THE THRESHOLD COLLEGE

NO 10, KING BOMS CLOSE, OFF ABACHA ROAD, G.R.A, PORT HARCOURT.

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 THE THRESHOLD COLLEGE
NO 10, KING BOMS CLOSE, OFF ABACHA ROAD, G.R.A, PORT HARCOURT.

SPRING TERM SCHEME OF WORK

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: YEAR 9

WEEK TOPIC

1-2 MAGNETISM

3-4 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

5-6 SIMPLE MACHINES

7 Mid – Term Break

8-9 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 2

10 ETHICAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT

11 REVISION

12 EXAMINATION

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 WEEK 1-2
MAGNETISM
What Are Magnets?
Magnets are objects that attract other materials such as ferrous metals by producing an
invisible magnetic field.
Permanent Magnets
 Permanent magnet is an object which stays magnetized for a long time. It doesn’t
stop being a magnet after it has been used.
 Temporary magnets are objects that loose their magnetic properties after a short
while.
Magnetic Material
 A material which is attracted by a magnet is called a magnetic material.
o Some materials are attracted, other materials are not.
 Examples of magnetic materials:
o Iron
o Steel (most of the steels are made from iron)
o Nickel
o Cobalt
o Aluminium
o Neodymium
Magnetic Poles
 Magnets that attract magnetic materials will create magnetic force.
 A bar magnet’s magnetism is strongest at the ends. The ends of the magnet are
called magnetic poles.

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  If two magnets are close together, they may attract each other or they may push
each other away.

Magnet Rules
 Like poles will repel, means both poles are the same (North Pole and North Pole) will
repel.
 Unlike poles will attract, means one North Pole and one South Pole will attract each
other.
What is Magnetic Field?
Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is a region or space that experiences a magnetic force
 Any magnetic material placed in the field will be attracted by the magnet, due to
magnets is surrounded by a magnetic field.
The Shape of the Field
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  A magnetic field is invisible. There are some ways to show up:
o Using iron fillings, these tiny pieces of iron will get together and line up to show
the pattern of the field.
o Using small compasses, this called plotting compasses. They will show the
direction of the field.
Magnetic Field Lines
 We can represent the magnetic field of a magnet by drawing magnetic field lines
(imaginary).
 Magnetic field lines start from a North Pole and end up at a South pole. They show
two things about the field:
o The arrows show the direction of the field.
o The lines are closest together, the field is strongest.

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 WEEK 3-4
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Electromagnetic fields describe the physical interaction between electric charges and
magnetic forces.

Electric Fields

1. Definition:
o A region around a charged object where other charged objects experience a
force.
2. Representation:
o Represented by electric field lines:
 Point away from positive charges.
 Point toward negative charges.
3. Electric Field Strength (E):
o Force experienced per unit charge in the field.
o Formula: E=F/q
 E: Electric field strength (N/C)
 F: Force (N)
 q: Charge (Coulombs, C)
4. Applications:
o Lightning rods use electric fields to direct lightning safely to the ground.
o Capacitors store energy in the form of electric fields.

Magnetic Fields

1. Definition:
o A region around a magnet where magnetic forces are experienced.
2. Representation:
o Magnetic field lines:

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  Move from the North Pole to the South Pole outside the magnet.
 Inside the magnet, they move from south to north.
3. Magnetic Field Strength (B):
o Measured in Tesla (T).
4. Applications:
o MRI machines use magnetic fields for imaging.
o Compasses use Earth's magnetic field for navigation.

Electromagnetic Waves

1. Definition:
o Oscillating electric and magnetic fields that propagate as waves.
2. Key Properties:
o Travel at the speed of light (c=3×108 m/s)
o Do not require a medium.
3. Spectrum:
o Includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and
gamma rays.
4. Applications:
o Communication (radio waves, microwaves).
o Medical imaging (X-rays).
o Remote sensing (infrared).

Electromagnetic Induction

1. Definition:
o The process of generating an electric current in a conductor when it is placed
in a changing magnetic field.
2. Faraday’s Law of Induction:
o The induced electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.
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 ΔΦ
o Formula: EMF=−N
Δt

 N: Number of turns in the coil.

 ΔΦ: Change in magnetic flux (Weber, Wb).
 Δt: Time (s).
3. Lenz’s Law:
o The induced current flows in a direction that opposes the change causing it.

4. Applications:
o Generators produce electricity by electromagnetic induction.
o Transformers regulate voltage in power systems.

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2.5 Electromagnets

1. Definition:
o A coil of wire wrapped around a core (often iron) that acts as a magnet when
current flows through it.
2. Key Properties:
o Strength depends on current, number of turns, and core material.
3. Applications:
o Electric bells, cranes, and magnetic locks.
How Electromagnet Works?
Electromagnet
 There is a second type of magnet called an electromagnet, it works using electricity
and it can be switched on and off.
 Example: Using electromagnet to lift a scrap car, electric motors and generators,
doorbell and in electric switches

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How to Make an Electromagnet?
 Wrap the wire around a piece of iron called a core.
o When a current flows in the coil, the iron becomes magnetized and this makes
the magnetic field of the electromagnet much stronger.
 Making a stronger electromagnet:
o Make a coil with more turns of wire, the wire is longer and so the electric
current flows through it. It makes a stronger magnetic field.
o Make a bigger electric current flow in the coil of wire, connect 2 batteries to
the coil instead of one. This will make a bigger electric current flow so the
magnetic field will be stronger.
The Field of an Electromagnet
 Whenever an electric current flows in a wire it makes a magnetic field around it.
 The magnetic field of an electromagnet is like the field of a bar magnet
o The magnetic field lines come out of one end of the electromagnet. This is its
north pole.
o The fields line go round and back into the other end of electromagnet. This is
its south pole.

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How An Electromagnet Works?
 The magnetic field around a wire is quite weak, by winding the wire into a coil, it will
concentrate the magnetic field into a smaller space making it much stronger.

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 WEEK 5-6

SIMPLE MACHINES

A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the magnitude or direction of a force,
making it easier to perform work.

Key Characteristics of Simple Machines

1. Reduce the effort required to perform a task.

2. Change the direction of the applied force.
3. Increase the speed or distance over which a force acts.
4. Have few or no moving parts.

Types of Simple Machines

There are six classical simple machines:

1. Lever
2. Inclined Plane
3. Pulley
4. Wheel and Axle
5. Wedge
6. Screw

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Mechanical Advantage (MA)

 Indicates how much a machine multiplies the input force.

 Formula: MA=Load Force/Effort Force

Velocity Ratio (VR)

The Velocity Ratio (VR) of a machine compares the distance moved by the effort to the
distance moved by the load. It represents the ideal mechanical advantage of the machine
(ignoring friction).

Formula

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VR=Distance Moved by Effort/Distance Moved by Load

Efficiency

 Measures how much work input is converted to useful work output.

 Formula: Efficiency=Useful Work Output/Work Input×100%
Worked Example

A lever has a mechanical advantage of 3 and a velocity ratio of 4. Calculate its efficiency.
Efficiency=Mechanical Advantage/Velocity Ratio×100=34×100=75%

The efficiency is 75%.

Types of Simple Machines in Detail

Lever

A lever is a rigid bar that pivots around a fixed point called the fulcrum.
Classes of Levers

1. First-Class Lever: Fulcrum is between the effort and load (e.g., seesaw, scissors).
2. Second-Class Lever: Load is between the fulcrum and effort (e.g., wheelbarrow,
nutcracker).
3. Third-Class Lever: Effort is between the load and fulcrum (e.g., fishing rod, broom).
Velocity Ratio of a Lever
VR=Effort Arm Length/Load Arm Length
Worked Example

A lever has an effort arm of 2 m and a load arm of 0.5 m. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Effort Arm Length/Load Arm Length=20.5=4
The velocity ratio is 4.

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Inclined Plane

An inclined plane is a sloped surface that allows heavy objects to be moved upwards with
less effort.
Velocity Ratio of an Inclined Plane
VR=Length of the Incline/Height of the Incline
Worked Example

A ramp is 12 m long and raises objects to a height of 3 m. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Length of the Incline/Height of the Incline=12/3=4
The velocity ratio is 4.

Pulley

A pulley consists of a wheel with a groove through which a rope or chain is passed.
Types of Pulleys

1. Fixed Pulley: Changes the direction of force.

2. Movable Pulley: Reduces the effort force needed.
3. Pulley System: Combines fixed and movable pulleys for greater advantage.
Velocity Ratio of a Pulley System
VR=Number of Supporting Ropes
Worked Example

A pulley system has three supporting ropes. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Number of Supporting Ropes=3

The velocity ratio is 3.

Wheel and Axle

A wheel and axle consist of a large wheel attached to a smaller axle.

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Velocity Ratio of a Wheel and Axle
VR=Radius of the Wheel/Radius of the Axle
Worked Example

A wheel has a radius of 0.6 m, and the axle has a radius of 0.2 m. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Radius of the Wheel/Radius of the Axle=0.6/0.2=3

The velocity ratio is 3.

Wedge

A wedge is made of two inclined planes joined together to form a sharp edge, used to split
or cut objects.
Velocity Ratio of a Wedge
VR=Length of the Wedge/Thickness of the Wedge
Worked Example

A wedge has a length of 8 cm and a thickness of 2 cm. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Length of the Wedge/Thickness of the Wedge=8/2=4
The velocity ratio is 4.

Screw

A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a central core.

Velocity Ratio of a Screw
VR=Circumference of Screw/Pitch (Distance between Threads)
Worked Example

A screw has a circumference of 6 cm and a pitch of 1.5 cm. Calculate its velocity ratio.
VR=Circumference of Screw/Pitch=6/1.5=4

The velocity ratio is 4.

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Applications of Simple Machines

1. Daily Life:
o Levers: Scissors, bottle openers.
o Inclined Planes: Ramps, slides.
2. Construction:
o Pulleys for lifting heavy materials.
o Screws for fastening components.
3. Transportation:
o Wheels and axles in vehicles.
4. Engineering:
o Screw-based lifting mechanisms.

Practice Questions

1. Calculate the mechanical advantage of a lever with an effort arm length of 3 m and a
load arm length of 1 m.
2. If a ramp is 10 m long and raises objects to a height of 2 m, what is its mechanical
advantage?
3. A pulley system has three supporting ropes. What is its mechanical advantage?
4. Explain why the efficiency of simple machines is never 100%.

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 WEEK 8-9
ELECTRICITY
Static Electricity
 Objects can be given an electric charge by rubbing them.
 Electrically charged objects can produce a force of attraction or repulsion
Positive and Negative Charge
Explaining Electric Force
 There are two types of electric charge which we call positive (+) ad negative (-)
o Positive and negative charges attract one another;
o Positive chargers repel one another;
o Negative charges repel one another.
Key: Opposites attract
Charging by Friction
 In an experiment to investigate static electricity, you may start with a polythene rod
and woolen cloth, then an acrylic rod and woolen cloth both of them are neutral.
o When the rod is rubbed using the cloth, the rod gains a negative electric
charge. It is the force of friction that gives charge to the rod.
o If you use a rod made of acrylic instead, you will find the rod has a positive
charge.
 The charges that appear when 2 different materials are rubbed together depend on
which material is used.
Finding the Sign of an Electric Charge
 Using a digital meter called a coulomb meter to find out whether a charged object
has a positive or negative charge.

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What are Conductors and Insulators?
Describing Conductors and Insulators
 Metals are described as conductors because they allow electricity to pass through
them
 Plastic and other non-metals are described as insulators because they do not allow
electricity to pass through them.
Electric Current
 The lamp is light up because there is an electric current in the circuit.
 Two things are needed for there to be an electric current:
o A complete circuit of metal around which the current can flow.
o A cell (a battery) makes the current flow.
 A switch breaks a circuit to stop the current from flowing.
Circuit Symbols
 Circuit Diagram:

 Circuit symbol:

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The Voltage of a Cell
Explaining About Voltage
 Cells are usually labeled with their voltage (Ex: 1.5V). The volt (symbol V) is the unit
of voltage.
 A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
o To measure the voltage of a cell, wires are connected from the ends of the cell
to the terminals of the voltmeter. The positive (red) terminal of the voltmeter
should be connected to the positive terminal of the cell.
 If two more cells are connected together in series, the voltage adds up.

More Voltage, More Amps

 If the cells in a circuit are providing a bigger voltage, the current will also be bigger.
o This is because, if there are two cells connected in series, they give a bigger
push to the electrons in the wires, so there is a bigger current.
 If there is a bigger current, the lamp will shine more brightly.
o The current is transferring energy more quickly from the cells to the lamp.

One after Another

What Happens If We Add Other Components To A Series Circuit?
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  We can understand why the current is smaller when there are two lamps in the series
circuit.
o The electrons are being pushed by the cell. It has to push them through one
lamp and then through the next.
o It is easier for the cell to push the electrons through one lamp than through
two, and so the current is bigger when there is only one lamp in the circuit.
Electrical Resistance
 We can say that a lamp has resistance. The more resistance there is in the circuit, the
harder it is for the cells to push the electrons around, and so the current is smaller.
 The unit of resistance is Ω (ohm).

Losing Energy
 When 2 components are connected in series in a circuit, it is harder for the current to
flow. There is more resistance, so the current is smaller.
o It requires energy for the electrons to flow through any component which has
resistance
How to Measure an Electric Current?
Measuring Electric Current
 We can measure the current in a circuit using an instrument called an ammeter. The
unit of electric current is the amp (A).
 To connect an ammeter to a circuit, it is necessary to make a break in the circuit.
Then the current can flow through the ammeter.
Current in a Series Circuit

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  When the components are connected end-to-end. The current flows through the
components one after another. The current is the same all the way around a series
circuit.

Why Metals Conduct Electricity?

Explaining About Current Flow
 Metals are useful materials because they contain lots of electrons that can move
about inside the metal.
o These electrons are not tightly attached to their atoms.
 A cell can make a current flow in a metal wire. Since the electrons move along in
metal wire, the electrons have an electric charge, so the charge is moving through
the metal.
How a Cell Makes a Current Flow
 In the cell, one end is positive and one end is negative. The positive end attracts
electrons (because electrons have a negative charge).
o So, when a circuit is complete, the electrons in the metal of the circuit start
moving around it. They are pushed from the negative end of the cell and
attracted toward the positive end.
Lighting A Lamp - Current and Energy
 When you push a switch, a current starts immediately. The electrons are waiting in
the wire. They start to move all around the circuit as soon as the switch is closed.
o The cell is the energy source of the circuit. It is a store of chemical energy.
o The current transfers energy from the cell to the lamp.

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 o The lamp gets hot and shines. It is a source of light energy and heat energy.
Parallel Diagrams
Understanding Parallel Circuit
 When components are connected side by side in this way, we say they are in parallel
with each other.
 To remember the difference between series and parallel:
o In series means connected end-to-end;
o In parallel means connected side-by-side.
\

Current in Parallel Circuits

 When there are two identical lamps in parallel, there is twice as much current as
when there is only one lamp. Each lamp gets its own share of the current.
o This show that it is easier for the current to flow when two components are
connected in parallel in a circuit. There is less resistance, so the current is
bigger.
Circuit Safety
Fuses
 A fuse protects circuits by breaking the circuit if the current exceeds a safe level.
Circuit Breakers
 Automatically switch off the current when it becomes excessive, preventing
overheating and damage.
Insulation

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  Wires are covered with insulating materials like plastic to prevent accidental contact
with live wires.
Worked Examples
Example 1: Calculating Current
A bulb is connected to a 12 V battery with a resistance of 4 Ω. Calculate the current.
I=V/R=12/4=3A
Example 2: Series Circuit
A series circuit has three resistors: R1=2 Ω, R2=3Ω, and R3=5 Ω. Find the total resistance
and current if connected to a 10 V battery.
 Total resistance: R total=R1+R2+R3=2+3+5=10 Ω
 Current: I=V/Rtotal=10/10=1 A
Example 3: Parallel Circuit
A parallel circuit has two resistors: R1=6 Ω, R2=3. Find the total resistance.
 Total resistance: 1Rtotal=1/R1+1/R2=1/6+1/3=1/6+2/6=3/6=2Ω

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 WEEK 10
ETHICAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT

What is Ethics in Science?

Ethics in science is about doing what is right and fair in research and technology. It ensures
that scientific progress helps people, protects the environment, and considers future
generations.

Key Principles of Ethics in Science

1. Honesty: Scientists must share their findings truthfully, without lying or changing
results.
2. Objectivity: Research should be fair and free from personal bias.
3. Integrity: Always follow moral rules during research.
4. Respect for Life and Nature: Science should not harm people, animals, or the
environment.
5. Social Responsibility: Science should solve problems and improve lives.

Ethical Issues in Science and Development

1. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
 What it is: Changing the DNA of plants, animals, or humans to create desirable traits.
 Examples: Genetically modified crops (GMOs), gene therapy.
Ethical Concerns:
 Safety: Are GMOs and gene therapy safe for people and the environment?
 Fairness: Could gene editing lead to discrimination (e.g., against people with
unedited genes)?
 Nature: Is it right to change the natural design of life?
Example: CRISPR Technology
This tool can edit genes very precisely. While it can cure diseases, it raises fears about
misuse, such as creating "designer babies" with specific looks or talents.

2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Automation

 What it is: AI refers to machines that can think and learn, while automation uses
machines to do tasks with little or no human input.
Ethical Concerns:
 Job Loss: Many people may lose jobs as machines replace workers.
 Privacy: AI collects personal data, which can be misused.
 Bias: AI can be unfair if its training data is biased.

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Example: Facial Recognition Technology
This technology can identify people, but it invades privacy and has been shown to make
more mistakes with certain racial groups.

3. Environmental Impact of Development

 What it is: Industrial and technological progress often harms the environment.
Ethical Concerns:
 Climate Change: Factories and vehicles produce gases that cause global warming.
 Pollution: Waste harms air, water, and soil.
 Loss of Nature: Cutting down forests and building cities destroys wildlife habitats.
Example: Renewable Energy
Switching to solar or wind power can reduce harm to the environment but requires
balancing economic growth with environmental protection.

4. Human Experimentation
 What it is: Scientific research that involves testing on people.
Ethical Concerns:
 Informed Consent: Participants must know all risks and agree willingly.
 Exploitation: Vulnerable groups, like children or poor people, must not be taken
advantage of.
 Safety: Benefits of experiments must outweigh risks.
Example: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
In this unethical study, African-American men were not given treatment for syphilis to
observe how the disease progressed, causing unnecessary suffering.

5. Space Exploration
 What it is: Exploring outer space and studying other planets.
Ethical Concerns:
 Using Resources: Is it fair to mine asteroids or planets for materials?
 Contamination: Space missions might accidentally spread Earth’s microbes to other
planets.
 Spending Priorities: Should money for space exploration be used to solve Earth’s
problems instead?

How to Handle Ethical Challenges

Ethical Guidelines:
1. Utilitarianism: Choose actions that help the most people.

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 2. Deontology: Follow moral rules, no matter the outcome.
3. Virtue Ethics: Focus on being a good and virtuous person.
International Efforts:
Organizations like UNESCO and the World Health Organization (WHO) create rules to
ensure science benefits everyone and protects the planet.

What Can We Do?

1. Public Awareness: Teach people about the ethical side of science.
2. Clear Rules: Governments and companies should set strict rules for research.
3. Work Together: Countries must unite to tackle global problems like climate change.
4. Sustainable Science: Scientific progress should help meet the UN’s Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) by protecting nature and improving lives.

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