UNIT 4.

FIBRE OPTICS
 FIBER OPTICS

INTRODUCTION
The development of lasers and optical fibers has brought a revolution in the field of
communication systems. The propagation of information carried by light waves through an open
atmosphere was affected due to atmospheric conditions like rain, fog, etc. So to have an efficient
optical communication system, light waves should be transmitted through some guiding medium.
This guiding medium is called optical fiber. The communication through optical fiber is known as
fiber optical communication or light wave communication.
Currently in the most of the world, fiber optics is used to transmit voice, video and digital
data signals using light waves from one place to other place. Here, the light waves is some times
called light signal or optical signals.
[The branch of physics which deals with the transmission and reception of light waves using
optical fibers which acts as guiding media is called fiber optics.]
4.1 OPTICAL FIBER
The Optical fiber is a wave guide.
It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core. The core has high refractive
indexn1. This core is surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called cladding. The
cladding has low refractive index n2.The cladding is covered by a jacket. It protects the fiber from
moisture and abrasion (fig 2.11).

Fig Optical fiber

4.2.1 PRINCIPLE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBERS

The light enters from one end of the fiber and it is transmitted through the length of the fiber
by the principle total internal reflection and comes out of the other end (fig 2.12).
 Fig 4.1 Propagation of light in optical fiber

Total internal reflection in optical fiber:

Angle of incidence: The angle between incident ray and normal to the surface is called angle of incidence.
Angle of refraction: The angle between refracted ray and normal to the surface is called angle of refraction.

The optical fiber obeys the laws of reflection and refraction of light waves.
Let us consider a light ray AO travelling through a denser medium (core) of high refractive
index n1 incident on rarer medium (cladding) of lower refractive index n2 at the boundary XX ' . Now
three different processes may occur depending upon the angle of incidence (fig 2.13).

Fig 4.2 Total internal reflection

Case (i):
If the angle of incidence of the incident light ray θi is very small(θi <θ c ), then this light ray is
refracted through the rarer medium (cladding) with angle of refraction θr . It is indicated by OA ' in the
figure.
Case (ii):
When the angle of incidence θi is increased, at a particular angle of incidence the incident ray
BO is refracted (or travel) through the interface XX ' (boundary of separation) asOB ' . Now this angle
of incidence is called critical angleθc . That meansθi=θc. Now the angle of refractionθr =90 0.
Expression for critical angle:
For the refraction of light, a relation between the angle of incidence (θi ) and angle of
refraction (θr )is given by Snell’s law.
n1 sin θi=n2 sin θr −−−−−−−−(1)

Where, n1 → refractive index of the first medium, n2 → refractive index of the second medium
θi → angle of incidence θr → angle of refraction
Here, θi=θc and θr =90 0
Substitute above values in equation (1), we get,
0
n1 sin θc =n 2 sin 90
 n2 0
sin θc = sin 90
n1
n2 0
∵ sin 90 =1
sin θc = ×1
n1
n2
sin θc =
n1

θc =sin
−1
( )
n2
n1

It is the expression for critical angle

Case (iii):
When the angle of incidence θi is increased greater than critical angle (θi >θ c ), the incident ray
CO is reflected back into the same medium (core) as OC ' . This process is called total internal
reflection.

Conditions for total internal reflection:

Total internal reflection occurs in the walls of optic fiber only in following conditions.
1. Core should have higher refractive index (n1 )than that of the cladding ( n 2)
(That means n1 >n 2)
2. Angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle (θi >θ c ).
DERIVATION FOR ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

Let us consider a fiber. It has three mediums core, cladding and air at the centre (at the fiber
axis). Consider, ‘ n 0 ’ be the refractive index of air, ‘ n 1 ’ be the refractive index of core and ‘ n 2 ’ be
the refractive index of cladding.
A light ray ‘ AO ’ enters into the fiber through one end and it incident on air medium at the fiber
axis. It makes an angle ‘ θ 0 ’ with fiber axis. It (‘ θ 0 ’ ) is also the angle of incidence at the point ‘ O ’.
This ray ‘ AO ’ is refracted by the air medium through‘ OB ’ and it incidents on the interface. Now
‘ θ r ’ is the angle of refraction. Now the angle of incidence for ‘ OB ’ at the point ‘ B ’ (interface) is
‘ 90 −θr ’ . If this angle of incidence (90−θr ¿ is equal to the critical angle, then this ray ‘ OB ’ will be
0

refracted through the interface with the angle of refraction ‘ 900 ’ and it will come out at the other end
of the fiber. So the angle of refraction

Fig 4.3. Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture

 sin θi n2
According ¿ Snell ’ s law , = ∴ n sin θ i=n2 sin θr−−−−(1)
sin θ r n1 1
Where, θi → angle of incidence θr → angle of refraction
n1 → refractive index of the first medium, n2 → refractive index of the second medium

At the point ‘ O ’ , θi=θ 0∧θr =θr

Refractive index of the first medium(air)=n0

Refractive index of the second medium(air )=n1

Apply these values in equation (1), we get,
n 0 sin θ0 =n1 sinθ r 2 2
∵ sin θr +cos θ r=1
n1 2
sin θr =1−cos θ r
2
sin θ0 = sin θr
n0
sin θr =√ 1−cos 2 θ r
n1
sin θ0 = √ 1−cos θ r−−−(2)
2
n0
At the point ‘ B ’ on the interface of core and cladding,
0 0
Angle of incidence ,θ i=90 −θr ∧Angle of refraction , θr =90
Refractive index of the first medium(core)=n 1
Refractive index of the second medium(cladding)=n2
Apply these values in equation (1), we get,
∵ sin ( 90 0−θr )=cos θr
n1 sin ( 90 −θr )=n2 sin 90
0 0
0
sin 90 =1
n1 cos θ r=n 2 ×1
n2
cos θ r=
n1
2
2 n2
cos θ r= 2
−−−−−(3)
n1
Substitute the eqn (3) in eqn (2), we get,

sin θ0 =
n1
n0
n2 2
1− 2
n1 √
√
2 2
n1 n 1 −n2
sin θ0 = 2
n0 n1
n1 √ n12−n22
sin θ0 = ×
n0 √n 12
n1
× √ n1 −n2
2 2
sin θ0 =
n 0 × n1
1
× √ n1 −n2
2 2
sin θ0 =
n0
 sin θ =
√n 1
2
−n22
−−−−−−−( 4)
0
n0

( √n
) -- ------- (5)
2 2
−1 1 −n2
θ0 =sin
n0

This angle ‘ θ 0 ’ is called as acceptance angle.

If the air medium is present inside the fiber, then n 0=1

-- ------- (6)
∴ θ0=sin
−1
√n 1
2
−n2
2

This is the expression for acceptance angle ‘ θ 0 ’

Acceptance angle (‘ θ 0 ’ ):
The maximum angle ‘ θ 0 ’ at which a ray of light can enter through one end of the fiber and
still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
Numerical Aperture (‘ NA ’ ):
The sine value of the acceptance angle of the fiber is known as numerical aperture ( ‘ NA ’ ). It
denotes the light gathering capability of the optical fiber.
It is given by, NA =sin θ0
Substituting ‘ sin θ 0 ’ from equation (4), we get,

NA =
√n 1
2
−n22
n0
If the air medium is present inside the fiber, then n 0=1
NA =√ n12−n22
CONDITION FOR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN FIBER
Total internal reflection will occur only if the angle of incidence at air ‘ θ i ’ is less than ‘ θ 0 ’
So we can write, the condition for total internal reflection is,
θi <θ 0

Take sine on both sides sin θi <sin θ 0

sin θi < √ n1 −n2

2 2

sin θi < NA

Therefore, sine value of ‘ θ i ’ (angle of incidence at air ‘ θ 0 ’ ) must be less than NA

This is the condition for propagation of light within the fiber.
FRACTIONAL INDEX CHANGE (RELATON BETWEEN Δ AND NUMERICAL APERTURE)
Fractional index change is the ratio of refractive index difference between core and cladding
to the refractive index of the core.
Refractiveindex difference between core∧cladding
Δ=
Refractive index of the core
n1−n2
i .e . , Δ= −−−−−−−(1)
n1
 n1 Δ=n1−n2−−−−−−−(2)

We Know that, Numerical Aperture , NA =√ n12−n22

NA =√ (n ¿ ¿ 1+n 2)(n ¿ ¿1−n2 )−−−−(3)¿ ¿ 2 2
∵ a −b =( a+b ) (a−b)
Substitute eqn (2) in (3), we get,
NA =√ (n ¿ ¿ 1+n 2) n1 Δ−−−−(4)¿

n1∧n2 are almost equal because difference between n1∧n2 is very small.

∴ n1 ≈ n2 so , n1 +n 2=n1 +n1=2 n1 −−−−(5)

Substitute equation (5) in (4) we get,
NA =√ 2 n1 ×n 1 Δ
NA =√ 2 n12 Δ=√ n12 √ 2 Δ

NA=n1 √ 2 Δ −−−−(6)

This is the relation between Fractional index change (Δ ) and Numerical aperture (NA)
From (6), if Δ increases NA also increases.
4.2.2. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
The optical fibers are classified into different types based on
(a) Material (b) Number of modes (c) Refractive index profile (fig
2.15)

Fig 4.4. Classification of optical fibers

(a) Classification based on materials:

The optical fibers are classified into two types on the basis of materials. They are,
(i) Glass fiber (ii) Plastic fiber
(i) Glass Fiber:
If the optical fiber is made up of mixture of silica glasses and metal oxides and then it is
called as glass fibers.
Example: The glass fiber is made by any one of the following combination of core and cladding.
1. core - GeO2 - SiO2 cladding - Si O2
 2. core - SiO2 cladding - P2O3 - Si O2
(ii) Plastic Fiber:
If the optical fiber is made up of plastics, then it is called plastic fiber.
Example: The plastic fiber is made by any one of the following combination of core and cladding.
1. core - Polystyrene cladding - Methyl methacrylate
2. core - Polymethyl methacrylate cladding - co - polymer
 The plastic fiber is very cheap and flexible.
 It can be handled without any special care due to its toughness and durability.
(b) Classification based on number of modes:
Depending on the number of modes of propagation, the optical fibers are classified into two types
(i) Single mode fiber Mode: It is defined as path of light. Only one mode means
(ii) Multi mode fiber only one ray of light. Two modes mean two rays of light.
(i) Single mode fiber:

If only one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is known as
single mode fiber. (fig 2.16)

Fig 4.5 Single mode fiber

 It has a very small core diameter in the range of 5 to 10 μm

 Cladding diameter is about 50 to 125 μm
 There is small refractive index difference between the core and cladding.
(ii) Multi mode fiber:

If more than one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the optical fiber is known
as multi mode fiber (fig 2.17).

Fig 4.6 Multimode fiber

 It has a large core diameter in the range of 50 to 200 μm
 Cladding diameter is about 125 to 300 μm
Classification based on refractive index profile:
 Based on refractive index profile, all the fibers are classified into two.
(i) Step index fiber
(ii) Graded index fiber
(i) Step index fiber
In step index fiber, the variation in refractive indices of core and cladding vary step by step.
Hence, this type of fiber is known as step index fiber.
All the step index fibers are classified into two.
(a) Step index - single mode fiber
(b) Step index - multimode fiber

(a) Step index - single mode fiber:

Here refractive index of cladding (n 2) is constant (or uniform) throughout the cladding
surface. Also refractive index of core (n1 ) is constant (or uniform) throughout the core surface. But
n1 >n 2. So the refractive index of the fiber varies like a step (fig 2.18).

Fig 4.7 Step index single mode fiber

It has all the properties same as single mode fiber. Only one mode can transmitted through the fiber.
 It has a very small core diameter in the range of 5 to 10 μm
 Cladding diameter is about 50 to 125 μm
 Numerical aperture is very small.
 About 80% of optical fibers manufactured are of this type.
 It is used in submarine cable system.
 It is used in long distance telephone system.
 Manufacturing and handling of this type of fiber are very expensive.
(a) Step index - multi mode fiber:

Here refractive index of cladding (n 2) is constant (or uniform) throughout the cladding
surface. Also refractive index of core (n1 ) is constant (or uniform) throughout the core surface. But
n1 >n 2. So the refractive index of the fiber varies like a step(fig 2.19).
 Fig 4.8 Step index multimode fiber
It has all the properties same as multi mode fiber. More than one mode can transmitted through the
fiber.
 It has a large core diameter in the range of 50 to 200 μm
 Cladding diameter is about 125 to 300 μm
 Numerical aperture is large.
 It has high attenuation.
 Data transmission is less efficient.
(ii ) Graded index multimode fiber:

It is a multimode fiber. Its core diameter is 50 to 200 μm. Cladding diameter is 100 to 250 μm.
Here refractive index of cladding (n 2) is constant (or uniform) throughout the cladding
surface. But refractive index of the core (n1 ) is not constant, it is maximum at the fiber axis and it
decreases gradually towards the interface (boundary of separation). So the refractive index of core
makes a curve (fig 2.20).

Fig 4.9 Graded index fiber

Characteristics:
1. It has small numerical aperture.
 2. It has low attenuation.
3. The source of light is either laser or LED.
Advantages:
1. Intermodal dispersion is reduced with this type of fiber.
2. It is high quality fiber and has good band width.
Disadvantages:
1. It is most expensive of all types of fibers.
2. Its fabrication is difficult.
3. Coupling of fibers and light source is difficult.
Applications:
1. It is widely used in intracity trunks between central telephone offices.
2. It is used in medium distance applications.
Differences between single mode fiber and multi mode fiber
S.No. Single mode fiber Multi mode fiber
1. In single mode fiber, only one mode is In multimode fiber more than one mode is
transmitted through the fiber. transmitted through the fiber.
2. It has smaller core diameter and the difference It has larger core diameter and the difference
between the refractive index of core and between the refractive index of core and
cladding is very small. cladding is larger than single mode fiber.
3. No signal dispersion. i.e. degradation of signal There is signal degradation.
during propagation in fiber.
4. Fabrication is difficult and costly. Fabrication is less difficult and cheap.

Differences between step index and graded index fiber

S.No. Step index fiber Graded index fiber
1. The variation in refractive indices of core Refractive index of the core (n1 ) is
and cladding vary step by step. maximum at the fiber axis and it decreases
gradually towards the interface.
2. The diameter of the core is about 5 to 10 μm in Its core diameter is 50 to 200 μm.
single mode fiber and 50 to 200 μmin the case
of multimode fiber.
3. Attenuation is more for step index multimode Attenuation is less.
fiber but for step index single mode fiber, it is
very less.
4. Numerical aperture is more for multimode step Numerical aperture is less.
index fiber but for single mode step index fiber
it is very less.
5. Intermodal dispersion occurs in step index No intermodal dispersion.
multimode fiber.

4.3 FABRICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER

Double Crucible Method
 It is a method of fabricating an optical wave guide by melting the core and clad glasses in two
suitably joined concentric crucibles and then drawing a fiber from the combined melted glass. .

Fig 4.10. Double crucible technique

1. The inner platinum crucible has core material in molten form while the outer platinum crucible has
cladding material in molten form. These two crucibles are surrounded by a furnace. At the bottom of each
crucible, there are circular nozzles which are concentric.

2. The electric furnace is switched on and the materials are heated to very high temperature.
3. The material goes to molten state and the material starts squeezing through the orifice of the crucible.
4. Now the core material will start diffusing into cladding material to form an optical fiber.
5. The fiber is drawn through the bottom surface of the crucible and dopant such as thallium with high rate
of diffusion in silica is used to maintain the difference in refractive index.
4.3.1.Splicing

Two optical fibers used for communication are permanently joined by a process called Splicing. This
should be done very carefully such that the splicing process does not introduce extra losses.

Fusion Splicing

For a good quality splicing, the following steps are to be followed.

1. The outer jacket of the fiber which is usually a plastic or polymer should be removed using stripping tools.
2. When the fiber is drawn, the bare fiber is given a protective coating called buffer. In the second step of
splicing, the buffer from the fiber should be removed by scoring the buffer

accurately.

3. The cut edge ends of the fibers should have enough polish. If the edges are rough, one

has to cleave them again or polish the edges to get the required polish.

4. The fibre ends to be spliced have to be clamped and aligned with the help of positioning blocks.

5.Heat is required for fusion splicing technique only. By applying proper voltage between the electrodes,
electric arc can be generated. The prepared ends of the fiber melt and are fused together.

4.4.FIBRE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Its purpose is to transfer information from a source to a distant user. The block diagram of the
fiber optic communication system is shown in figure.

Fig 4.11:Block diagram of fibre optic commuication

Principle:
Information carried by optical signals is sent to a required distance through optical fibre.
Construction:
The main parts of a fiber optic communication system are
1. Information signal source 2. Transmitter
3. Light source 4. Propagation medium (optical fibre)
5. Receiver
1. Information signal source
The information signal source may be voice, music or video signals. Here, it is an analog
information.
2. Transmitter
It consists of drive circuit and a light source.
 The light source generates optical light pulses which acts as the information carrier. Laser or
LED is used as light source.
3. Propagation medium
The optical fiber is used as the propagation medium. It acts as a waveguide and transmits
optical pulses to receiver by the principle of total internal reflection.
4. Receiver:
It consists of a photo detector, an amplifier and a signal restoring circuit. The photo detector
converts light pulses into electrical pulses.
Working:
Analog information such as the voice of a telephone user produces electrical signals in analog
form. The drive circuit transfers the analog electrical input signals (information signal) into digital
electrical pulses.
The electrical pulses modulate the light emitted by an optical source (such as LED or laser
diode). Thus the light source converts digital electrical pulses into optical light pulses.
Now, these optical light pulses are fed into one end of the fiber. The optical pulses propagate
through the length of the fibre and emerge out from other end of the fibre.
At the receiving end, the optical pulses coming out of the fibre is fed into a photo detector.
The photo detector detects optical signal and converts it into electric pulses.
Further, the signals are amplified by an amplifier. These electrical pulses are decoded i.e.,
converted from digital signal to analog electrical signal.
This analog signal contains same information as transferred from transmitting end. By this
way, the information is transmitted from one end to other end.
Advantages of optical fiber communication system:
1. It can be handled easily than copper cables due to smaller diameter and light weight.
2. It is free from electromagnetic interference.
3. It can be used even in the absence of power.
4. Large number of signals can be transmitted continuously.
5. It is noise free and cross talk is negligible.
6. They are not affected by electric signals or environment.
7. Optical fibres are cheaper.
8. Easy maintenance, longer life, economical and high quality transmission are additional
features.

4.5 LOSSES ASSOCIATED WITH OPTICAL FIBER (ATTENUATION)

When the light propagates through an optical fiber, the power of the light at the output end is
always less than the power launched at the input end (a small percentage of light is lost). This loss
depends on the fiber material, wavelength of light and length of the fiber. This loss of optical power
is known as attenuation.
This loss of optical power is known as attenuation.
The attenuation is generally measured in terms of decibel (dB).
Definition:
It is defined as the logarithmic value of ratio of the optical power output (P out) from a fiber to
the power input (Pin). It is a logarithmic unit. The decibel of loss in optical power in a fiber is
calculated by the formula

α =−10 log [ ]
Pout
P¿
 Mostly the loss is measured in decibels per kilometer of fiber. It is calculated by the
formula,

α dB =
km
−10
L
log [ ]
P out
P¿
Where,
Pout → Power coming out of the fiber
P¿ → Power launched into the fiber
L → Length of the fiberinkm .
The loss per kilometer (dB\km) is a standard unit for describing attenuation in all fiber
designs.
Basic attenuation mechanisms
The optical power losses occurring in optical fiber are due to three mechanisms. They are,
1. Material absorption loss 2. Scattering loss 3. Bending loss
1. Material absorption loss
The absorption of light by the fiber material is caused by three different mechanisms.
(a) Extrinsic absorption
(b) Intrinsic absorption
(c) Absorption by atomic defect
(a) Extrinsic absorption (by impurity atoms)
In some fibers impurities may present. When the light is propagated through the fiber, the
light photons are absorbed by these impurities. Thus, there is loss of light.
(b) Intrinsic absorption
Even when the fiber is free from impurities there is a tendency for fiber material to absorb
small amount of light energy. This is known as intrinsic absorption. But, this loss of light is small.
(c) Absorption by atomic defects
Atomic defects such as vacancy, imperfections of the atomic structure of the fiber material
and cluster of atoms absorbs small amount of light energy. Usually this absorption loss is negligible
when it is compared to intrinsic and extrinsic absorption loss.
2. Scattering losses:
When the fiber is manufactured, sometimes the pressure and density of the fiber changed
microscopically. Due to this, refractive index of these places varied. Now, they act as obstacles.
When the light is falling on this obstruction, the light ray is scattered, the result is power loss (fig
2.21).

Fig 4.12 Scattering loss

BENDING OR RADIATIVE LOSSES:

Whenever the optical fibers have the bends, then they produce radiative losses. There are two
types of bending losses.
 (a) Macroscopic bending loss (b) Microscopic bending loss

(a) Macroscopic bending losses:

These losses occur when the radius of curvature of bend is greater than the fiber diameter at
the corner. This situation arises when a fiber cable turns in a corner. At this corner, the light
radiation will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection hence the light gets escaped from
the fiber (fig 2.22). This is called as macroscopic bending losses.

Fig 4.13 Macroscopic bending loss

(b) Microscopic bending loss
Microscopic bending losses are due to micro bends (small bends) present inside the fiber.
These micro bends are due to non – uniform pressure created during the cabling of the fiber or even
during manufacturing itself. This leads to loss of light by leakage through the fiber (fig 2.23). It is
also called micro-bending losses.

Fig 4.14 Microscopic bending loss

DISPERSION

Dispersion means degradation of the optical signal or signal distortion. In fiber optic
communication, signal to be transmitted is launched in the form of light pulses with a given width,
amplitude and spacing between the pulses (fig 2.24).
When an optical signal (or) pulse is sent into the fiber, the pulse spreads or broaden as it
propagates through the fiber .This phenomenon is called dispersion.
It is found that the pulse received at the output is wider than the input pulse. Hence, the
output pulse is said to be distorted due to dispersion effect.
 Fig 4.15 Dispersion
The widening of the output pulse may also result in overlapping of adjacent pulses at the
receiving end of the fiber.
Types of dispersion:
There are three types of dispersion in optical fiber. They are
1. Chromatic dispersion 2. Waveguide dispersion 3. Intermodal dispersion
1. Chromatic dispersion:
This dispersion arises due to the variation of refractive index with the wavelength of light.
Generally the light waves of different wavelengths travel at different speeds in a medium.
Similarly, the narrow pulses of light broaden when they travel through the fiber. This
broadening of pulse is called material dispersion or chromatic dispersion. When these pulse are
passed through the fiber they get broadened and is called material dispersion or chromatic
dispersion (fig 2.25).

Fig 4.16 Material dispersion or Chromatic dispersion

In material dispersion, the pulses at different wavelengths travel with different velocities.
2. Waveguide dispersion:
It arises due to the light guiding property of the fiber. It results from different angles at which
the light photons incident at the core-cladding interface of the fiber, as shown in figure 2.26.

Fig 4.17Waveguide dispersion

3. Inter model dispersion:

When a ray of light is launched into a fiber, the optical power in the pulse is distributed over
all (or most) the modes of the fiber (fig 2.27).
 Fig 4.18 Intermodal dispersion

Each mode in a multimode fiber travels at a slightly different speed.

This means that the modes in a given optical pulse arrive at the fiber end at slightly different
times. This causes the pulse to spread out in time as it travels along the fiber.
It is known as intermodal dispersion.

4.6 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

One of the most exciting applications of optical fibers is fiber optic sensors.
A sensor is a transducer which converts one form of energy into other. The sensors find wide
applications in sensing and measuring acoustic fields, magnetic fields, current, rotation,
acceleration, strain, pressure, temperature and so on.
Types of sensors
There are two types of sensors. They are
(i) Intrinsic Sensors (or) Active sensors
(ii) Extrinsic Sensors (or) Passive Sensors
(i) Active sensors (or) Intrinsic Sensors
In active sensors, the physical quantity to be measured acts directly on the fiber and modifies
the intensity of light passing through the fiber.
(i) Passive sensors (or) Extrinsic Sensors
In passive sensors, the intensity of light modifies at the outside of fiber.
Here we are going to study about two Intrinsic or Active sensors.
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Definition:
It is a sensor used to sense and measure the temperature of an object.
Construction:
It consists of only one multimode fiber. Its transmitting end is divided it into two. One end is
called as transmitting end and the other end is called as receiving end. Transmitting end is attached
to a laser source which emits laser light. Receiving end is attached to a detector. It is used to detect
reflected light signals. A silicon layer with high temperature is placed at the other end of the fiber
and behind silicon fiber is coated with reflective coating to reflect the light (fig 2.28).
 4.19. Temperature sensor
Working:
When the laser source is switched on, laser light is launched into the fiber. Now, the intensity
of light is measured. This laser light travels through the fiber and falls on the silicon layer. Some
amount of light is absorbed by the silicon hence, its intensity decreases (If the temperature of silicon
is low, then it will absorb small amount of energy. If the temperature of silicon is high, then it will
absorb more light). Then the light is reflected by the reflective coating. Reflected light is also
travelling through the fiber and come to the detector. Detector detects all the light signals. Now, the
intensity of light is measured. Difference in intensity (difference between launched intensity and
received intensity) gives the temperature of silicon. If the difference is high, then temperature is
high. If the difference is small temperature is small. Temperatures in the range of 80-700°C are
measured using this technique.

DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
Definition:
It is a sensor used to sense and measure the distance of an object.
Construction:

Fig 4.20.Displacement Sensor

It has two types of fibers they are, transmitting fibre and receiving fibre. One fiber transmits
the light from the light source to the object and the other receives the light from the object to a
detector.
One end of the transmitting fibre is connected to a laser source and the other end is left free.
One end of the receiving fibre is connected to a detector and other end is left free. Target may
available at the free end of the fibre.
Working:
When the laser source is switched on, laser light is launched into the transmitting fiber. Now,
the intensity of light is measured. This light is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made
to fall on the object. Then this light rays are reflected by the object. The reflected light from the
object pass through the receiving fiber and is detected by the detector. Now, the intensity of light is
measured. Difference in intensity (difference between launched intensity and received intensity)
gives the distance of the object. If the difference is high, then the object is moving away from the
sensor and the distance of the object is high. If the difference is small then the object move towards
the sensor and the distance is small. By using this technique, distance of moving objects also can be
determined.
4.7.FIBER OPTIC ENDOSCOPE
Fiber optic endoscope:
It is a tubular optical instrument. It is used to view the internal parts of the body. It is also
used for taking the photographs of internal organs of the body.
Construction:

Fig 4.21 Fiber optic endoscope

It consists of two fibre bundles (fibre bundle consists of a bundle of optical fibres (thousands of
individual fibre as thin as human hair)). They are
1. Outer fiber
2. Inner fiber
The outer fiber consists of many fibers bundled together without any particular order of
arrangement. Hence it is called incoherent bundle. The outer fiber is used to illuminate the light on
to the inner parts of the body.
The inner fiber also consists of a bundle of fibers, but in a perfect order. Hence they are
called as coherent bundle. It is used to collect the reflected light from the inner parts of the body. A
tiny lens is fixed at the one end in order to effectively focus the light reflected from the object. For a
wider view and better image quality, a telescope system is added in the internal part of the
endoscope.
Working:
One end of the endoscope tube remains outside and other end is send into the human body.
Light from the light source is passed through the outer fiber. The internal part of the human
body is illuminated by this light. The reflected light from the object is brought to focus using
telescope system to the inner fiber. Then the reflected light passing through the inner fibre is again
focused by tiny lenses.
Here each fiber wires available in the inner fibre bundle picks up a part of the picture from a
body. Hence the picture will be collected bit by bit and is transmitted in an order by the array of
fibers (inner fibre bundle).
As a result the whole picture is reproduced at the other end of the receiving fiber as shown in
figure. The output is properly amplified and can be viewed through the eyepiece at the receiving end
of the inner fibre. If we connect the receiving end of the inner fiber with a TV with necessary
systems, we can see the inner part of human body in TV.
PROBLEMS

1) Calculate the relative population of sodium atoms in sodium lamp in the first excited state
and the ground state at a temperature of 250 ˚C.(λ=590 nm)

Given data

Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625x10-34 Js

Velocity of light (c) = 3x108 ms-1

Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38x10-23JK-1

Temperature T = 250 ˚C = 523 K

Wavelength λ = 590 nm = 590x10-9 m

Solution

Let N2 be the population of first excited state and N1 be the population of the ground state

We know that
− E2
− ( E2−E ) −hν −hc
N 2 e kT kT
1

= − E =e =e kT =e kT
N1 1

e kT

N 2 ( 5.9 ×10 )=e

−34 8
−6.625 ×10 × 3 ×10
−7
× 1.38 ×10−23 ×523 (−46.674)
=e
N1

−21
¿ 5.37 ×10

2) In a laser action the energy of the stimulated photon 39.62x10-20 J. What is the wavelength
of the stimulated photon?

Given data

Energy of the stimulated photon E = 39.62x10-20 J

Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625x10-34 Js

Solution

E=hν

E
ν=
h
−20
39.62× 10
ν= −34
6.625× 10
 c=νλ

c
ν=
λ
8
3 ×10 −6
λ= 14
=0.50 ×10
5.98× 10

−7
λ=5 ×10 m

3) Calculate the wavelength of the light emission from GaAs whose bandgap is 1.44 eV

Given data

Band gap Eg = 1.44 eV = 1.44 x 1.6 x 10-19 J

Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625x10-34 Js

c = 3 x 108 ms-1
hc
Wavelength λ=
Eg

−34 8
6.625× 10 ×3 ×10
λ= −19
1.44 × 1.6 ×10

−7
λ=8.626 ×10 m

−10
¿ 8626 ×10 m

Wavelength λ=8626 Ǻ

4)Calculate the angle of acceptance of a given optical fiber, if the refractive indices of the core
and the cladding are 1.563 and 1.498 rspectively.

Given data

Refractive index of the core n1 = 1.563

Refractive index of the cladding n2 = 1.498

Solution

sin θ0 =√ n12−n22

¿ √ 1.5632−1.4982

sin θ0 =0.446

−1
θ0 =sin ( 0.446 ) =26.49°
5) Calculate the numerical aperture of an optical fiber whose core and cladding are made of
materials of refractive index 1.6 and 1.5 respectively

Given data

Refractive index of the core n1 = 1.6

Refractive index of the cladding n2 = 1.5

Solution

NA ¿ √ n12−n22

¿ √ 1.62−1.5 2

¿ √ 2.56−2.25

NA =0.557

6) Optical power of 1 mW is launched into an optical fiber of length 100 km. If the emerging
from the other end is 0.3 mW, calculate the fiber attenuation

Given data

Length of the optical fiber = 100km

Optical power input Pin = 1 mW

Optical power output Pout = 0.3 mW

Solution

Attenuation ∝=
−10
L
log 10 ( )
Pout
P¿

¿
−10
100
log10
0.3
1 ( )
−1
¿ log 10 ( 0.3 )
10

−1
¿ (−0.523 )
10

¿ 0.0523 dB /km