is a complex organ with specialized structures.
From the brain stem regulating vital functions to the cerebral cortex handling higher-
order thinking, each part plays a crucial role. Understanding these structures helps
us grasp how the brain processes information and controls behavior.
Research methods like fMRI and EEG allow scientists to study brain function in real-
time. Split-brain studies and plasticity research reveal the brain's adaptability.
Knowing these areas helps us comprehend how the brain shapes our experiences
and actions.
Brain structures and functions
Brain stem functions
● Controls vital functions necessary for survival (breathing, heart rate, blood
pressure)
● Regulates sleep-wake cycles and states of arousal
● Relays sensory and motor information between the brain and spinal cord
● Includes the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain 🧠
Reticular activating system functions
● Network of neurons that extends from the brain stem to the cerebral cortex
● Modulates arousal, attention, and consciousness
● Filters sensory information and directs attention to relevant stimuli
● Plays a role in motivation, emotion, and some forms of learning (habituation,
sensitization)
● Damage can lead to coma or disorders of consciousness
Cerebellum functions
● Coordinates smooth, precise movements and maintains balance
● Involved in motor learning and the acquisition of procedural memories (riding
a bike, tying shoelaces)
● Processes sensory input related to movement and body position
● May play a role in some cognitive functions (language, attention, emotional
regulation)
Cerebral cortex structure
● Outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher-order functions
● Divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
○ Right hemisphere generally processes spatial, nonverbal, and holistic
information
○ Left hemisphere typically handles language, logic, and analytical tasks
● Consists of four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital) and the limbic
system
○ Limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
hippocampus, and amygdala
○ Involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and hormone regulation
Occipital lobe functions
● Processes visual information from the eyes
● Interprets color, shape, depth, and motion
● Damage can cause visual deficits (blindness, agnosia, hallucinations)
Temporal lobe functions
● Processes auditory information and language comprehension (Wernicke's
area)
● Involved in memory formation and retrieval (hippocampus)
● Plays a role in emotion and social perception (amygdala)
● Damage can lead to hearing loss, language impairments, or changes in
personality
Parietal lobe functions
● Processes sensory information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and
pain (somatosensory cortex)
● Integrates sensory input with motor output to guide movement
● Involved in spatial processing, navigation, and body awareness
● Contains association areas that integrate information from multiple senses
● Damage can cause deficits in touch perception, spatial reasoning, or attention
Frontal lobe functions
● Involved in higher-order cognitive processes (planning, decision-making,
problem-solving)
● Controls voluntary movements and fine motor skills (motor cortex)
● Regulates emotional responses and social behavior (prefrontal cortex)
● Plays a role in language production (Broca's area)
● Damage can lead to changes in personality, impaired judgment, or difficulty
with executive functions
Split brain research
● Surgical procedure that severs the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy
● Demonstrates the specialized functions of the left and right hemispheres
● Allows researchers to study how the brain processes information in isolation
● Reveals the brain's ability to compensate and adapt after disconnection 🔬
Language areas in brain
● Broca's area in the left frontal lobe controls speech production
○ Damage leads to Broca's aphasia (difficulty producing fluent speech)
● Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe handles language comprehension
○ Damage causes Wernicke's aphasia (difficulty understanding
language)
● Most language functions are lateralized to the left hemisphere in the majority
of people
Cortex specialization testing
● Researchers present visual stimuli to the left or right visual field of split-brain
patients
● Information from the right visual field is processed by the left hemisphere and
vice versa
● Allows for the study of hemispheric differences in perception, cognition, and
behavior
● Demonstrates the contralateral organization of sensory and motor pathways
in the brain
Brain plasticity concept
● The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt in response to experience or injury
● Involves the formation of new neural connections and the strengthening or
weakening of existing ones
● Most pronounced during critical periods of development but continues
throughout life
● Enables the brain to compensate for damage by recruiting other areas to
perform lost functions
● Examples include learning new skills, recovering from stroke, and adapting to
sensory loss
●
Brain research methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGIaR7ErA3g&t
● Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical activity in the brain using
scalp electrodes
● Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) detects changes in blood flow
related to neural activity
● Positron emission tomography (PET) uses radioactive tracers to visualize
brain metabolism and neurotransmitter activity
● Case studies of patients with brain lesions provide insights into the functions
of specific brain regions
● Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) temporarily disrupts neural activity to
study brain-behavior relationships
● Optogenetics allows researchers to control the activity of specific neurons
using light-sensitive proteins 🔬
1.5 Sleep
Sleep is a crucial biological process that affects our behavior and well-being. The
sleep/wake cycle follows a circadian rhythm, regulated by the brain's
suprachiasmatic nucleus. Disruptions to this rhythm, like jet lag or shift work, can
impact our daily functioning.
Sleep consists of distinct stages, including non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. These stages play important roles in memory
consolidation, cognitive restoration, and dreaming. Understanding sleep disorders
and maintaining healthy sleep habits are essential for optimal physical and mental
health.
Sleep/wake cycle effects on behavior
Levels of consciousness
● Consciousness involves varying degrees of awareness about one's thoughts,
emotions, actions, and surroundings 🧠
● Sleep and wakefulness represent two distinct states of consciousness
○ During sleep, awareness of internal and external stimuli is significantly
reduced compared to wakefulness
○ Wakefulness allows for heightened perception, responsiveness, and
engagement with the environment
Circadian rhythm and disruptions
● The sleep/wake cycle follows a circadian rhythm, an approximately 24-hour
biological cycle in humans
○ Circadian rhythms are regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
in the hypothalamus
○ The SCN responds to light-dark cycles and synchronizes various
physiological processes accordingly
● Disruptions to the circadian rhythm can occur due to factors like jet lag and
shift work
○ Jet lag results from rapid travel across time zones, causing a mismatch
between the body's internal clock and the external environment
○ Shift work, especially night shifts or rotating schedules, can disrupt the
natural sleep/wake cycle and lead to circadian misalignment
Stages of sleep
● Sleep stages are characterized by distinct patterns of brain activity, as
measured by electroencephalography (EEG)
● Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep encompasses Stages 1 through 3
○ Stage 1 is a brief transitional phase between wakefulness and sleep,
marked by hypnagogic sensations (e.g., falling or jerking sensations)
○ Stage 2 is a deeper stage of sleep, characterized by sleep spindles
and K-complexes on the EEG
○ Stage 3, also known as slow-wave sleep or deep sleep, features high-
amplitude, low-frequency delta waves 🌊
● The duration of NREM stages decreases throughout the sleep cycle, with
Stage 3 being the longest in the first cycle and gradually shortening in
subsequent cycles
REM sleep characteristics
● Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a paradoxical stage because the EEG
resembles that of wakefulness, but the body is in a state of deep relaxation
○ During REM sleep, the eyes move rapidly behind closed eyelids, and
there is a marked decrease in muscle tone (atonia)
○ Vivid dreaming typically occurs during REM sleep, accompanied by
increased brain activity in regions associated with emotion and memory
● The frequency and duration of REM sleep episodes increase as the sleep
cycle progresses, with the longest REM periods occurring in the latter half of
the night
● REM rebound can occur following periods of REM sleep deprivation, where
the brain compensates by increasing the amount of REM sleep in subsequent
nights
Theories of dream function
● The activation-synthesis theory proposes that dreams result from the brain's
attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep
○ According to this theory, the brain synthesizes a coherent narrative by
incorporating stored memories and experiences
● The consolidation theory suggests that dreams play a role in the consolidation
and processing of memories
○ This theory posits that dreaming helps strengthen and integrate new
information into existing memory networks, facilitating long-term
storage and retrieval 🚫 Exclusion Note: The psychoanalytic theory of
dreams is not assessed on the AP Psych exam.
Sleep's role in memory
● Current theories highlight the importance of sleep in memory consolidation
and restoration
● The memory consolidation theory suggests that sleep, particularly slow-wave
sleep and REM sleep, is crucial for the stabilization and strengthening of
newly acquired memories 📚
○ During sleep, the brain replays and reinforces neural connections
associated with recent experiences, facilitating their transfer from short-
term to long-term memory
● The restoration theory proposes that sleep serves to replenish and restore
cognitive resources depleted during wakefulness
○ Sleep is thought to provide an opportunity for the brain to rest, repair,
and optimize its functioning, enabling better performance and learning
during subsequent periods of wakefulness
Sleep disorders and effects
● Various sleep disorders can disrupt healthy sleep patterns and have
significant impacts on waking behavior and overall health
○ Insomnia is characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying
asleep, or obtaining restful sleep, leading to daytime fatigue and
impaired functioning
○ Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder marked by excessive daytime
sleepiness and sudden, irresistible sleep attacks
○ REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) involves the loss of muscle atonia
during REM sleep, causing individuals to physically act out their
dreams, which can be potentially dangerous
○ Sleep apnea is a condition where breathing repeatedly stops and starts
during sleep, leading to fragmented sleep and decreased oxygen levels
○ Somnambulism, or sleepwalking, involves engaging in complex
behaviors (e.g., walking, talking) while in a state of deep sleep, with no
conscious awareness or memory of the event
● Sleep disruptions can have detrimental effects on physical and cognitive
performance during wakefulness
○ Insufficient or poor-quality sleep can impair attention, reaction time,
decision-making, and emotional regulation
○ Chronic sleep deprivation has been linked to increased risk of obesity,
cardiovascular disease, and mental health issues
● Effective treatment of sleep disorders and adherence to regular sleep
schedules can improve daytime functioning and promote overall well-
being 😴 🚫 Exclusion Note: The AP Psych exam will only cover the sleep
disorders listed above.
1.6 Sensation
Sensation is the process of detecting and encoding environmental stimuli. It involves
our sensory systems working together to capture information, from detecting light
and sound to experiencing taste and touch.
Our brains process sensory input to create meaningful perceptions. This includes
adapting to constant stimuli, detecting changes, and sometimes experiencing
unusual sensory combinations like synesthesia. Understanding sensation helps
explain how we interact with our environment.
Sensation and behavior
Detection of sensory information
● Sensation detects environmental information meeting a certain threshold and
transduces stimuli into neurochemical messages the brain processes
(perception) 🧠
○ Absolute threshold: stimulus detected at least 50% of the time
● Just-noticeable difference and sensory adaptation explain detection of change
in stimuli or diminished sensitivity to stimuli
○ Weber's law describes the degree stimuli need to differ for the
difference to be detected
● Sensory systems constantly work together through sensory interaction
● Synesthesia experiences sensation in one system through another (hearing
colors)
Change detection and adaptation
● Just-noticeable difference (JND) is the smallest change in a stimulus that can
be detected 50% of the time
○ Example: noticing a small increase in the brightness of a light
● Sensory adaptation occurs when sensory receptors become less responsive
to a constant stimulus over time
○ Adapting to the feeling of clothes on your skin throughout the day
● Weber's law states the JND between two stimuli is proportional to the
magnitude of the stimuli
○ Detecting the difference between 100g and 105g weights is easier than
1000g and 1005g
Sensory interaction and synesthesia
● Sensory interaction involves multiple sensory systems working together to
process information
○ Taste and smell combine to create flavor perceptions
○ Vision and hearing integrate to enhance speech comprehension
● Synesthesia is a rare condition where stimulation of one sensory pathway
leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory pathway
○ Associating numbers with specific colors 🎨
○ Hearing sounds that trigger a taste sensation
Visual system and behavior
Retina and image processing
● Retina is the photosensitive surface at the back of the eye capturing visual
information transduced to the brain for processing
○ Blind spot demonstrates incomplete retinal images where the visual
nerve exits the eye
● Brain fills in gaps in incomplete retinal images to perceive a relatively
complete picture of the world
○ Perceiving continuous motion from a series of still images (movies)
Lens accommodation and vision
● Lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina through accommodation by
changing its shape
○ Nearsightedness (myopia) occurs when the eyeball is too long or the
lens too curved, focusing images in front of the retina
○ Farsightedness (hyperopia) happens when the eyeball is too short or
the lens too flat, focusing images behind the retina
Rod cells and light adaptation
● Rods are cells in the periphery of the eye detecting shapes and movement,
but not color, mainly activated in low-light environments 🌙
○ Play a role in light and dark adaptation
● Light adaptation occurs when moving from a dark environment to a bright one,
as rods become less sensitive and cones take over
○ Entering a bright sunny day from a dark movie theater
● Dark adaptation happens when moving from a bright environment to a dark
one, as cones become less sensitive and rods become more sensitive
○ Adjusting to a dimly lit restaurant after being outside
Theories of color vision
● Trichromatic theory explains color vision through three types of cones in the
fovea processing color and detail
○ Blue cones detect short wavelengths
○ Green cones detect medium wavelengths
○ Red cones detect long wavelengths
● Opponent-process theory involves ganglion cells in the retina activated in an
opposing manner
○ Red/green, blue/yellow, and black/white ganglion cells
○ Afterimages result when certain ganglion cells are activated while
others are not
● Color vision deficiency involves damage or irregularities to cones or ganglion
cells
○ Dichromatism is difficulty distinguishing between red and green or blue
and yellow
○ Monochromatism is the absence of color vision, seeing only shades of
gray
Brain damage and vision disorders
● Damage to the occipital lobes responsible for vision can result in various
disorders
○ Prosopagnosia (face blindness) is the inability to recognize faces
○ Blindsight is the ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously
perceiving them
