CIVIL ENGINEEING

Bridge and Tunnel Engineering

Introduction
It is a structure built to span the physical obstacles without closing the way underneath, such as a
valley, water body or road for the purpose of providing the passage over the obstacle.
• Design of bridges depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the area.

• It is a structure which maintains the communication over a physical obstacle. Ex.-Channel,

River, Road, Railway line, Valley.

Bridge Designations
(i) Bridge
It carries road or railway traffic or a pipe line over channel or valley.
(ii) Over bridge/fly-over
It traffic or pipe carries over a communication system like roads or railway is known as over
bridge.
(iii) Viaduct-
When bridge constructed (small spans) over a valley, dry or wetland, busy locality or forming
a flyover to carry the vehicular traffic is known as viaduct.
Stages of bridge site selection-
(i) Reconnaissance survey
(ii) Preliminary survey
(iii) Final or detail survey
Codes used for bridge Design
IRC-5 Code of practice for specification of bridge
IRC-6-2010 Loads & stress (L.S.M.)
IRC-6-2000 Loads & stress (W.S.M)
IRC-21 : 2000 Code of practice for cement concrete (L.S.M)
IRC-112 : 2000 Code of practice for concrete bridge
IRC-22 For composite structure
IRC-78 For foundation design

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Classification of bridge

1. According to Span
Type of Bridge Span (m)
Culvert <6
Minor Bridge 6-30
Major Bridge 30-120
Long span Bridge > 120

2. According to Railway
Major Bridges Total waterways more than 18m or having any span of clear
waterways of 12m or over.
Minor Bridges Total waterways<18m or any span of clear waterway <12m.

3. According to Loading
(a) Permanent Bridge-
(i) IRC Class A Loading
A Loading is based on the heaviest type of commercial vehicle.
(ii) IRC Class 70R Loading-
This type loading is adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges and culverts are
constructed.
(b) Temporary Bridge
(i) IRC Class AA Loading
IRC Class AA Loading is based on the heavy military vehicles likely to run on certain
routes.
It is the usual practice to design the structures on notional & state highway for class AA
Loading.
(ii) IRC Class B Loading
This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges like timber bridge etc.
Generally the safe limits of velocity under bridges is taken as 3.0 m/s.

4. According to location of bridge flooring

Deck bridge Load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and spreads the loads to
the main beams.
• It is either of reinforced concrete or pre-stressed concrete, welded
steel etc
Through bridge Bridge flooring is done at the bottom of super structure.
Semi through bridge Flooring lactated at intermediate level.

5. According to life of bridge

A. Temporary bridge-
(i) Pontoon bridge
(ii) Boat bridge
(iii) Flying bridge
B. Permanent bridge-
(i) RCC bridge

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(ii) Masonry bridge

(iii) Steel bridge

Terms Related To Bridge

(i) Length of bridge
It is distance between inner faces of two abutments.
Clear distance between two piers or abutment and pier is known as clear span.
If number of spans in bridge is 'n' then
Number of piers , N p = n −1

Length of bridge L = n.l + (n − 1)b

Where, l = Clear span
b = Width of span
(ii) Economic span
It is a span which reduces the overall cost of a bridge to be a minimum.
• For most economic span length, Cost of the super structure = Cost of the sub- structure
• Shorter span bridge is more cost effective when sub structure cost is about 25% of total cost.
• Longer span are more economical when sub str. cost is about 50% of the total cost.
(iii) Water way
Area where water flows under a bridge super structure is known as water way.
Water way b/w two edges of water flow, perpendicular to the abutments is known as linear
water way.
Linear water way = Sum of all the clear span
Effective linear waterway, = 8 × width of river bed – Pier width
(iv) Afflux
Phenomena of heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream is known as afflux.
Afflux = Increased water level – Normal water level
(v) Free board
It is difference b/w high flood level and low flood level under the side of bridge deck.
Free board
Type of bridge Free board (mm)
High level bridge 600
Arch 300
Girder 600 - 1000
Navigation streams 2500 - 3000

(vi) Formation level

The level of flooring of a bridge super structure is called formation level.

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(vii) Piers
It transfer the superstructure load to the soil through foundation. it divide the bridge length
into suitable spans and to resist all horizontal and transverse forces acting on the bridge.
It is a vertical load bearing member such as an intermediate support for adjacent ends of two
bridge spans.
RCC piers shapes-
Rectangular, dumb bell, trestle.
Cross section for piers-
Rectangular with triangular edges towards upstream and down stream.
(viii) Cost
The cost of supporting system of one span is equal to cost of one pier.
Cost of one span ( s )
R=
Cost of one pier ( p )
Overall cost (c) = n.s + (n –1) × p
Where, n = Number of spans
n – 1 = Number of piers
(ix) Abutment
At the both ends of bridges to retain the embankment and to carry the vertical and horizontal
loads from the superstructure to the foundation is known as abutment.
(x) Causeway/Irish causeway
A small submersible bridge at or above bed level which will allows flood to pass over it called
causeway.
(xi) Weep holes
It is provided to drain off water which gets access to the earth filling.

Bearing
Bridge bearings are used to transfer forces from the super structure to the substructure.
It is a component of a bridge which provides a resisting surface between bridges pier and bridges
deck.
Functions of bridge bearings- Bearings mainly transfer two types of loads-
(i) Vertical loads such as the structures weight & vehicle load.
(ii) Lateral loads including earthquake & wind loads.
It permit movements like, rotation & translation in between girders and pier caps of bridges
to accommodate movements such as thermal expansion.
Bridge bearings depends on-
• Loading condition
• Bridge span
• Temperature variations
• Performance specification

Types of Bearings
Fixed bearing It allow rotation but restrict translational movements.
• Suitable for spans 12 m
Expansion bearing It allow both rotation and translational movements.
Sliding bearing Used when rotation occurs due to deflections at the support are negligible.
• Suitable for span 12 - 20 m
Roller bearing It is used tin the construction of reinforced concrete and steel bridges
structures.

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• Single roller can accommodate both rotation and translation movement

in long direction.
Elastomeric bearing These bearing pads compress on vertical load and accommodate horizontal
rotation and provide lateral shear movement.
Rocker and pin Pin at top, facilates rotation and curved surface accommodates translation
bearing movement.
• Suitable for span > 20 m

Roadway Width
Type of traffic Min. Width
1. Vehicular traffic
Single lane 4.25 m
Double lane 7.50 m
Multi lane 3.50 m for every lane over two lane
2- Cycles
Without overtaking 2.00 m
With overtaking 3.00 m

Maximum Span for different types of Steel bridge

Bridge Types Maximum span
Steel arch bridge 500 m
Steel bow- string girder bridge 240 m
Steel cable suspension bridge 1200 m
Steel plate girder bridge 30 m
Steel rolled beam bridge 10 m
Steel truss bridge 180 m

Impact Factors (I)

For IRC, class A and class B loading-
A
I=
B+L
Where, L = Span in (m) A, B = Constant
Types of bridges A B
RCC bridge 4.5 6.0
Steel bridge 9.0 13.50

Centrifugal Force -

WV 2
(i) For Road Bridges, C =
12.95R
W Live load (kN)
wV 2
(ii) For Railways Bridges C =
12.95R
w Equivalent UDL (kN/m length)
V Design speed(kmph)

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Type of Bridge Freeboard

Arch bridge 30 cm
Girder bridge 60-90 cm
Navigable Rivers 240-300 cm
High level bridges 60 cm

Note-
As per IRC, for high level bridges, the freeboard should not be less than 600 mm.

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Introduction
Tunnels are defined as the underground passages that are used for the transportation purpose.
These permit the transmission of passengers and freights, or transportation of utilities like water,
sewage or gas etc.
Note-
A tunnel should not be constructed along strike direction.
Atal tunnel, the world's longest highway tunnel (9.02 km) connects Manali with Lahaul spiti
(Himanchal Pradesh).

Open cut
Open cut is the cutting of hill/rock to allow construction of highway/railway track through it.
It is like a tunnel but not underground and open to sky.
For highway tunneling is preformed to open cut if open cut depth exceeds 15 m.
It is economically provided up to depth of 18 m.
If depth > 18 m (60 feet) tunnel is provided.

1. Based on alignment-
(i) Saddle or base tunnels
Tunnels constructed in valleys along natural slope is known as saddle tunnels. Its slope do not
exceed the ruling gradient.
(ii) Off-spur tunnels
It is a short length tunnels to negotiate minor local obstacles, which can not be avoided by
permitted curves.
(iii) Slope tunnels
Tunnels constructed in steep hills for economic and safe operation of roads and railway is
known as slope tunnels.
(iv) Spiral tunnels
This type of tunnel is provided in narrow valley in he form of loops in the interior of mountain
so as to increase the length of tunnel to avoid steep slopes.

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Methods of tunnelling

A. In Soft Rock
(a) Without Timber
1. Shield method-
Suitable for sub aqueous strata.
2. Linear plate method-
Suitable for sub aqueous strata.
3. Compressed Air tunneling method
Most suitable for clays.
Free air is provided to keep dry the tunnel.
In compressed air tunneling the volume of free air provided is 20 ft3/min/ft2 of face area.
b. With Timber-
1. Needle Beam method
It is economical method and best suitable for firm ground and brick lining.
Needle beam length- 5 - 6 m.
2. English method
It uses a large quantity of timbers.
3. American method
It is best suitable for large size of railway and highway tunnels.
4. Fore poling method
It is slow tedious, old method and skilled labor is required.
Inclined poles are used to roof support.
Suitable for running ground.
5. German and Austrian method
Useful for long tunnels with great depth.
6. Belgium method-
In this method, roof arch is constructed before side wall and inverts are built.
Suitable for all classes of moderately firm or hard soil.
7. Army or case method
It is useful for small tunnels and laying underground sewer.

B. In Hard Rock
1. Full face method
It is done along the perimeter of the tunnel and best suitable for small cross sectional area of
tunnel.
2. Heading method
It is used when tunnel is very large and quality of rock in not good.
3. Drift method-
Firstly it is carried out in smaller section and then widened. It is also useful for ventilation
purpose.
4. Pilot method
It is used for removing muck from main tunnel and also use for ventilation, lightening in main
tunnel.
5. Heading and bench method
This types of section is used for very large cross section and for unstable bed of rock.
Drilling and mucking both are possible at a time.

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Heading and Benching

Heading is the top portion of tunnel while benching is the bottom portion.
Heading provides information during tunnel construction.
6. Perimeter/German method
In this method excavation carried out along the perimeter of periphery of the section.
7. Cantilever car dump
Note-
The explosive used for tunneling in soft rocks is ammonia dynamite.
Railway tunnels, are generally polycentric.
Method of tunneling in running ground
1. Needle beam method
2. Flying arch method
3. Linear plate method

Cross section adopted for tunnels

1. D section or segmental roof section
Suitable for subways or navigation tunnels.
Its shape vertical side with a flat floor.
2. Circular section –
Suitable for heavy internal or external radial pressure. It provides greatest cross sectional area
for least perimeter.
It is most desirable section
3. Rectangular section-
Suitable for hard rocks.
4. Egg shaped section-
Its bottom shape, maintain the required self cleaning velocity in dry and storm weather flow.
It is provided at least cross section area at the bottom.
Used for carrying sewage.
5. Horse shoe section –
Best suited for traffic purpose and suitable for soft rocks.
It is used for providing more working space.
6. Polycentric section-
Useful for railway tunnels
7. Elliptical
Suitable for softer material and used for carrying water.

Surveys of tunnels
For surveying of tunnels following activities involved-
(i) Preliminary setting of the tunnel on the topographical survey of Indian maps.
(ii)Marking tunnel obligatory points on the topographical maps.
(iii)
Driving lines between the fixed obligatory points.
(iv)Marking portal points with concrete pillars on the ground.
Sequence of operation in tunnel construction
Drilling → Blasting → Mucking → Placing of Steel → Placing of concrete
Components of shield in tunnelling
1. Skin or outer shell
2. Cutting edge
3. propelling jacks

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4. Hood, Tail
5. Inner box structure
6. Pockets

Trimmers
It is use fort he short holes drilled around the periphery of a shaft or tunnel that break or trim the
sides of the excavation to the shape and size required.
Note-
Tunnel alignment is carried out by Triangulation.
Weisbach triangle method is used to connect two ends of an underground tunnel.
In order to maintain desired shape of tunnel the c/s must be checked at regular interval of 2 -
3 m.

Driving Drift
It is the part of tunnel c/s excavated for the entire length of tunnel.
Drift provides complete information before tunnel construction.

Mucking
The process of removing blasted debris or excavated soil from the tunnel or shaft is called mucking.
There is two methods of mucking
(i) Hand mucking
(ii) Machine mucking.
Time required for mucking and hauling = (1/2 – 1/3) of total time of tunnel construction.

Hauling-
Hauling is done to avoid undue delay in other operations. Now a days it is done by electrically driven
cars.

Scaling
It is the process of removing of loose pieces of rock adhering to tunnel surface after blasting
operation.

Tunnel lining
Finishing touch given to the cross section of tunnel is called lining.
Min. thickness - 230 mm
It is categories in following types-
1. Primary lining-
It is used to stabilize the tunnel surface before the permanent lining.
2. Temporary lining
It support the roof and wall of tunnel during construction.
3. Permanent lining
Provided into soft ground.
Thickness of lining
T = 82D mm
D = Dia. of tunnel
Note-
According to thumb rule, thickness is taken as 25 mm/300 mm bore dia.

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Shaft
An underground vertical or inclined passageway or well dug along the alignment of tunnel is called
shaft. It is also helps in additional access, muck removal and natural ventilation in tunnels.

Design of shaft support

It depends upon horizontal pressure at several depths.
Ph = k.W .H
h = Where,
k = constant (depend on type of soil)
W = Weight of soil (in pound/ft3)
H = Depth
Patterns of drilling used for shaft-
1. Central wedge cut
It is most commonly used pattern for square and rectangular section.
2. Pyramid/Wedge/End cut-
It is used for circular in section.
3. Alternate wedge cut
This pattern is adopted for very large shaft.

Types of Shaft
A. According to location and position
1. Shaft over centre line
2. Side shafts
B. According to alignment
1. Inclined shaft
Muck is removed by gravity with a gradient of ≤ 45°.
It is suitable for less depth of shaft.
2. Vertical shafts
Easier and more economical than inclined shaft. A pilot shaft is used in this system.
3. Circular shaft
It is lined with pre-stressed steel liner plates or concrete.

Ventilation
Method of providing fresh air inside tunnel during and after construction is called ventilation.

Methods of Ventilation in Tunnels

A. Natural ventilation-
(a) Permanent ventilation
It is given after construction of tunnel
B. Mechanical ventilation
(b) Temporary ventilation

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Given during the construction.

(i) Blowing air (Blow in) method
(ii) Exhausting air (Blow out) method
(iii) Combination of blow in and blow out method (most efficient method).
Note
Rate of fresh air provided during construction- 6-14 m3 /min./person.

Lightening
For proper efficiency in working area, satisfactory intensity of light = 260 lumen/m2.

Dust Control in Tunnel

Silicosis is a fatal lung disease caused by breathing in silica dust found in natural rocks.
Concentration of dust particles of size 0.5 - 5µ adjacent to the working face ≯ 450 particles/cm3.
Dust controlling method
1. By using vacuum hood
2. By wet drilling
3. By using respirators
Note-
For the drainage purpose wells are located at intervals of 300 - 500 m.

NATM
New Austrian Tunneling Method.
It is also known as shotcrete or observational method.

Caisson Disease
It is caused due to release of nitrogen gas bubbles after a person makes too rapid a transition from
high atmospheric pressure for long periods.

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