Department of Education

Iligan City East National High School

Senior High School Department

BIOLOGY 1
Introduction to the fundamental concepts of cell
biology and metabolism

Subject Teacher : Princess Sohailah S.. Mutalib

 BIOLOGY 1: Subject Description

This course provides an

introduction to the
fundamental concepts of
cell biology and metabolism,
focusing on the structure,
function, and importance of
cells in living organisms.
 BIOLOGY 1: Subject Description

✓ Investigate cell theory, cell types, the

cell cycle, and how cells regulate the
movement of substances to maintain
homeostasis.
✓ Examine energy transformations in
cells, covering photosynthesis and
cellular respiration, with emphasis
on key organelles such as
chloroplasts and mitochondria.
 BIOLOGY 1: Subject Description

By the end of the course, learners should be able to

✓ Understand how cells function, grow,
reproduce, and generate energy to sustain
life.
✓ Apply knowledge to real-world topics,
including human health, biotechnology, and
environmental sustainability, developing
analytical and problem-solving skills to
examine biological processes and their
relevance to everyday life.
 CONTENT

I. CELL
A. Cell Theory
B. Cell Structure and Functions
C. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells
D. Cell Types
E. Cell Modifications
LESSON 1: Cell Theory
OOTD: Objectives of the day!

At the end of the lesson, I should be able to:

✓ Recite the postulates of cell theory and explain the roles of a cell in an
organism, particularly in the levels of organization of an organism;
✓ Describe the structure and functions of major and subcellular
organelles;
✓ Determine the role of each cellular organelle and explain how it is
related to the functions of other organelles.
NASAL SINUS CELL
ONION CELL
HUMAN CHEEK CELL
VIBRIO TASMANIENSIS BACTERIAL CELL
HISTORY OF CELL

In 1665, British scientist Robert

Hooke examined a piece of
cork and found little structures
in it which he compared to
cellulae “small room”
He named these structures “cells”
Later it was discovered that the
cell he had found in the cork were
actually outer walls of former
plant cell.
HISTORY OF CELL

In the late 1600’s, Dutch scientist

Anton van Leeuwenhoek
examined different subjects,
using a refined microscope than
that of Hooke.
Leeuwenhoek found moving
protist and sperm, which he
collectively termed
“animalcules”
CELL THEORY: DEFINITION

The Cell Theory, developed in the mid-1800’s as a result of

various discoveries about cells, it is one of the basic principles
of biology.
• The cell is the basic unit of life;
• All living organisms are composed of cell; and
• New cells are created from pre-existing cell
FIRST POSTULATE: CELL IS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

▪ In order that an organism may

be considered living, it must
have a cell.
▪ One proof that an organism is
alive just by looking at its cell is
the movement of the organelles
inside it.
 FIRST POSTULATE: CELL IS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

▪ In the cork that Hooke examined, the

protoplasm of the cell had already
dissipated, indicating the cell’s death.
▪ When Leeuwenhooek observed his teeth
scrapings, he found animalcules shooting
and spinning inside the cell.
 SECOND POSTULATE:
ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELL

▪ In 1838, German botanist Matthias

Jakob Schleiden established that the
small compartments in his plant
specimens are cells.
▪ In 1839, a German zoologist named
Theodore Schwann after doing
microscopic studies of animal cells,
instituted that all animals are also
composed of cells.
THIRD POSTULATE:
NEW CELLS ARE CREATED FROM PRE-EXESTING CELLS

German scientist Rudolf Virchow

introduced the third tenet of the
cell theory Omnis cellula e cellula
which means:
“Cells come from pre-existing cell”
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1590 – Zacharias Jassen invented

a primitive microscope with the
help of his father Hans.

1663-1665 – Robert Hooke

viewed a thin slice of cork
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1665-1676 Marcello Malpighi and

Nehemiah Grew conducted
separated investigations on plant
cell. They determined the
presence of organelles within its
cells .
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1670-1683 Anton van

Leeuwenhoek upgraded Jassen’s
microscope and produced his lens.
With this invention, he discovered
mobile organelles in many subjects,
which he called animalcules.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1831- Robert Brown made a series of

discoveries about cell organelles and
ultimately discovered the nucleus.
This became a major breakthrough in
the history of biology.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1838 Matthias Schleiden

microscopically examine plants and
recognized that plant parts come from
cells. In his writings in Contribution in
Phytogenesis, he proposed that the
different structures of a plant are all
composed of cells.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1839 Theodore Schwann declared

that animals are likewise
composed of cells.
This put an end to the debates –
whether or not plants and animals
are different in structural origin
and composition.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1840 Albrecht Von Koelliker stated that sperm

and egg are composed of cells and that all
humans are configured from cells.

1849 Louis Pasteur was developing fermentation,

a process to kill bacteria, he proved that bacteria
are able to multiply and that bacterial cells come
from other bacterial cells.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL THEORY

1858 Rudolf Virchow declared,

“Omnis cellula e cellula” which he
meant that cells come from pre-
existing cells. With this conclusion,
the cell theory was completed.
 ASTROBIOLOGY
Our space exploration has been
continually searching for life in
outer space. On the space probes
sent to other planets (especially
Mars), these are equipped to look
after life.
However, very high resolution are
still not possible on-site.
ACTIVITY 1: Mix & Match
1 Movement A Producing offspring

2 Respiration B Getting rid of waste products

3 Sensitivity C Being able to move their parts

4 Growth D Turning food and oxygen into energy

5 Reproduction E Getting to full size, repairing old cells

6 Excretion F Responding to the outside world

7 Nutrition G Getting food where it’s needed

 Question!

If life were to be
found in other planets,
would you expect it to
form cells?
Why or why not?
 LESSON 2:
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Identify chloroplasts, cell membrane, cell wall,
cytoplasm, cell vacuoles, nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosomes.
• Identify endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
(Pure).
• State the functions of the organelles identified above.
• Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell

function and cell structure for the following:
➢ absorption - root hair cells.
➢ conduction and support - xylem vessels
➢ transport of oxygen - red blood cells
• Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system
 What is a Cell?
• Cells are the basic structural units
of all living things.
• All cells arise from pre-existing
cells by the process of cell
division, in which one cell divides
into two identical cells.
• Building block of life.
• All living things are made up of one or more cells.
• How big is a cell? http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
Cell Diversity

Egg cell
Sperm cell
What can we find inside a cell?

• Each living cell consists of living material called

protoplasm.
• Protoplasm is made up of cell membrane, nucleus
and cytoplasm.
• Protoplasm is jelly-like, containing mainly water and
many other substances.
• Protoplasm in one part of the body may be different
from another part of the body
Parts of a Cell
• Cell surface membrane (plasma membrane)
• Cytoplasm
• Organelles
- Nucleus - Lysosome
- Mitochondria - Peroxisome
- Vacuole - Centrosome
- Ribosomes
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough & Smooth)
- Golgi Apparatus
- Chloroplast (in plant cell)
 MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL

Outer covering that separates the cell’s

Plasma
interior from its surrounding
Membrane environment.

Consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within

Cytoplasm the cell in which other cellular
components are found.

Serves as the brain of the cell and

Nucleus directs all of the cell’s activity.
 Cell
Membrane
(Plasma Membrane)

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Control movement of substances
in and out of the cell.
Only allow some substances to
Partially permeable layer
passthrough, small molecules such
around the cell
as glucose, oxygen and water can
enter, but not others such as waste
substances.
 Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

❖ It encloses and safeguards its organelles

from possible harm that foreign
materials can inflict on them.
❖ It also controls the exchange of essential
components and obtains chemical
messages from other cells.
❖ The plasma membrane is a mosaic of
components—primarily, phospholipids,
cholesterol, and proteins—that move
freely and fluidly in the plane of the
membrane.
Components of Cell Membrane

1. Phospholipids
▪ It is a lipid made of glycerol, two
fatty acid tails, and a phosphate-
linked head group. Biological
membranes usually involve two
layers of phospholipids with their
tails pointing inward, an
arrangement called a phospholipid
bilayer.
 Components of Cell Membrane

2. Cholesterol
▪ It is another lipid composed of four fused carbon rings, is
found alongside phospholipids in the core of the membrane.
 Components of Cell Membrane

3. Proteins
▪ Proteins help move large
molecules or aid in cell
recognition
▪ Peripheral proteins are attached
on the surface (inner or outer)
▪ Integral proteins are embedded
completely through the
membrane
 Cytoplasm

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Acts as a medium for most
Jelly-like substance made
chemical activities of the cell to
up mainly of water
occur;
(70% water)
Contains enzymes and organelles.
 Cytoplasm
▪ It is the entire region of a cell between
plasma membrane and nuclear envelope.
▪ It is composed primarily of water,
proteins and salts.
▪ In the cytoplasm, the organelles are
suspended in a gel-like solution called
cytosol, which is composed of both
organic and inorganic compounds.
 Cytoplasm
▪ Cytosol accounts for about 70% of cellular
content. It contains a rich supply of
macromolecules and smaller organic molecules.
▪ The Cytoplasm also contains enzymes that break
down waste and enable metabolic reactions.
▪ It allows for cellular expansion and growth.
▪ Together with cytoskeleton, cytoplasm
determines cell shape and accommodates
movement for some cell types.
 Organelles

• Subcellular structures
(structures smaller than
cells) that perform
specific jobs inside the
cell.

E.g: mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts, vacuoles

Nucleus

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Contains chromatin Controls cell activities, such as
/chromosome (genetic cell repair and growth;
materials) Controls cell division.
 Nucleus
Discovered by Robert Brown in 1833.
▪ It is the most vital part of the cell
and dubbed as the “control center”
▪ It directs all of the cell’s activities and
determines how a cell should appear
and function.
 Nucleus
▪ A double layer of nuclear
membrane encloses the
nucleus to keep it distinct
from other cellular
components.
▪ Nucleolus serves as the site
of ribosomes synthesis.
▪ Nucleus holds chromosomes which carry tightly wrapped and
coined DNA.
 Mitochondria
“The powerhouse of the Cell”

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Small, rod-shaped Site where aerobic respiration
organelles; takes place and energy is
released.
Highly folded inner (singular: mitochondrion; plural:
membrane mitochondria)
Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the sites of

cellular respiration, the
metabolic process that uses
oxygen to drive the generation of
ATP by extracting energy from
sugars, fats, and other fuels.
 Mitochondria

▪ The mitochondria are oval-shaped organelles

found in most eukaryotic cells. They are
considered to be the “powerhouses” of the
cell.
▪ Mitochondria are most plentiful in cells that
require significant amounts of energy to
function, such as liver and muscle cells.
 Mitochondria
The mitochondria has two membranes that
are similar in composition to the cell
membrane:
▪ Outer membrane—is a selectively
permeable membrane that surrounds
the mitochondria.
▪ It is the site of attachment for the respiratory
assembly of the electron transport chain and
ATP Synthase.
▪ It has integral proteins and pores for transporting molecules just like the cell
membrane
 Mitochondria
▪ Inner membrane—folds inward (called
cristae) to increase surfaces for cellular
metabolism.
▪ It contains ribosomes and the DNA of the
mitochondria. The inner membrane
creates two enclosed spaces within the
mitochondria:
▪ intermembrane space between the outer
membrane and the inner membrane; and
▪ matrix that is enclosed within the inner membrane.
 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE

It is the major energy currency

of the cell that provides the
energy for most of the energy-
consuming activities of the cell.

➢ Mechanism: When the third phosphate group of ATP is removed

by hydrolysis, a substantial amount of free energy is released.
 The cell organelles: ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

▪ This system is made up of organelles that are communally linked

by structure specific to each of them.
These organelles are:
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum 5. Lysosomes
2. Ribosomes 6. Peroxisomes
3. Vacuoles 7. Centrosomes
4. Golgi Apparatus
The cell organelles: ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

▪ The endomembrane system is a

group of membranes and
organelles in eukaryotic cells that
works together to modify,
package, and transport lipids and
proteins.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
▪ The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a series of
interconnected membranous sacs and
tubules that collectively modifies proteins
and synthesized lipids.
▪ The hollow portion of ER tubules is called
lumen or cisternal space.
▪ The membrane of the ER, which is a
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins
is continuous with nuclear envelope.
Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER)

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Ribosomes are attached
Rough ER helps to transport
to its outer surface; hence
proteins made by the ribosomes
its surface appears rough
to the Golgi apparatus for
when seen under the
secretion out of the cell.
microscope
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

▪ It has ribosomes on its surface.

▪ It makes membrane proteins and
proteins for export out of cell.
▪ Proteins are made by ribosomes on
ER surface
▪ They are then threaded into the
interior of the Rough ER to be
modified and transported
Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER)

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Smooth ER does not have Synthesizes substances such
ribosomes attached to its
as fats and steroids;
membrane;
Converts harmful substances
Smooth ER is more tubular than
rough ER. into harmless substances -
It is connected to the rough ER. Detoxification
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

▪ It incorporates proteins into cisternae

and transports synthesized proteins
across the cytoplasm, thereby allowing
the synthesis of fatty acids and
phospholipids.
▪ It is abundant in liver cell, where it
detoxifies hydrophobic chemicals. This
makes them water-soluble for excretion.
Ribosomes

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Small, round structures;
Site where protein synthesis
Can be attached to ER or
takes place.
found freely in the
cytoplasm.
Ribosomes
▪ Ribosomes are involved in providing a
frame for proteins synthesis; hence
they are site of protein production.
▪ They are present in both prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells.
▪ Developing muscle cells, skin and hair
cells contain large numbers of free
ribosomes.
Vacuole

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
A fluid-filled space
enclosed by a membrane; Store substances such as water
Exists temporarily in and food temporarily.
animal cells.
 Vacuole
▪ A vacuole is a fluid –filled vesicles
enclosed by a membrane.
▪ It has a selectively membrane freely
allowing water passage but retaining
smaller molecules within it and stores
chemicals within the cell.
▪ Vacuole ability to break down large molecules makes it comparable
with lysosomes in animal cells. Likewise, both organelles thrive in
acidic environment.
 Lysosome
“suicide bags”

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Contains digestive enzymes.
Membrane-bound Cell organelle
Lysosomes are involved with
various cell processes.
Lysosomes are sphere-shaped
They break down excess
sacs filled with hydrolytic
biomolecules or worn-out cell
enzymes
parts.
 Lysosome
▪ Cells take in food by phagocytosis
▪ Example: macrophages
▪ Lysosomes digest the food & get rid
of wastes
▪ Capable for self-destruction In order
to save the rest of the other
organelles from being poisoned
dubbed as the cell’s “suicide bags”
▪ Happens through autophagy, or the natural process of organelle destruction
 Peroxisome

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
It is responsible for self-damage
and mostly disintegrate proteins,
Small, round organelles enclosed by
accommodate the breakdown of
single membrane, somehow
fatty acids and detoxify many
resembles that of a lysosomes
poisons that enter the body.
 Peroxisome
• Peroxisomes are adaptable. Their number, size, and protein
composition can change based on the cell's metabolic demands and
environmental conditions.
• Do not contain their own DNA or ribosomes, meaning they rely on
proteins synthesized i
• They are typically 0.1 to 1.0 μm in diameter, but can be larger or
smaller depending on the cell type and its metabolic state.
For example, in yeast cells, peroxisomes can proliferate significantly
when the cell is utilizing fatty acids as an energy source.
 Centrosome

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Cellular structure primarily involved in organizing
microtubules, which are essential for cell division
Centrioles are barrel-
and maintaining cell shape.
shaped structures
Regulates cell motility, adhesion and polarity in
composed of
interphase,
microtubules
Facilitates the organization of the spindle poles during
mitosis.
 Centrosome
• During cell division (mitosis), the
centrosomes duplicate and migrate to
opposite poles of the cell, and help form
the mitotic spindle that separates
chromosomes.
• Microtubules, nucleated by the
centrosome, contribute to maintaining
cell shape and enabling cell movement.

• In some cells, centrioles are also found at the base of cilia and flagella,
which are involved in cell motility and sensing.
Golgi
Body/Apparatus

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
The Golgi apparatus consists of
Stores and modifies
flattened spaces surrounded by
substances made by the
membranes.
ER; and package these
Vesicles (small spherical spaces) fuse
substances in vesicles for
with one side of the Golgi apparatus
secretion out of the cell
and pinch off from the opposite side.
 Golgi Body/Apparatus

▪ Stacks of flattened sacs/

a stack of pancakes
▪ Have a shipping side (cis face)
& a receiving side (trans face)
▪ Receive proteins made by ER
▪ Transport, Modify, sort, & package
vesicles with modified proteins molecules
from the pinch of the end of ER
Chloroplast
Present in Plant Cell only

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Essentially, chloroplasts are specialized
Double membrane compartments within plant cells that
envelope, an internal system efficiently capture light energy and
of thylakoids, and a fluid- convert it into chemical energy through
filled stroma. photosynthesis, producing sugars and
oxygen.
CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplast
▪ Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound
organelles and are the sites of
photosynthesis.
▪ Chloroplasts, which are found in plants and
algae, are the sites of photosynthesis.

▪ This process converts solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing

sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as
sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
 Chloroplast
▪ The chloroplast has a system of three
membranes: the outer membrane, the
inner membrane, and the thylakoid
system.
▪ Outer membrane—This is a semi-porous
membrane and is permeable to small
molecules and ions which diffuse easily.
▪ The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.
 Chloroplast
▪ Intermembrane Space—is usually a thin
intermembrane space about 10-20
nanometers and is present between the
outer and the inner membrane of the
chloroplast.
▪ Inner membrane—forms a border to the
stroma.
▪ It regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition to
the regulation activity, fatty acids, and are synthesized in the inner chloroplast
membrane.
 Chloroplast
▪ Stroma—This is an alkaline, aqueous fluid
that is rich in protein and present within
the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
▪ It is the space outside the thylakoid
space.
▪ Chloroplast DNA, chloroplast ribosomes,
thylakoid system, starch granules, and
other proteins are can be found floating
around the stroma.
 Chloroplast

▪ Thylakoid system is suspended in the

stroma. It is a collection of membranous
sacks called thylakoids.
▪ Thylakoids are small sacks that are
interconnected into each other.
▪ Thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana. Each granum
contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
 Chloroplast

▪ The membranes of these

thylakoids are the sites for the
light reactions of the
photosynthesis to take place.
The chlorophyll is found in the
thylakoids.