Ch.

2 Data Transmission
packet switching
Data packet: unit of data made into a single package that travels along network
Reason used: could be sent along a different route to avoid busy line (can use different networks)
-> Can be transferred using various ways. ex) light energy, electrical signal, and WIFI (wave).
Each size of the packet is between 526 bytes to 65,535 bytes

Data packets consist of three parts: Header/payload/trailer

Header: IP address of the source device(sender), IP address of the destination device (receiver),
sequence number of the packet, packet size in bytes. + often also contains another value indicating how
many packets there are in total
Payload: the actual data(typically 64KiB)
Trailer: method of identifying the end of the packet, error checking form(cyclic redundancy checks)
- the sending computer adds all the 1- bits in the payload and store this as a hex value in the trailer
- once the packet arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of 1- bits in the payload
- the computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
- if the two values match, then no transmission errors have occurred; otherwise the packet needs to be
re- sent.

packet switching:
- method of data transmission in which the data is broken up into a number of packets
- each packet is called datagram
- routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed at each node
-> the receiving computer identify the correct order of packets received and reassemble the data
-> number of routers does not affect the speed of data while data size and number of packets do.
(strictly speaking yes but is often not considered)

Benefits of packet switching

-> no need to tie up a single communication line
-> possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty lines through re- routing
-> if a data is lost, receiving router can ask the sending router to resend specific packet (no need to be
refreshed)
-> relatively easier to expand package usage
-> high data transmission rate is possible

Drawbacks of packet switching

- packets can be lost and be in need to be re- sent
- the method is more prone(경향이 있다) to having error with real-time streaming-> 시간차가 생겨서 목소리가
밀리거나 함 (live data ex: sports games)
- delay at the destination whilst the packets are being re- ordered (it takes time when reassembling)

data could sometimes be lost ‘bouncing’(not important)

(router 1 은 데이터를 router 2 로 보내고 router 3 는 데이터를 router 1 로 보내는 현상이 일어남)
-> to prevent this, system of hopping is used. A hop number Is added to the header of each packet, and
this number is reduced by 1 every time it leaves a router.
-> once a hop number reaches zero, and the packet hasn’t reached its destination, the packet is deleted
at the next router to be re- sent
Data transmission

Factors to consider when transmitting data

1. the direction of data transmission (can data transmit in one direction only, or in both directions)
2. the method of transmission (how many bits can be sent at the same time)
3. how the data will be synchronized (how to make sure the received data is in the correct order)

-> these factors will be considered by a communication protocol (통신 규칙, 통신의 방식을 결정하는 rule)

Simplex data transmission

-> data is transmitted in only one direction. (E.g. radio station broadcast, television, computer to a
printer)

Half duplex data transmission

- data is transmitted in both direction but not simultaneously (at the same time) (e.g. walkie- talkie)
Possible with one wire

Full duplex data transmission

- data is transmitted both directions at the same time (e.g. video conferences/calls, USB cables)
Impossible with one wire

Serial data transmission

- one bit at a time one after the other over a single line
* can be simplex, half- duplex or full duplex
- works well over long distances, data arrives fully synchronized, error is less likely to occur
(ex: connecting a computer to a printer via a USB connection)
- slower rate of transmission

Parallel data transmission

- several bits of data(often one byte) are simultaneously transmitted on separate lines. Each
channel/wire transmits one bit.
* can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
- works well over short distances. Over longer distance (e.g. over 20m), data can become skewed
(unsynchronized) and bits can arrive out of order. The longer the wire, the worse the error is.
- faster method (ex: internal circuits in a computer use this system)

Example of the combinations

- Serial, simplex data transmission would work in one direction in one wire one bit at a time.
- Parallel full duplex data transmission would work in both direction in multiple wires simultaneously

*wifi can be half duplex or full duplex and is serial

Universal serial bus (USB)

- form of serial data transmission
- most common type of input/output port found on computers
- allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data transmission
- consists of a four-wired shielded cable with two wires for power (red & black) and other two for data
transmission.

If a device is plugged into a computer using one of the USB ports:

-> the computer will detect that a device is present (through change in the voltage)
-> device is recognized, and appropriate device driver software is loaded up to communicate
-> when a new device is detected, matching device driver software is searched. When there’s none, the
user is prompted to download.

USB-C is a new common USB system now becoming more common.

-> smaller, thinner, offers 100 watt (full- sized devices can now be charged), carry more data, backward
compatible

Methods of error detection

Why do we need to check for errors?
When data is transmitted, there is always a risk that it may be corrupted, lost or even gained.
Due to… -> interference , problems during packet switching, skewing of data

It is important to check for errors since the computers are unable to understand data when corrupted.

Parity(the fact of being 0 or 1) check:

one bit of the transferred byte is assigned as the parity bit (1 bit for parity, 7 bits for data)
- parity bit check users with either Even or Odd parity
-> this means that they will have even numbers of "1" in the byte or an odd numbers of "1".
.
- the sender and receiver will agree on either odd or even the number of 1s will be
- in this example, there are even numbers of 1s sent (even data)
-> if the number of 1s are even, the receiver will know that the data was sent correctly
*when the data is even with an error, the computer will not be able to know that there is an error
-> therefore only used for simple & short transmission. (other methods are there as well)

Parity block:
- works the same way the parity check did but are in bigger format.
- parity bit is in place as before. but also the same horizontally as well as vertically
- errors are founded by crosschecking and finding out values that does not fit the agreement.
- computer can correct the error

-> 1 where the two data meets: error

- can find multiple errors and can correct at least one of them.
When different numbers from different rows and columns have error, both can be fixed.
However, when there are multiple errors on same row/column, only one can be fixed and therefore
resend is requested.

Parity bit check only detect error -> only can detect if there's an error or not
Parity block check can detect multiple errors and correct some of the errors

Checksum
- data is sent in blocks together with a calculated value known as the checksum
- receiving computer will perform the same calculation on the data to regenerate the checksum
-> compare the two checksum values
-> when there is an error, the receiving computer will request the sending computer to resend the data.

Echo check
- the data sent is sent back by the receiver to check if two files are identical
-> isn’t very reliable as it is not possible to figure out whether the error occurred when sending the data
or sending back the data for checking.
-> therefore only used to check if there is an error or not.

Check digits:
- extra digit added to the code that is calculated from the existing digits in the number
Ex) Barcodes, International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), Vehicle Identification Number (VIN)
-> used to detect incorrect digits, transposition errors (숫자 순서 바뀐 거), extra digits or omitted digits,
phonetic errors (13 instead of 30)
- use algorithms
Ex) ISBN 6103977000193

Automatic repeat request (ARQ):

There are positive/negative acknowledgements which is a message sent out by the receiver indicating
that the data has been received correctly or not.
-> the receiving device receives an error detection code as part of the data transmission. (typically a
cyclic redundancy check)
-> if the acknowledgement is yes, no error. If the acknowledgement is no, the data will be resent.
If no acknowledgment, sender will automatically resend the data after certain period of time (timeout).