UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO HVDC

1.1 Introduction
Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct current. The availability of
transformers and the development and improvement of induction motors at the beginning of
the 20th century, led to the use of AC transmission. DC Transmission now became practical
when long distances were to be covered or where cables were required. Thyristors were applied
to DC transmission and solid-state valves became a reality. With the fast development of
converters (rectifiers and inverters) at higher voltages and larger currents, DC transmission has
become a major factor in the planning of the power transmission. In the beginning all HVDC
schemes used mercury arc valves, invariably single phase in construction, in contrast to the low
voltage polyphase units used for industrial application. About 1960 control electrodes were
added to silicon diodes, giving silicon controlled-rectifiers (SCRs or Thyristors). Today, the
highest functional DC voltage for DC transmission is +/- 800 kV. DC transmission is now an
integral part of the delivery of electricity in many countries throughout the world.

1.2 Evolution of Power Systems

Year How commercial use of electricity took place
The basic discoveries of GAVLANI, VOLTA, OHM and AMPERE pertained to DC.
The first widespread practical application was DC telegraphy by electrochemical
batteries and using under- ground return circuits
1870 Commercial use of Electricity when Carbon Arc Lamps were used to illumination of
light house and street lighting in series at constant current fed by series wound
generators and later carbon filament lamps are used which are operated in parallel at
constant voltage supplied current from shunt generators.
1882 First Electric Power System with (steam driven Bipolar DC Generator, Cable, Fuse
and Load) by Thomas Alva Edison at Pearl street in New York DC system for 59
customers ,1.5 m radius of 110 V Underground cable with incandescent lamp load
1884 Electric Motors were developed by Frank Sprague
1886 Limitation of DC became apparent
• High losses and voltage drop
• Transformation of voltages requirement
 Development of Transformers and AC Transmission by L. Gaulard and J.D.Gibbs of
Paris and France George Westinghouse secured the rights in U.S. William Stanley an
associate of Westinghouse developed and tested commercial practical use of
Transformers and AC Transmission for 150 lamps at Great Barrington Massachusetts
1888 Nikola Tesla developed Polyphase Systems and had patents of Generators, Motors,
Transformers, Transmission lines but these patents were sold to Westinghouse.
1889 First AC Transmission system in North America in Oregon Between Willamette Falls
and Portland. Single Phase 4 kV over 21 km
1890 Controversial industrial revolution whether the industries need go for DC/AC
• Thomas Alva Edison advocated for DC and
• Westinghouse advocated for AC
- Voltage increase, simpler and cheaper generation and motors
1893 First 3-phase line, 2300 V, 12 km in California. AC was chosen near Niagara Falls
1922 165 kV
1923 220 kV
1935 287 kV
1953 330 kV
1965 500 kV
1966 735 kV Hydro Quebec
1969 765 kV in USA
1990 1100 kV
Standards are 115, 138, 161, 230 kV - HV &
345, 500, 765 kV – EHV
Earlier Frequencies were used are 25,50,60 and 133 Hz
US and Canadian Countries Fixed their values to 60 Hz
Asian, European Countries Fixed their values to 50 Hz

Year HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1880- HVDC transmission systems was designed by a French engineer Rene Thury when
1911 the AC system is at Infancy. At least 19 Thury systems were installed in Europe by
the use of water power most prominent was Mouteirs to Lyons (France) in 1906 57.6
kV, 75 A, 4.3 MW 180 km (4.5Km Underground Cable)
• DC series generators were used
 • Constant Current Control mode of operation
• Four water turbines each of 3.6 kV

1911- Second plant at La Bridoire rated at 6 MW, 150 A added in series

1912 –Third located at Bozel 11 km beyond Mouteirs rated at 9 MW added raising
the total capacity to 19.3 MW, 125 kV with 225 km
1920 Transverters (Polyphase transformers commutated by synchronously rotating bus
gear) were developed by Two British Engineers W.E Highfield and J.E. Calverly.
Functions:
• Voltage Transformation
• Phase Multiplication
• Commutation
1932 Atmospheric arc converters were developed by E.Marx of Braunschweig it is a
switching device in which an arc between two water cooled main electrodes
1938 Due to death of Rene Thury, all the Thury systems were dismantled
1950 Mercury arc valves were developed
1954 First HVDC Transmission system between Sweden & Gotland Island by Cable 70
km, 100 kV, 20 MW.

1.2.1 Milestones of HVDC

• Hewitt´s Mercury - Vapour rectifier, which appeared in 1901.

• Experiments with Thyratrons in America and mercury arc valves in Europe before
1940.
• First commercial HVDC transmission, Gotland 1 in Sweden in 1954.
• First solid-state semiconductor valves in 1970.
• First microcomputer-based control equipment for HVDC in 1979.
• Highest DC transmission voltage (+/- 600 kV) in Itaipu, Brazil, 1984.
• First active DC filters for outstanding filtering performance in 1994.
• First Capacitor Commutated Converter (CCC) in Argentina-Brazil Interconnection,
1998.
• First Voltage Source Converter for transmission in Gotland, Sweden ,1999

1.3 Advantages of HVAC

 • Voltage transformation.
• Current interruption.
• Easy conversion into mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice-versa.
• Frequency as system-wide control signal.
• Meshed networks.

1.4 Disadvantages of HVAC

• Long distance transmission.
• Difficult to use cables, already at 100km high reactive power consumption.
• Reactive power loss.
• Stability problem.
• Current carrying capacity.
• Skin Effect and Ferranti Effect.
• Power Flow Control.

1.5 Advantages of HVDC

• More power can be transmitted per conductor per circuit.
• Use of Ground Return Possible.
• Require Less Space compared to AC of the same voltage rating and size.
• Higher Capacity available for cables.
• No skin effects.
• Less Corona and Radio Interference.
• No Stability Problem.
• Asynchronous interconnection possible.
• Lower short circuit fault levels.
• Tie Line Power is easily controlled.
• Cheaper for Bulk Power Transmission.
• Fast Fault Clearing Time.
• No Compensation required for the line.

1.6 COMPARISON OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION

The merits of two modes of transmission (AC & DC) should be compared based on the
following factors.
1) Economics of transmission
 2) Technical Performance
3) Reliability
1.6.1 Economics of Power Transmission
The cost of transmission line includes the investment and operational costs. The investment
includes costs of Right of Way (RoW), transmission towers, conductors, insulators and
terminal equipment. The operational costs include mainly the cost of losses. For a given
insulation level, a DC line can carry as much power with two conductors (with positive and
negative polarities w.r.t ground) as an AC line with three conductors of same size. Power losses
are reduced (about 67 % of AC transmission). This implies for a given power level DC line
requires less RoW, simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductor and insulator costs. Skin
effect will be absent in DC power transmission. It also has an advantage of less dielectric losses.
The other factors that influence the line costs are the costs of compensation and terminal
equipment (converters and filters). The cost of the terminal equipment is more in DC lines than
in AC line. Figure 1.1 shows the variation of costs of transmission with distance for AC and
DC transmission. Breakeven distance (d*) is one at which the cost of the two systems is the
same. It is understood from the below figure that a DC line is economical for long distances
which are greater than the break-even distance. The breakeven distance can vary from 500 to
800 km for overhead lines and 40 to 50 km for underground cables.

Figure 1.1: Relative costs of AC and DC transmission lines vs distance

1.6.2 Technical Performance:

Due to its fast controllability, a DC transmission has full control over transmitted power, an
ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in associated AC networks and can limit fault
currents in the DC lines. Furthermore, DC transmission overcomes some of the following
problems associated with AC transmission.
Stability Limits:
The power transfer in an AC line (P=EV/X sinδ) is dependent on the angle difference between
the voltage phasors at the two-line ends. For a given power transfer level, this angle increases
with distance. The maximum power transfer is limited by the considerations of steady state and
transient stability. The power carrying capability of an AC line as a function of distance is
shown in Figure 1.2. From the figure it is evident that the power carrying capability of an AC
line is inversely proportional to transmission distance whereas the power carrying ability of
DC lines is unaffected by the distance of transmission.

Figure 1.2: Power transfer capability Vs. Distance

Voltage Control:
Voltage control in ac lines is complicated by line charging and voltage drops. The voltage
profile in an AC line is relatively flat only for a fixed level of power transfer corresponding to
its Surge Impedance Loading (SIL). The voltage profile varies with the line loading. For
constant voltage at the line ends, the midpoint voltage is reduced for line loadings higher than
SIL and increased for loadings less than SIL. This is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Variation of voltage along the line

The maintenance of constant voltage at the two ends requires reactive power control as the line
loading is increased. The reactive power requirements increase with line length. Although DC
converter stations require reactive power related to the power transmitted, the DC line itself
does not require any reactive power. The steady-state charging currents in AC cables pose
serious problems and make the break-even distance for cable transmission around 40 kms.
Line Compensation:
Line compensation is necessary for long distance AC transmission to overcome the problems
of line charging and stability limitations. The increase in power transfer and voltage control is
possible through the use of shunt inductors, series capacitors, Static Var Compensators (SVCs)
and, lately, the new generation Static Compensators (STATCOMs). In the case of DC lines,
such compensation is not needed.
Problems of AC Interconnection:
The interconnection of two power systems through AC ties requires the automatic generation
controllers of both systems to be coordinated using tie line power and frequency signals. Even
with coordinated control of interconnected systems, the operation of AC ties can be
problematic due to:
1. The presence of large power oscillations which can lead to frequent tripping
2. Increase in fault level and
3. Transmission of disturbances from one system to the other.
The fast controllability of power flow in DC lines eliminates all of the above problems.
Furthermore, the asynchronous interconnection of two power systems can only be achieved
with the use of DC links.
Ground Impedance:
In AC transmission, the existence of ground (zero sequence) current cannot be permitted in
steady-state due to the high magnitude of ground impedance which will not only affect efficient
power transfer, but also result in telephonic interference. The ground impedance is negligible
for DC currents and a DC link can operate using one conductor with ground return (monopolar
operation). The ground return is objectionable only when buried metallic structures (such as
pipes) are present and are subject to corrosion with DC current flow. While operating in the
monopolar mode, the AC network feeding the DC converter station operates with balanced
voltages and currents. Hence, single pole operation of dc transmission systems is possible for
extended period, while in AC transmission, single phase operation (or any unbalanced
operation) is not feasible for more than a second.
1.6.3 Reliability: The reliability of DC transmission systems is good and comparable to that
of AC systems. The reliability of DC links has also been very good. There are two measures of
overall system reliability-energy availability and transient reliability.
Energy availability:
1 – equivalent outage time
Energy availability = 100 ∗ ( )%
Actual time
Where equivalent outage time is the product of the actual outage time and the fraction of system
capacity lost due to outage.
Transient reliability:
This is a factor specifying the performance of HVDC systems during recordable faults on the
associated AC systems.
No. of times HVDC systems performed as designed
Transient reliability = 100 ∗
No. of recordable AC faults
Recordable AC system faults are those faults which cause one or more AC bus phase voltages
to drop below 90% of the voltage prior to the fault. Both energy availability and transient
reliability of existing DC systems with thyristor valves is 95% or more. Average failure rate of
the thyristor is ≤ 0.6 %.

1.7 Disadvantages of DC Transmission

The scope of application of DC transmission is limited by
1. High cost of conversion equipment.
2. Inability to use transformers to alter voltage levels.
3. Generation of harmonics.
4. Requirement of reactive power and
5. Complexity of controls.
Over the years, there have been significant advances in DC technology, which have tried to
overcome the disadvantages listed above except for (2). These are
1. Increase in the ratings of a thyristor cell that makes up a valve.
2. Modular construction of thyristor valves.
3. Twelve-pulse (and higher) operation of converters.
4. Use of forced commutation.
5. Application of digital electronics and fiber optics in the control of converters.
1.8 Application of DC Transmission
Due to their costs and special nature, most applications of DC transmission generally fall into
one of the following categories.
(a) Underground or underwater cables:
In the case of long cable connections over the breakeven distance of about 40-50 km, DC cable
transmission system has a marked advantage over AC cable connections. Examples of this type
of applications were the Gotland (1954) and Sardinia (1967) schemes. The recent development
of Voltage Source Converters (VSC) and the use of rugged polymer DC cables, with the so-
called “HVDC Light” option, are being increasingly considered. An example of this type of
application is the 180 MW Direct link connection (2000) in Australia.
(b) Long distance bulk power transmission:
Bulk power transmission over long distances is an application ideally suited for DC
transmission and is more economical than ac transmission whenever the breakeven distance is
exceeded. Examples of this type of application abound from the earlier Pacific Intertie to the
recent links in China and India. The breakeven distance is being effectively decreased with the
reduced costs of new compact converter stations possible due to the recent advances in power
electronics.
(c) Asynchronous Interconnection between two adjacent systems:
AC interconnections pose several challenges, especially when systems operate at different
frequency levels or when independent control of each system is required. In such cases, DC
transmission is preferable. Having settled for the DC link for interconnections, there are three
possible configurations for interconnections as shown in the Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Different configurations for asynchronous interconnections

(c) Stabilization of power flows in integrated power system:

In large interconnected systems, power flow in AC ties (particularly under disturbance
conditions) can be uncontrolled and lead to overloads and stability problems thus endangering
system security. Strategically placed DC lines can overcome this problem due to the fast
controllability of DC power and provide much needed damping and timely overload capability.
The planning of DC transmission in such applications requires detailed study to evaluate the
benefits. Example is the Chandrapur-Padghe link in India.
Presently the number of DC lines in a power grid is very small compared to the number
of AC lines. This indicates that DC transmission is justified only for specific applications.
Although advances in technology and introduction of Multi-Terminal DC (MTDC) systems
are expected to increase the scope of application of DC transmission, it is not anticipated that
the AC grid will be replaced by a DC power grid in the future. There are two major reasons for
this: First, the control and protection of MTDC systems is complex and the inability of voltage
transformation in dc networks imposes economic penalties. Second, the advances in power
electronics technology have resulted in the improvement of the performance of AC
transmissions using FACTS devices, for instance through introduction of static VAR systems,
static phase shifters, etc.

1.9 Types of HVDC Links

Three types of HVDC Links are considered in HVDC applications which are shown in the
Figure 1.5.
1.9.1 Monopolar Link
A monopolar link as shown in the figure has one conductor and uses either ground and/or sea
return. A metallic return can also be used where concerns for harmonic interference and/or
corrosion exist. In applications with DC cables (i.e., HVDC Light), a cable return is used. Since
the corona effects in a DC line are substantially less with negative polarity of the conductor as
compared to the positive polarity, a monopolar link is normally operated with negative polarity.
 Figure 1.5: HVDC link configurations
1.9.2 Bipolar Link
A bipolar link as shown in the above figure has two conductors, one positive and the other
negative. Each terminal has two sets of converters of equal rating, in series on the DC side. The
junction between the two sets of converters is grounded at one or both ends by the use of a
short electrode line. Since both poles operate with equal currents under normal operation, there
is zero ground current flowing under these conditions. Monopolar operation can also be used
in the first stages of the development of a bipolar link. Alternatively, under faulty converter
conditions, one DC line may be temporarily used as a metallic return with the use of suitable
switching.
1.9.3 Homopolar Link
In this type of link as shown in the above figure two conductors having the same polarity
(usually negative) can be operated with ground or metallic return. Due to the undesirability of
operating a DC link with ground return, bipolar links are mostly used. A homopolar link has
the advantage of reduced insulation costs, but the disadvantages of earth return outweigh the
advantages.

1.10 HVDC Converter Station

The major components of a HVDC transmission system are converter stations where
conversions from AC to DC (Rectifier station) and from DC to AC (Inverter station) are
performed. A point to point transmission requires two converter stations. The role of rectifier
and inverter stations can be reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter
control. The block diagram representation of a typical HVDC converter station is shown in the
Figure 1.6. A typical converter station with two 12 pulse converter units per pole is shown in
Figure 1.7. The various components of the converter station are discussed below.
Figure 1.6: Block diagram of a converter station

Figure 1.7: Schematic diagram of a typical HVDC converter station

Converter Unit
This usually consists of two three phase converter bridges connected in series to form a 12-
pulse converter unit as shown in Figure 1.8. The total number of valves in such a unit is twelve.
The valves can be packaged as single valve, double valve or quadrivalve arrangements. Each
valve is used to switch in segment of an AC voltage waveform. The converter is fed by
converter transformers connected in star/star and star/delta arrangements. The valves are
cooled by air, oil, water of freon. Liquid cooling using deionized water is more efficient and
results in the reduction of station losses. The design of valves is based on the modular concept
where each module contains a limited number of series connected thyristor levels. Valve firing
signals are generated in the converter control at ground potential and are transmitted to each
thyristor in the valve through a fiber optic light guide system. The valves are protected using
snubber circuits, protective firing and gapless surge arrestors.

Figure 1.8: A twelve pulse converter unit

Converter Transformer
The converter transformer has three different configurations-
• three phase, two winding,
• single phase, three winding and
• single phase, two winding
The valve side windings are connected in star and delta with neutral point ungrounded. On the
AC side, the transformers are connected in parallel with neutral grounded. The leakage
reactance of the transformer is chosen to limit the short circuit currents through any valves.
The converter transformers are designed to withstand DC voltage stresses and increased eddy
current losses due to harmonic currents. One problem that can arise is due to the DC
magnetization of the core due to unsymmetrical firing of valves.

Filters
In general, the order of characteristic harmonics for a given pulse number (p) can be determined
as follows, where n is an integer:
• 𝐴𝐶 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 𝑛𝑝 ± 1;
 • 𝐷𝐶 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 𝑛𝑝
This shows how the harmonics differ in AC and DC systems based on the pulse number.
There are three types of filters used which are
1. AC Filters: These are passive circuits used to provide how impedance, shunt paths for
AC harmonic currents. Both tuned and damped filter arrangements are used.
2. DC Filters: These are similar to AC filters and are used for the filtering of DC
harmonics.
3. High Frequency (RF/PLC) Filters: These are connected between the converter
transformer and the station AC bus to suppress any high frequency currents. Sometimes
such filters are provided on high-voltage DC bus connected between the DC filter and
DC line and also on the neutral side.
Reactive Power Source
Converter stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active power loading
(about 50 to 60 % of the active power). This is due to the fact that the current drawn by a Line
Commutated (current source) Converter (LCC) can only lag the supply voltage. But part of the
reactive power requirement is provided by AC filters. In addition, shunt capacitors,
synchronous condensers and static VAR systems are used depending on the speed of control
desired.
Smoothing Reactor
A sufficiently large series reactor is used on DC side to smooth DC current and also for
protection. The reactor is designed as a linear reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral
side or at intermediate location.
DC Switchgear
It is modified AC equipment used to interrupt small DC currents. DC breakers or Metallic
Return Transfer Breakers (MRTB) are used, if required for interruption of rated load currents.
In addition to the DC switchgear, AC switchgear and associated equipment for protection and
measurement is also part of the converter station.
Overhead Line
In DC transmission, overhead lines are designed to withstand peak voltage magnitudes where
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 whereas in AC systems, 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = √2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . Bundled conductors are used in both
systems to reduce corona losses and efficiently transmit power.
Earth Electrode
The earth's surface resistance is generally high, around 4 kΩ. To address this, electrodes are
buried into the earth where the resistance is lower, typically between 3 to 100 ohms. These
buried electrodes provide a return path for current during faults in a particular pole of a bipolar
or homopolar system.

1.11 Modern Trends in DC Transmission

To overcome the losses and faults in AC transmission, HVDC transmission is preferred. The
trends which are being introduced are for the effective development to reduce the cost of the
converters and to improve the performance of the transmission system.
➢ MODERN TRENDS IN HVDC TECHNOLOGY:
❖ Power Semiconductors & Valves.
❖ Converter Control.
❖ DC Breakers.
❖ Conversion of Existing AC Lines.
❖ Operation with weak AC system.
❖ Active Dc Filters.
❖ Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC).
❖ UHVDC Transmission
➢ POWER SEMICONDUCTORS & VALVES:
❖ current Rating (overload Capacity).
❖ Direct Light Triggered Thyristors (LTT).
❖ Power rating of the devices improved by better cooling.
❖ Each LTT is rated at 8 kV, and requires only 40 mW of gate power. (Several Watts for
Electrically triggered thyristors.
❖ Gate Turn Off thyristor (GTO) – 6 kV & 4 kA.
❖ Large gate current to turn off GTO and also low switching frequency - drawbacks
❖ Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) – ±150 kV and 350 MVA rating
➢ CONVERTER CONTROL
❖ Microprocessor Based control – Adaptive control algorithms.
❖ Experts in fault detection and Rectification.
❖ Transducers for measuring Voltages (hybrid optical measuring system uses an ohmic
shunt) and Currents (zero flux type based on magnetics → fiber optic system based on
Faraday’s effect) for protection and control.
➢ DC BREAKERS:
❖ High Current Breaking.
❖ Development of MTDC (Multi Terminal DC System).
➢ CONVERSION OF EXISTING AC LINES:
❖ ROW (Right of Way).
❖ Electromagnetic Interference
➢ OPERATION WITH WEAK AC SYSTEM:
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑠
❖ Short Circuit Ratio = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

❖ SCR <3 weak AC System; SCR =3- Moderate AC System; SCR >3- Strong AC System.
❖ More Reactive power is needed to transmit power or else load rejection is done
➢ ACTIVE DC FILTERS:
❖ Earlier hybrid filters- VSC + Passive Filter
❖ Can eliminate both characteristic and Non characteristic Harmonics
➢ CAPACITOR COMMUTATED CONVERTERS (CCC):
❖ Capacitors in series with Valve Side Windings of the Converter Transformer
❖ Forced Commutation.
❖ Reactive Power Support, voltage stability improvement,
➢ UHVDC TRANSMISSION:
❖ ± 800KV HVDC- ± 500 kV
❖ Power Transmitted 3000 MW / 1500 km

HVDC IN INDIA BIPOLAR

HVDC Link Connecting Region Capacity (MW) Line Length (km)
Rihand - Dadri North-North 1500 815
Chandrapur – Padghe West - West 1500 752
Talcher – Kolar East – South 2500 1367
 Monor_1:

Last Date for submission: on or before 18th September 2024

1) Mention the various voltage levels utilized in the Indian power system?
2) Write a short note on the History of AC/DC and HVDC transmission in India?
3) Draw a phasor diagram for the delta equivalent of a star-connected three-phase AC
system?
4) (a) Draw the voltage and current waveforms for a three-phase full-bridge rectifier and
inverter. Calculate the corresponding output equations for both.
(b) Simulate the model(s) in MATLAB/SIMULINK or any other software of your
choice. Verify your results by varying the firing angle (0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°) and
list a few key observations.
5) For pulse numbers P=6; P=12, calculate the valve utilization (PIV/Vdo) and
transformer utilization factor (TUF) for different combinations of q, s, and r, where
P=q⋅s⋅r. Determine the best possible combination of q, s, and r based on the results
obtained.