ENT3142

Circuit analysis &

Fault Diagnosis
Lecture 06 – Frequency Domain
Analysis 002
Frequency Response
• Frequency response is the variation in a circuit’s behavior with change
in signal frequency.
• Application of analyzing frequency response is Filters.
• Filters are used to passing or blocking certain frequencies from the
system.
• In Telecommunications filters play major part to give a multiple
channel data facility.
Transfer Function
• One useful way to analyze the frequency
Y ( )
response of a circuit is the concept of the H ( ) =
transfer function H(ω). X ( )
• It is the frequency dependent ratio of a forced
function Y(ω) to the forcing function X(ω).
Transfer Function

• Four possible transfer functions:

Vo ( ) Vo ( )
H ( ) = Voltage gain = H ( ) = Transfer Impedance =
Vi ( ) I i ( )

Y( )
H( ) = = | H( ) | 
X( )

I o ( ) I o ( )
H ( ) = Current gain = H( ) = Transfer Admittance =
I i ( ) Vi ( )
Example 1

For the RC circuit shown below, obtain the transfer function Vo/Vs and its
frequency response.
Let vs = Vmcosωt.
Solution:

The transfer function is

1
V jC 1
H( ) = o = =
Vs R + 1/ j C 1 + j RC

o = 1/RC
,
1
The magnitude is H( ) =
1 + ( / o ) 2


The phase is  = − tan −1
o
Low Pass Filter
Example 2

Obtain the transfer function Vo/Vs of the RL circuit shown below, assuming vs =
Vmcosωt. Sketch its frequency response.
Solution:
Vo j L 1
The transfer function is H( ) = = =
Vs R + j L 1 + R
j L

o = R/L High Pass Filter

1
H ( ) =
The magnitude is o 2
1+ ( )

,

The phase is  = 90 − tan −1
o
Zeros and Poles
• To obtain H(ω), we first convert to frequency domain equivalent
components in the circuit.
• H(ω) can be expressed as the ratio of numerator N(ω) and
denominator D(ω) polynomials.
N ( )
H ( ) =
D ( )

• Zeros are where the transfer function goes to zero.

• Poles are where it goes to infinity.
• They can be related to the roots of N(ω) and D(ω)
Decibel Scale
• We will soon discuss Bode plots.
• These plots are based on logarithmic scales.
• The transfer function can be seen as an expression of gain.
• Gain expressed in log form is typically expressed in bels, or more
commonly decibels (1/10 of a bel)

P2
GdB = 10 log10
P1
 Standard Form
• The transfer function may be written in terms of factors with real and
imaginary parts. For example:
K ( j ) (1 + j / z1 ) 1 + j 2 1 / k + ( j / k ) 

1 2

H ( ) =  
(  1)
    (   n)

2
1 + j / p 1 + j 2 / + j /
 2 n


• This standard form may include the following seven factors in various
combinations:
• A gain K
• A pole (jω)-1 or a zero (jω)
• A simple pole 1/(1+jω/p1) or a simple zero (1+jω/z1)
• A quadratic pole 1/[1+j22ω/ ωn+ (jω/ ωn)2] or zero 1/[1+j21ω/ ωn+ (jω/ ωk)2]
Resonance
• The most prominent feature of the frequency response of a circuit
may be the sharp peak in the amplitude characteristics.
• Resonance occurs in any system that has a complex conjugate pair of
poles.
• It enables energy storage in the firm of oscillations
• It allows frequency discrimination.
• It requires at least one capacitor and inductor.
Series Resonance
• A series resonant circuit consists of an
inductor and capacitor in series.
• Consider the circuit shown.
• Resonance occurs when the imaginary part
1
of Z is zero. Z = R + j ( L − )
C
• The value of ω that satisfies this is called the
resonant frequency

1
0 = rad/s
LC
Series Resonance
At resonance:
• The impedance is purely resistive
• The voltage Vs and the current I are in phase
• The magnitude of the transfer function is minimum.
• The inductor and capacitor voltages can be much
more than the source.
Parallel Resonance
• The parallel RLC circuit shown here
is the dual of the series circuit
shown previously.
• Resonance here occurs when the
imaginary part of the admittance is
zero.
• This results in the same resonant
frequency as in the series circuit.
It occurs when imaginary part of Y is zero

1 1
Y= + j ( C − )
R L
Resonance frequency:

1 1
o = rad/s or f o = Hz
LC 2 LC
Series Resonance
• The relevant equations for the parallel resonant circuit are:

2 2
1  1  1 1  1  1
1 = − +   + 2 = +   +
2 RC  2 RC  LC 2 RC  2 RC  LC

1 R
B= Q = 0 RC =
RC 0 L
Filters
Passive Filters
• A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired
frequencies and reject or attenuate others.
• A filter is passive if it consists only of passive elements, R, L, and C.
• They are very important circuits in that many technological advances
would not have been possible without the development of filters.
Passive Filters
• There are four types of filters:
• Low-pass passes only low frequencies and blocks
high frequencies.
• High-pass does the opposite of lowpass
• Band-pass only allows a range of frequencies to
pass through.
• Band-stop does the opposite of bandpass
Lowpass Filter
• A typical lowpass filter is formed when
the output of a RC circuit is taken off
the capacitor.
• The half power frequency is:
1
c =
RC
• This is also referred to as the cutoff
frequency.
• The filter is designed to pass from DC
up to ωc
Highpass Filter
• A highpass filter is also made of a
RC circuit, with the output taken
off the resistor.
• The cutoff frequency will be the
same as the lowpass filter.
• The difference being that the
frequencies passed go from ωc to
infinity.
Bandpass Filter
• The RLC series resonant circuit provides a
bandpass filter when the output is taken off
the resistor.
• The center frequency is:
1
𝜔0 =
𝐿𝐶

• The filter will pass frequencies from ω1 to ω2.

• It can also be made by feeding the output
from a lowpass to a highpass filter.
Band-stop Filter
• A band-stop filter can be created from a
RLC circuit by taking the output from the LC
series combination.
• The range of blocked frequencies will be
the same as the range of passed
frequencies for the bandpass filter.