Module 3

Evolution of Education in India

1. Ancient Indian Civilization

• Indian civilization is older than western civilizations such as Egypt.

• Remains of human civilization found in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
suggest a developed civilization in the Indus Valley.
• Sind-Baluchistan region shows evidence of a civilization older than the
western ones.

2. Beginning of Education in Ancient India

• Education traced back to teachings of Upanishads and Dharamshastras.

• The concept of Gurukulas (traditional residential schools) was a significant
contribution of ancient Indian education.

Vedic System of Education

Key Features

• Knowledge and Experience: Emphasis on knowledge, gaining

experience, and expressing understanding through discussions.
• Spirituality: Knowledge seen as a path to salvation; nature revered as
divine.
• Character Development: Aimed at instilling self-control, self-respect,
love, cooperation, and sympathy.
• Fulfillment of Duty: Focus on discipline, obedience, and social
responsibilities. Vocational skills also taught for livelihood.
• Protection of Culture: Education aimed at preserving and promoting
culture through Gurukulas.

Aims of Vedic Education

• Immediate Aim: Vocational training.

 • Ultimate Aim: Self-realization or moksha.

Gurukula System of Education

• Characteristics: Education provided at the Guru’s house, usually in forest

settings.
• Rituals: Initiation through Upanayana ceremony.
• Duration: Typically 12 years, starting at ages 6 to 8.
• Method: Oral teaching, use of Sanskrit, practice of homa and pooja.
• Subjects: Included Vedas, literature, mathematics, Vedanta.
• Restrictions: Limited to Brahmins or higher castes.
• Ultimate Aim: Moksha (spiritual liberation).
• Guru’s Role: Guru regarded as divine.

Demerits of Vedic Education

• Rigidity: Strict structure and discipline.

• Caste-Based Access: Limited access to education based on caste.
• Religious Emphasis: Heavy focus on religion.
• Lack of Freedom of Thought: Limited scope for intellectual exploration.
• Neglect of Women’s Education: Restricted educational opportunities for
women.

Buddhist Education

Features of Buddhist Education

• Institutional Structure: Conducted in Sanghas (collective groups) and

Viharas (monasteries).
• Inclusivity: Open to all, irrespective of caste or background.
• Teachings: Based on Gautama Buddha’s principles, with focus on religious
and worldly knowledge.
• Medium of Instruction: Pali language.
 • Methods: Oral teaching by Buddhist monks, known as Bikkus or Bhikshus.

Ceremonies

• Pabbaja (Babbajja): Initial ceremony for entering Buddhist education.

• Upasampada (Upasamvada): Final ordination ceremony for higher
ordination.

Educational Structure

• Levels: Primary (starting at age six) and higher levels.

• Education Centers: Buddhist monasteries and Viharas evolved into
educational centers, with notable universities like Nalanda and Taxila.

Nalanda University

• Location: Near Patna, Bihar.

• Established: By Emperor Ashoka in the 4th century B.C.
• Subjects: Buddhist studies, fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy,
politics, and the art of war.
• International Influence: Students from China, Middle Asia, Jawa, Korea;
propagators spread Buddha’s teachings to China and Tibet.
• Golden Age: 5th century to 13th century AD.

Taxila University

• Founding: Established by Emperor Bharatha in memory of his son.

• Location: Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan).
• Inclusivity: Open to all castes.
• Curriculum: Vedas, 18 specialisations, mantras, and tantras.
• International Relations: Relations with Greece, Babylonia, Persia, and
China.

Demerits of Buddhist Education

 • Religious Emphasis: Primary focus on religion.
• Neglect of Handwork: Less emphasis on manual labor and practical skills.
• Neglect of Women’s Education: Limited educational opportunities for
women.
• Neglect of Worldly Life: Lesser focus on worldly knowledge compared to
spiritual education.

Islamic Education in Medieval India

1. Emergence and Patronage

• Education during the medieval period saw significant contributions under

the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.
• Mohammed Ghazni initiated Islamic educational systems by establishing
educational institutions.
• Education was primarily offered to men and was imparted in Maqtabs and
Madrassahs attached to mosques.

2. Aims of Islamic Education

• Propagation of Islam and spread of the teachings of the Quran and Hadith.
• Inculcation of moral and spiritual values.
• Preparation for the afterlife, with an emphasis on moral integrity.
• Strengthening administrative skills to support governance.

3. Maqtabs and Madrassahs

• Maqtabs: Derived from the Arabic word ‘Kataba’ (meaning “to write”),
these were primary educational institutions.
• Admission ceremony known as Bismillah occurred when the child was 4
years, 4 months, and 4 days old.
• Moulavis (learned scholars) guided students in the basics, such as Arabic
alphabets and recitation of the Quran.
 • Madrassahs: From the Arabic word ‘Darasa’ (meaning “to learn”), these
institutions offered higher education.
• Education was free and students advanced based on teachers’
recommendations rather than exams.
• Degrees conferred were Fazil, Aalim, and Kabil.

4. Demerits of Islamic Education in Medieval India

• Religious rigidity limited the scope of education.

• Neglect of women’s education and exclusion of non-Muslims.
• Lack of individualized attention and emphasis on corporal punishment.
• Limited psychological motivation and encouragement for students.

Patronage of Learning under Maurya, Gupta, and Mughal

Dynasties

1. Maurya Period (322-185 BCE)

• The Mauryan Empire, one of the largest Indian empires, supported arts
and education.
• Established universities, such as Nalanda and Taxila, and promoted
Buddhist monasteries as educational centers.
• Key centers: Taxila, Ujjayini, and Varanasi.
• Education covered areas such as metallurgy, mining, carpentry,
weaving, and dyeing.

2. Gupta Period (Golden Age of India)

• The Gupta Empire emphasized education, producing advancements in

literature, science, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and medicine.
• Renowned centers included Patliputra, Vallabhi, Ujjain, Ayodhya, and
Nashik.
• Teachers (Acharyas and Upadhyayas) were highly respected and
received fees in the form of agraharas (land grants).
 • Students, called sishyas, studied 14 sections of science, including the
Vedas and Vedangas, Puranas, and Naya.
• Foreign students from China and Southeast Asia came to India for
education.
• Important universities: Nalanda and Taxila.

3. Mughal Period

• Education was imparted mainly through Maqtabs and Madrassahs.

• Emperor Akbar systematically organized education, opening schools and
colleges for both Muslims and Hindus.
• He introduced curricular changes that catered to individual needs and
practical skills.
• Girls’ education was primarily conducted at home or with nearby teachers,
with special provisions for royal women.
• Vocational education was available through ustads (teachers) or in
karkhanahs (workshops).
• Key centers included Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, and Delhi.

Colonial Policy of Education

1. British Entry and Influence

• The British arrived in India for trade, but soon shifted towards
establishing a colonial empire.
• Initially focused on Bengal, they gradually extended educational support to
gain Indian trust.
• Established institutions, including Benares Sanskrit College and Calcutta
Madrassah, and provided grants for educational development.

2. British Education Strategy

• Introduced English-medium institutions, primarily in Calcutta, Madras,

and Benares.
• Appointed Pandits in Benares Sanskrit College and Moulavis in Calcutta
Madrassah.
 • Subjects included Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, logic,
and astronomy with renowned teachers educated both within and outside
India.

COLONIAL POLICY OF EDUCATION

• British Entry and Initial Goals:

• Arrived for trade, primarily seeking spices.
• Entered through Bengal, aiming to establish control.
• Initial focus on trading and profit, not education.
• Need for Educated Indians:
• Required educated locals for administration and cultural understanding.
• Established institutions in Calcutta, Madras, and Benaras.
• Educational Institutions:
• Calcutta Madrasa (1781) by Warren Hastings.
• Benaras Sanskrit College (1791) by Jonathan Duncan.

ACTIVE INTERVENTION OF THE BRITISH IN INDIAN EDUCATION

First Charter Act of 1813

• Charles Grant’s Observations:

• Studied Indian education in 1773, recommending educational
improvements.
• Suggested prioritizing English, education in Indian languages, and
introducing various subjects.
• Key Provisions:
• Accepted by the English Parliament, implemented in 1813.
• Government allocated Rs. 1 lakh annually to education.
• Reviewed every 20 years.

Second Charter Act (1833)

 • Increase in Funding:
• Annual education fund increased to Rs. 10 lakh.
• Thomas Babington Macaulay appointed to allocate funds.
• Oriental-Occidental Controversy:
• Debate over medium of instruction: Indian languages vs. English.
• Macaulay’s Minutes:
• Favored English as the instructional language.
• Proposed Downward Filtration Theory: Educate the upper class to
indirectly educate others.
• Aimed to create a class of Indians with English taste and affiliation.

Wood’s Dispatch (1854)

• Charles Wood’s Recommendations:

• Emphasized the importance of Indian education.
• Suggested primary education in vernacular languages, secondary
education in Anglo-vernacular, and English at college level.
• Impact of Wood’s Dispatch:
• Known as the Magna Carta of Indian Education.
• Established educational departments and universities.
• Led to the setup of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta universities (1857).
• Promoted industrial development and self-discipline.

EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH ADMINISTRATION (1857–1947)

• Indian Uprising of 1857:

• First struggle for independence led to direct British governance.
• Religious neutrality policy impacted missionary efforts.
• Hunter Commission (1882):
• Formed under Lord Ripon’s viceroyalty to assess educational
development.
 • Chaired by Sir William Hunter, with significant Indian representation.
• Drawbacks of British Education:
• Limited to the elite.
• Dismissed Indian values, promoted Western culture.
• Closed many traditional Indian institutions.
• Followed impractical Downward Filtration Theory.
• Women’s education was largely neglected.

NATIONALISTIC EDUCATION

• Response to Western Education:

• Reform movements led by figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dayanand
Saraswati.
• Early 20th century: formation of National Council of Education to
strategize education for all.
• Major Nationalistic Institutions:
• Aligarh Muslim University (1875), Baroda University (1908), Central
Hindu School (1898).
• Goals of Nationalistic Education:
• Promote national interests and unity.
• Aim for economic independence and multicultural inclusivity.

BASIC EDUCATION (Proposed by Mahatma Gandhi)

• Wardha Conference (1937):

• Chaired by Dr. Zakir Hussain; Gandhi proposed basic education for ages 6-
14.
• Emphasized learning through activity.
• Features of Basic Education:
1. Free, universal, and compulsory education.
2. Education for self-reliance.
 3. Craft-centered learning.
4. Instruction in mother tongue.
5. Principle of non-violence.
6. Work-centered approach.
7. Citizenship education.
• Historical Significance:
• Highlighted the need for integrating education with life.
• Advocacy for free and compulsory education led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(1910-12).